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Teachers' and  Students' Library 


A  Compendium  of  Knowledge  Necessary  to  Teachers,  Students,  and  the  General  Reader, 

EMBRACING 

REAVING,    PENMANSHIP,    ARITHMETIC,    GEOGRAPHY,    ENGLISH  GRAM- 

MAR,    SPELLING,     COMPOSITION   AND    LETTER    WRITING,    HISTORY, 

SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT  AND    METHODS     OF    TEACHING,    CIVIL 

GOVERNMENT  AND  SCHOOL  LAW,  PARLIAMENTARY  USAGES, 

BOTANY,  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY,  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY, 

CHEMISTRY,      NATURAL     HISTORY,    ROOK-KEEPING, 

ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHY,      MYTHOLOGY,     PHYSIOLOGY 

AND  HYGIENE,  GENERAL  LITERATURE,  PROSODY, 

HINTS     ON    HOW    TO    STUDY,     Etc.,    Etc.,    Etc. 


BY  G.  DALLAS  LIND, 


I'rof.  of  Natural  Science,  Central  Normal  College,  Danville,    Intl.,    Author  of  "  Methods  of 

Teaching-  in  Country  Schools,"  etc. 


SPECIAL     CONTRIBUTORS: 

H.   B.   BROWN,   President  Northern  Indiana  Normal  School;    F.   P.ADAMS,   Principal  Central  Normal 

College;     W.  T.   EDDINGFIELD,     Principal    Business    Department   Central    Normal    College 

J.   C.   BROWN,  Teacher  of  Penmanship,  Central  Normal  College;  T.   S.   DENISON, 

Chicago;      JOHN     BURKE,     Principal    of    Public    Schools,     Newport,     Ky. 


Chicago: 

T.  S.  DENISON,  Publisher, 

1.SS2. 


COPYRIGHT  1882, 
T.  S.  DENISON. 


AI.I.     UK, UTS     RESERV1  1> 


• 


B-AKILY.     MaHSM    &  Co. 
PRINTERS, 

155  and  157  Dearborn  Streot. 


TO  THE   TEACHER  AND  STUDENT. 


Before  you  read  a  line  of  the  body  of  this   work,  please 
note  carefully  the  following"  points. 


1.  The  Amount  of  Matter. —  It  has  been  the  constant  aim  of 
the  authors  to  make  this  book  what  its  title  indicates,  a  library. 
They  have  used  every  effort  to  condense  information,  and  at  the 
same  time  present  it  in  a  tangible  form. 

2.  The  Carefully  Prepared  Outlines. — You  are  especially  in- 
vited to  examine  and  study  these  classifications  and  note  that  they 
can  be  used  as  topic  lists  for  class  use,  and  as  courses  of  study  and 
reading  for  the  private  student.  These  outlines  are  explained  in  the 
proper  place. 

3.  The  Test  Questions. — While  this  is  not  a  question  book  in 
the  ordinary  sense,  it  will  be  found  of  great  value  as  a  self-examiner 
to  the  teacher  and  student,  and  invaluable  to  the  teacher  in  reviews 
and  class  examinations.  It  may  be  said  in  objection  that  the  book 
contains  too  much.  It  does  if  you  expect  to  commit  it  to  memory, 
but  that  is  not  the  proper  method  of  study.  The  questions  may 
easily  be  answered  by  referring  to  the  paragraphs  indicated. 

4.  The  Methods  of  Teaching.— The  discussion  of  each  branch 
is  followed  by  practical  hints  on  teaching  that  subject,  besides  the 
rather  lengthy  article  on  general  methods  and  school  mangement. 
The  authors  are  all  practical  teachers,  who  have  had  experience  in 
all  kinds  of  schools. 

5.  The  Hints  on  How  to  Study  and  Use  Books. — This  is  a 
subject  very  much  neglected.  The  reader  should  study  this  part 
carefully.  It  is  the  result  of  much  experience  and  observation. 
The  majority,  perhaps,  had  better  turn  to  this  before  studying  any 
of  the  branches. 

6.  The  Index  and  Glossary. — Few  books  are  sufficiently  well 
indexed  and  fewer  still  are  supplied  with  glossaries.  This  is  an 
especial  feature  of  this  book.  It  will  be  observed  that  this  index 
notonlv  points  out  the  place  in  the  text  where  the  subject  is  fully 
discussed,  but  gives  in  the  space  usually  left  blank  in  indexes,  much 
valuable  information.  Many  persons  have  not  access  to  an  un- 
abridged dictionary.  This  index  will  answer  the  purpose  of  one  so 
far  as  this  book  is  concerned.  Every  technical  term  is  explained 
and  every  subject  appears  under  its  a  Impropriate  letter. 


541 577 


IV  TEACHERS   AND   STUDENTS'   LIBRARY. 

7.  Matter  not  in  Text-books.- — Besides  containing  the  most 
important  points  of  the  text-books,  much  matter  is  given  to  he 
found  nowhere  outside  of  extensive  works. 

8.  Originality. — The  authors  have  given  that  which  is  the 
common  property  of  all  and  of  course  do  not  lay  claim  to  much 
originality  except  in  the  language  used,  the  modes  of  presenting  the 
subjects,  and  in  many  of  the  methods  of  teaching  them.  Where 
sentences  are  from  another  writer  quotation  marks  are  used  or  the 
authority  cited. 

o.  There  may  he  some  things  in  the  hook  which  will  be 
new  to  many  teachers,  for  example,  the  exponential  system  of 
outlining.  This  system  is  now  used  in  many  schools.  It  is  ex- 
plained on  page  512,  and  is  deserving  of  careful  study.  Refer- 
ences are  frequently  made  from  one  part  of  the  book  to  another, 
and,  in  fact,  if  the  reader  take  the  trouble  to  investigate  he  will  find 
the  hook  self-explanatory  in  every  particular. 

10.  History. — The  author  of  "History"  would  say  that  he- 
has  endeavored  to  put  as  much  information  as  possible  into  the 
least  space  and  at  the  same  time  give  a  connected  outline  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  whole  world.  As  a  necessary  consequence  the  style" 
may  at  times  appear  somewhat  disjointed.  The  student  will  con- 
stantly keep  in  mind  that  this  is  only  an  outline  of  history  and 
that  all  important  subjects  must  be  read  up  elsewhere  if  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  history  is  desired.  This  book,  however,  contains 
fully  as  much  as  the  average  person  will  be  able  to  master.  Dates 
have  been  given  freely  for  reference,  but  the  teacher  should  require 
his  pupils  to  learn  but  few  as  suggested  under  "Methods  of  Teach- 
ing History."  The  pronunciation  of  most  of  the  difficult  words 
has  been  indicated.  Some  equally  difficult  have  not  been  marked. 
It  was  not  possible  or  desirable  to  make  this  work  on  history  a  com- 
plete dictionary.  Something  should  be  left  to  the  student,  as  the 
habit  of  looking  up  pronunciations  and  references  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  real  scholarship.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  a  word  is  indicated  but  once,  and  that,  the  first  time  it 
occurs. 

TO    THE    PUBLIC. 

in  the  discussion  of  the  respective  branches,  the  author  would  ac- 
knowledge the  assistance  afforded  by  the  following  works:  Wood's 
and  Gray's  Text-Books  of  Botany;  Lindley's,  Bessey's  and  Prantl's 
works  oil  Botany;  Dnna's&  Le  Conte's  works  on  Geology;  Gray's 
Anatomy  and  the  large  works  of  Draper,  Dalton,  Dunglinson,  Flint 
and  Foster  on  Physiology;  Appleton's, Swinton's,  the  Eclectic  and 
Harper's  text-books  of  Geography;  Guyot's,  Houston's,  Colton's 
and  Proctor's  works  on  Physical  Geography;  the  valuable  «  Four- 
teen Weeks  in  the  Sciences,"  by  J.  Dorm  an  Steele;  Bardeen's  Com- 
mon School  Law;    Bigelow's  Hand    Hook  of  Punctuation;   also   to 


TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS'    LIBRARY  \ 

the  State  Superintendents  of  Illinois,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Wis- 
consin, Iowa,  Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts,  Virginia,  Kansas  and 
Georgia,  for  information  in  regard  to  school  laws  of  their  respective 
States. 

The  publisher  also  acknowledges  the  kindness  of  Messrs.  Geo. 
Sherwood  &  Co.,  Chicago,  for  the  use  of  plates  illustrating  Pen- 
manship. These  plates  are  selected  from  the  Analytical  Course  of 
Penmanship  published  by  the  above  firm. 


CONTENTS. 


«•»  All  topics  not  otlierTvise  indicated  are  by  G.  Dallas   Lind. 

r  AGE. 

Reading 7 

Methods  of  Teaching  Reading 13 

Questions  on  Reading 16 

Spelling 17 

Methods  of  Teaching  Spelling 20 

Questions  on  Spelling -4 

Geography -o 

Methods  of  Teaching  Geography 71 

Questions  on  Geography 74 

English  Grammar  [F.  P.  Adams] 79 

Methods  of  Teaching  Grammar  [F  P.  Adams] 103 

Questions  on  Grammar 106 

Composition  and  Letters 108 

Methods  of  Teaching  Composition 118 

Questions  on  Composition  and  Letters 121 

Civil  Government  [John  Burke] 122 

Questions  on  Civil  Government 136 

Physical  Geography 137 

Questions  on  Physical  Geography 15° 

Physiology '57 

Questions  on  Physiology '99 

Natural  Philosophy 2DI 

Geology --6 

Botany -35 

General  History  [T.  S.  Denison] 252 

U.  S.  History  [T.  S.  Denison] 314 

Methods  of  Teaching  History  [T.  S.  Denison] 35- 

Questions  on  History 355 

I  took-  Keeping  [W.  T.  Eddingfield]   3r" 

Penmanship  [J.  C.  Brown] 3s- 

Chemistry 391 

Zoology 398 

School  Law 4°8 

Methods  in  Arithmetic  [H.  B.  Brown] 4'4 

School  Management  [T.  S.  Denison  and  G.  D.  Lind] 4^M 

Prosody 47°^ 

Parliamentary  Usages 4*3 

M  j  thology 492 

Am  lenl  Geography 5°-" 

1  low  to  Study  and  Use  Books 5°5 

Systems  of  Outlining 5°8 

General  Literature 5r3 

Index 517 


READING. 


1.  Reading  is  a  proper  conception  of  the  ideas  and  feelings  of 
a  writer.  It  may  be  audible  or  inaudible.  Inaudible  reading  de- 
mands no  culture  of  the  power  of  expression.  Audible  reading 
implies  the  power  of  conveying  to  others  the  ideas  and  feelings  of 
a  writer,  and  is  properly   synonymous  with  Elocution. 

2.  Good  audible  readers  are  extremely  rare.  More  attention 
should  be  paid  to  this  branch  in  our  schools.  Teachers  of  every 
branch  need  to  be  good  readers,  as  pupils  learn  much  by  simply 
imitating  their  teacher.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  imposition  prac- 
ticed by  traveling  charlatans,  who  call  themselves  professional 
elocutionists.  These  so-called  Professors  of  Elocution — and  many 
of  them  well  deserve  the  title,  as  they  are  masters  of  vocal  expres- 
sion— will  give  a  few  lectures  on  the  principles  of  elocution,  illus- 
trating them  by  exhibitions  of  their  powers,  and  making  the  im- 
pression upon  their  auditors  that  the  art  can  be  acquired  in  a  few 
lessons,  proceed  to  organize  private  classes  and  give  some  pretty 
thorough  drills  in  reading,  or  declaiming  some  particular  selections, 
and  having  charged  a  good  round  price  for  their  services,  take  their 
departure  for  fresh  fields  and  new  subjects.  Teachers,  do  not  be 
imposed  upon  by  such  work. 

3.  A  good  reader  is  made  only  by  long  and  careful  practice, 
and  a  thorough  study  of  the  principles  of  vocal  expression.  Though 
all  cannot  be  elocutionists  in  the  professional  sense,  all  are  capable 
of  great  improvement  in  this  line.  Let  teachers  then  apply  them- 
selves to  the  work  of  improving  their  powers  of  expression.  Read- 
ing aloud,  alone  or  in  company,  the  works  of  standard  writers,  is 
a  good  practice.  But  above  all  one  must  have  a  clear  conception 
of  the  author's  meaning  before  he  can  give  voice  to  it.  Do  not 
undertake  to  read  audibly  what  you  do  not  understand.  It  is  true 
that  one  may  read  passably  and  not  understand  all  the  details  of  the 
subject  read, but  to  be  able  to  read  well  he  must  thoroughly  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  the  writer.  Many  persons  cannot  read  their 
own  composition;  not  because  they  do  not  understand  it, but  because 
they  have  not  control  of,  and  do  not  know  how  to  use,  their  vocal 
organs.      Thus  we  see  that  to  he  a  good  reader  implies  much. 


TEACHERS'  A\/>  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

4.  One  of  the  first  requisites  of  a  good  reader  is  a  distinct  articu- 
lation, or  the  utterance  of  the  elementary  sounds,  and  their  com- 
binations by  appropriate  movements  of  the  vocal  organs.  With 
small  children  the  pronunciation  of  words  must  be  taught  mainly 
by  imitation.  They  have  been  accustomed  to  articulating  sounds 
from  infancy,  having  learned  them  by  imitation,  li'  they  do  not 
articulate  distinctly  or  give  wrong  sounds,  they  must  be  made  to 
repeat  them  until  they  enunciate  them  as  correctly  as  it  is  possible 
for  them  to  do.  Practice  in  pronouncing  simple  words  at  first  and 
then  separate  sounds,  will  cultivate  this  power.  A  wrong  pronunci- 
ation should  never  be  allowed  to  pass  uncorrected,  otherwise  bad 
habits  become  fixed. 

5.  Practice  in  articulating  the  elementary  sounds  should  be 
frequently  had  in  all  reading  classes.  As  the  vowel  sounds  are  the 
easiest  uttered,  they  should  be  the  first  subjects  of  drill.  Let  the 
sounds  be  pronounced  first  with  the  ordinary  force,  clearly,  distinctly 
and  with  a  natural  or  pure  tone,  then  they  may  be  exploded,  that  is 
issued  forcibly,  suddenly  suspending  the  voice  at  the  close  of  the 
sound.  To  test  and  increase  the  capacity  of  the  organs  the  vowels 
may  be  prolonged,  commencing  at  first  with  slight  force  and  in- 
creasing gradually,  then  diminishing  until  the  sound  dies  away. 
This  practice  of  sounding  the  vowels  should  be  of  frequent  occur- 
rence, but  should  not  be  kept  up  too  long  at  one  time  so  as  to  tire 
the  organs  or  the  patience  of  the  pupils.  Like  practice  in  articu- 
latingthe  consonant  sounds  should  follow,  and  continue  in  connec- 
tion with  the  vowel  sounds.  We  append  a  series  of  exercises  which 
will  be  found  useful  for  drill  in  all  classes.  Let  the  sentences  be 
written  on  the  blackboard,  two  or  three  each  day,  and  from  two  to 
five  minutes'  drill  be  given  each  class  in  sounding  the  vowels  and 
consonants  separately,  and  repeating  the  words  and  sentences 
individually  and    in   concert. 

EXERCISES    IN    ARTICULATION. 

In  practicing  the  teacher  should  see  that  the  pupils  stand  erect, 
with  the  head  up,  the  shoulders  thrown  back,  and  the  chest  ex- 
panded, and  that  they  open  their  mouths  properly.  It  is  a  common 
fault  to  read  with  the  mouth  insufficiently  opened. 

We  have,  in  the  following  exercises,  followed  the  classification 
of  the  elementary  sounds  as  given  by  Webster,  and  indicated  the 
letters  which  are  the  particular  objects  of  drill. 

I.     Long  vowel  sounds. 

1.  a  as  in:  They  say  that  we  will  fail.  Away,  away  o'er 
hill  and  dale.  He  carried  the  mail  through  rain  and  hail.  The 
angel  hail  bestowed. 

2.  e  as  in:  Heat  me  these  irons  hot.  Evening  in  Eden 
Came.      Seize  the  fiend. 


READING.  9 

3.  i  as  in:  Find  five  fire-flies.  He  has  a  fine  mind.  It  was 
a  bright,  moonlight  night. 

4.  o  as  in:  Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  ocean,  roll. 
The  old  loafer  snores.  Hold,  hold,  he  cried.  We  take  no  note  of 
time. 

;;.  u  as  in:  Some  mute,  inglorious  Milton  here  may  rest. 
The  astronomer's  tube.  .Sweet  as  Apollo's  lute.  Technical  terms 
are  learned  by  use. 

6.     y  as  in:   Thev  fly,  they  fly.      See  the  blue  sky. 

II.  Short  vowel  sounds. 

1.  a  as  in:  This  is  the  malt  that  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack 
built.  Back  to  thy  punishment.  The  cat  caught  the  rat.  Jack 
Sprat  could  eat  no  fat. 

2.  e  as  in:  The  end  is  near.  Thev  met  the  leopard  in  his 
den. 

3.  i  as  in  :  Do  not  admit  the  ill-mannered  witch.  He  spilled 
the  India  ink  on  the  index.      A  fish  has  fins. 

4.  o  as  in  :  On,  on  mv  braves.  Let  him  that  is  on  the  house- 
top not  come  down. 

5.  u  as  in:  Up,  up  and  away.  My  cup  is  full.  They  run 
for  their  guns. 

6.  y  as  in:   Deep  in  the  abyss.     The  bullet  was  incysted. 

III.  Occasional  vowel  sounds. 

1.  a  as  in  hair:  The  fair-haired  lady  walks  in  the  open  air. 

2.  a  as  in  far:  To  arms,  to  arms.  Far  flashed  the  red 
artillery. 

3.  a  as  in  ask:   The  last  to  ask  for  a  pass. 

4.  a  as  in  all:   O,  what  a  fall  was  there,  my  countrymen. 

5.  a  as  in  what:    What  wantonness. 

6.  e  as  in  there:   There  stands  an  heiress. 

7.  e  as  in  obey:   Obey  your  parents. 

8.  e  as  in  term:   On  the  verge  of  death. 

9.  i  as  in  pique:  He  ran  from  the  machine  crying  police, 
police. 

10.  i  as  in  firm  :   I  am  thirsty. 

11.  o  as  in  done:   Thou  shalt   have  none  other  gods  than 


Me. 


12.  o  as  in  do:  Prove  all  things. 

13.  o  as  in  wolf. 

14.  o  as  in  for:   Order  is  heaven's  first  law. 

15.  00  as  in  food:   Roll  on,  silver  moon. 

16.  00  as  in  foot:    Wool  is  warm. 

17.  u  as  in  rude:  Rude  am  I  in  speech. 

18.  u  as  in  push:   The  fuller  fulls  his  cloth. 

19.  u  as  in  furl:   He  was  urged   to  turn  the  paper. 
IV.      Regular  diphthongal  sounds. 

I.      oi  or  (iv,  as  in:    Boil  the  oysters   in  olive  oil. 


10  TEA  (  111  A  V  AND  S  1  I  rDBN  TS'  I.  IB  BAR  T. 

2.      OU  OT  <>\v,  as  in:    The  hound  howled. 
V.     Consonant  sounds. 

i.  1)  as  in:  He  is  a  hold,  brave,  had,  boy.  Bind  beauteous 
boughs  upon  his  brow.     Braid,  broad  braids. 

2.      c,  soft  sound  like  s:   The  city    is  a  century  old. 

a.      c,  hard  sound  like  k:   The  cook  caught  the  cutter. 

(.     ih  as  in  church:   The  child  chatted  cheerfully. 

C.      ch  as  sh:   He  brought  the  machine  home  in  his  chaise. 

6.  ch  as  k:   Chyme  and  chyle  are  products  of  digestion. 

7.  das  in:  Dare  to  dare  on  beyond  all  daring.  Despise  not 
the  day  of  small  things.      Blessed  are  the  dead  who  die  in  the  Lord. 

S.  fas  in:  Fair  science  frowned  not  on  his  humble  birth. 
False,  Heeling,  perjured    Clarence.      Will  fortune  favor  the  fair? 

9.  g,  hard  sound:   Three  gray  geese  in  the  field  grazing. 

10.  g,  soft  like  j:   That  engine  is  a  real  gem. 

11.  h  as  in:   Hail,  holy  light.      Harm  not  the  horse. 

12.  j  as  in:  John  Jones  loves  Jennie  Jenkins. 
1  }.      k  as  in:   The  cook  kept  kittens. 

i.j.      las  in:    The   truly    rural    rider.      The    lazy,   lounging 

loafer. 

[C.  m  as  in:  Many  men  of  many  minds.  Keeping  time, 
time,  in  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme.  She  made  mince  pics  for  many 
mouths. 

16.  n  as  in:  Near  by  the  spring,  upon  a  tree,  you  know  1 
cut  your  name.  I  never  would  lav  down  my  arms,  never,  never, 
never.      Napoleon's  noble  nature  knew  no  niggardly  notions. 

17.  p  as  in:  Peter  Piper  picked  a  peck  of  pickled  peppers. 
He  picked  up  a  copy  of  Pickwick  Papers.      A  knapsack  strap. 

18.  q  always  followed  by  u,  and  has  generally  the  sound 
of  kw,  as  in:  They  "served  a  quail  to  the  Queen.  Queer  queries 
and   quaint    quarters.      Sometimes   the   sound   of  k  as   in   antique, 

unique. 

19.  rasin:  Round  the  rude  ring  the  ragged  rascal  ran. 
Jewels  rich  and  rare.      The  rippling    rill  becomes  a  roaring  river. 

20.  s  as  in:  Suns  sink  on  suns  and  systems,  systems  crush. 
Stars  and  suns  shall  sink.      Sweeter  songs  were  never  sun-. 

j  1.      s  as  z:    The  prism  amused  the  residents  of  the  village. 

22.  t  as  in:  Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man.  Tremble  and 
totter,  ye  adamantine  mountains.  Tar,  tallow,  turmeric,  turpentine 
and  tin. 

23.  th  as  in:  Through  thick  and  thin.  He  thrust  a  thou- 
sand thistles  through  the  thick  of  his  thumb. 

24.  th  as  in  the:  Prithee,  blithe  youth,  do  not  mouth  your 
words  when  you  wreathe  your  lace  with  smiles. 

35.  v  as  in:  To  live  and  to  love,  and  to  be  brave.  The 
vain  votaries  of  fashion  vie  with  each  other.  Vile  villains  vent 
their  \ engeance. 


READING.  11 

26.  w  as  in:  Was  ever  woman  in  this  humor  wooed?  Was 
ever  woman  in  this  humor  won  ?  There  was  weeping  and  wailing. 
We  will  walk  where  the  wind  blows. 

27.  xasin:  His  extravagant  extemporaneous  speech  pro- 
duced an  extraordinary  effect. 

28.  x  like  egz:  We  have  enough  of  examples  of  exagger- 
ations. 

29.  z  as  in :   The  zeal  of  thy  house  has  eaten  me  up.     Zeno 

was  zealous  in  his  work. 

30.  shasin:  She  shall  sell  sea  shells.  Shakespeare,  Shelley 
and  Sheridan.     Shun  the  rum  shop.     She  sang  the  song  of  the  shirt.' 

31.  \vh  as  in:  White  Whitman,  whistles,  whittles,  whispers 
and  whimpers  near  the  wharf.  What  whim  led  Whitney  to  invent 
the  cotton  gin? 

32.  zh:  The  letters  never  occurring  together  in  English, 
but  their  sound  in  such  words  as  in:  The  glazier  looked  up  at  the 
azure  sky.     She  put  rouge  on  her  cheeks. 

6.  Some  of  the  most  common  errors  in  articulation  are:  (1) 
Giving  the  wrong  sound  of  the  vowels  of  unaccented  syllables;  (2) 
Dropping  entirely,  the  vowel  of  an  unaccented  syllable;  (3)  Drop- 
ping the  final  consonant;  (4)  Omitting  whole  syllables;  (5)  Run- 
ning words  together.  Errors  of  this  kind  should  never  go  uncor- 
rected. Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  criticise  each  other.  With 
small  pupils,  however,  this  must  be  carefully  controlled  by  the 
teacher,  as  it  is  apt  to  be  overdone  and  degenerate  into  mere  fault- 
finding, and  cause  much  confusion. 

7.  All  syllables  are  either  accented  or  unaccented.  The  ac- 
cented syllables  are  uttered  with  more  force  than  the  others.  Usage 
determines  where  the  accent  should  be  placed,  and  the  dictionary  is 
the  only  guide  in  cases  of  doubt.  The  ordinary  accent  is,  however, 
frequently  changed  in  reading  to  express  antithesis  as  in  the  follow- 
ing examples:  "Is  he  willing  or  ««willing?"  "  This  corruption 
must  put  on  /^corruption."  There  is  also  the  poetic  accent,  that 
put  on  long  syllables  of  words,  or  on  monosyllables  of  a  poetic  foot. 
(See  Prosody.) 

8.  Emphasis  denotes  the  manner  of  uttering  a  word,  so  as  to 
give  it  force  and  energy  and  direct  the  attention  of  the  hearer  to 
it.  Words  designed  to  be  emphatic  are  generally  printed  in  italic 
letters  or  in  small  or  LARGE  capitals.  Italics  and  capitals  are 
used,  however,  for  many  other  purposes. 

9.  The  sense  must  determine  where  emphasis  should  be  put. 
Pupils  should  be  trained  from  the  first  to  use  correct  emphasis.  The 
tendency  of  the  beginner  in  reading  is  to  emphasize  all  words  alike, 
or  put  the  emphasis  on  unimportant  words,  and  frequently  it  is  on. 
the  last  word  of  the  sentence.  It  will  be  observed  that  children 
nearly  always  give  the  proper  emphasis  in  talking.  Impress  on 
their  minds  that  they  should  readjust  as  they  would  talk.     Teach 


12  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  L1BRAR2". 

Sense-reading  rather  than  imitation  (28).  Frequent  drills  in  such 
sentences  as  are  given  below  where  by  emphasizing  different  words 
the  sense  is  entirely  changed,  will  be  valuable. 

10.  Did  [ohn  walk  to  town  yesterday  ?  This  question  may  he 
answered  in  several  ways:  If  "John"  is  emphasized  the  answer  may 
be:  No,  Henry  walked  to  town  yesterday.  It"  "walk"  is  empha- 
sized, the  answer  may  be:  "No,  he  rode."  If  "town"  is  emphasized, 
the  answer  may  he:  "No,  he  walked  into  the  country."  If "yester- 
day"  is  emphasized,   the   answer   may  be:  "No,  he   went   the  day 

before." 

11.  .Some  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  pitch  of  the  voice  in 
all  reading  classes.  Pitch  has  reference  to  the  degree  of  elevation 
of  the  voice,  or  the  place  of  the  sound  on  the  musical  scale.  There 
is  .i  certain  pitch  of  voice  natural  to  each  person;  it  is  his  ordinary 
conversational  tone,  and  is  the  one  most  easy  to  himself  and  agree- 
able to  others.  Pupils  should  be  drilled  occasionally  in  repeating 
vowel  sounds,  and  words,  and  sentences  in  a  higher  or  lower  than 
the  ordinary  pitch.  A  medium  pitch  is  appropriate  for  reading  all 
narrative  and  descriptive  pieces,  in  fact,  for  nearly  all  ordinary 
reading.  A  high  pitch  is  used  in  reading  animated  and  impassioned 
thought.  A  low  pitch  is  suited  to  reading  serious,  solemn  and  pa- 
thetic thought. 

12.  Inflection,  or  slide,  is  the  change  of  the  voice  from  a  higher 
to  a  lower,  or  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  pitch.  There  are  so  many 
exceptions  and  variations  to  rules  in  regard  to  inflection  that  it  will 
hardly  be  profitable  to  give  rules  here.  The  sense  must  determine 
the  matter.  The  reader  must  understand  the  meaning  to  be  con- 
veyed. In  general,  however,  the  rising  infection  is  used:  (i) 
Where  there  is  a  pause  and  the  sense  is  incomplete.  (2)  In  ques- 
tions which  can  be  answered  by  yes  or  no.  Emphasis  may  reverse 
these  rules.  The  falling  inflection  is  generally  used :  (1)  Where 
the  sense  is  complete.  (2)  In  questions  which  cannot  be  answered 
by  yes  or  n<>.  Words  and  sentences  or  parts  of  sentences  which 
express  contrast  require  opposite  inflections.  In  general,  strong 
emphasis  requires  the  falling  inflection.  The  circumflex,  or  com- 
pound slide,  is  a  combination  of  the  two  inflections  on  the  same  word 
or  syllable.  It  is  used  to  express  irony,  sarcasm,  sneering  or  con- 
trast". Examples:  Hath  a  dog  money?  Is  it  possible  a  cur  can 
lend  three  thousand  ducats?  They  follow  an  adventurer  whom 
they  fear ;  we  serve  a  monarch  whom  we  Jove. 

When  several  words  or  sentences  are  uttered  successively  without 

change   of  pitch,  they    are    said    to   be  uttered  in  a  monotone.      It  is 
employed  in  expressing  grave  ami  solemn  thought. 

13.  Many  pupils  habitually  read  too  fast;  others  too  slow. 
There  is  no  particular  standard  of  rate,  or  movement,  of  the  voice 
established,  but  elocutionists  generally  make  three  degrees,  rapid, 
medium  and    slow.      For   all    ordinary    purposes    a    medium    rate    is 


READING.  L3 

proper.  For  solemn  and  serious  thoughts,  a  slow  rate  is  appropri- 
ate; and  for  animated  and  joyous  thought  a  rapid  rate  is  required. 
Reading  in  concert  as  an  occasional  drill  will  have  a  tendency  to 
check  those  who  are  too  rapid,  and  hurry  up  those  who  are  too  slow. 

14.  Perhaps  the  greatest  difficulty  to  be  contended  with  in 
teaching  reading  is  to  get  pupils  to  read  sufficiently  loud  and  strong, 
or  in  other  words,  with  sufficient  force.  There  are  too  many  weak 
voices  in  this  country,  and  again  there  are  many  children  who  can 
make  noise  enough  on  the  playground,  but  seem  to  be  afraid  to 
throw  force  into  their  voices  when  reading  in  class.  Besides,  it  is  a 
difficult  matter  to  read  loud  and  strong  in  the  ordinary  pitch.  The 
tendency  is  to  increase  the  pitch  with  the  force.  This  should  be 
guarded  against  by  the  teacher.  To  have  pupils  read  so  that  they 
may  be  heard  at  a  distance,  or  that  their  voice  will  fill  a  large  room 
and  yet  keep  within  the  proper  pitch,  is  no  easy  task.  Nothing  but 
patient,  persevering  effort  will  accomplish  the  desired  result  with 
the  majority  of  pupils.  A  good  plan  is  to  have  the  pupil  stand  at  a 
distance  and  without  raising  the  pitch  of  his  voice,  read  so  as  to  be 
heard  by  the  teacher. 

15.  The  proper  form  and  quality  of  voice  for  reading  all  kinds 
of  matter  can  be  acquired  only  by  long  practice  and  drill.  The  prin- 
cipal object  of  the  common  school  teacher  should  be  to  cultivate  a 
pure,  and  natural  tone.  The  sound  should  issue  from  the  vocal 
organs  as  without  apparent  effort,  not  abruptly  nor  explosively, 
and  with  a  clear,  round,  full  quality,  free  from  any  nasal,  guttural 
or  aspirate  twang.  These  other  qualities  and  forms  are,  of  course, 
sometimes  necessary  to  the  proper  delivering  of  dramatic  or  elocu- 
tionary pieces;  but  for  ordinary  reading  the  pure  tone  and  form 
of  voice  only  are  demanded. 

METHODS    OF    TEACHING    READING. 

16.  Teaching  beginners  to  read  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
problems  the  teacher  has  to  solve.  The  old  plan  of  having  the 
children  go  over  the  alphabet  until  they  had  learned  every  letter, 
and  then  drill  them  for  weeks  or  months  in  spelling  words,  beginning 
with  "a,  b,  ah"  and  progressing  to  '"■ba-kcr"  has  been  superseded 
by  many  new  methods,  each  of  which  has  had  its  strenuous  advo- 
cates. We  have  a  plan  to  propose  which  is  rather  a  combination 
of  many  methods  than  a  new  method.  It  has  been  the  most  suc- 
cessful in  our  hands,  and  we  give-  it  for  what  it  is  worth.  It  will  he 
necessary  first  to  explain  in  brief  what  are  some  of  the  methods  in 
use. 

17.  By  the  word  or  Webb  method,  the  pupil  is  first  taught  to 
call  a  number  of  words  at  sight.  lie  learns  them  as  wholes  and 
soon  comes  to  know  them  by  their  forms.  The  words  are  combined 
in  sentences  and  he  is  able  to  read   before  he  knows  a  single  letter. 


14  TEACHERS1  AND  STL' DENTS'  LIBRARY. 

Next  the   words   arc  analyzed  and  the  letters  learned,  it  is  claimed, 
more  readily  than  they  would  have  been  at  first. 

18.  The  object  method  is  similar  to  the  word  method,  objects 
and  pictures  being  used,  and  the  child  taught  to  distinguish  between 
the  object,  the  picture  of  the  object  and  the  name  of  the  object. 

19.  The  word  building  method  begins  by  teaching  the  pupil 
one  letter  as  ()  or  I,  and  by  adding  new  letters  as  needed,  forming 
simple   words. 

20.  The  drawing  method  requires  the  pupils  to  draw  the  letters 
and  simple  words  from  copies  until  they  have  learned  their  forms. 

21.  By  the  phonic  method  the  poxvers  oi  sounds  of  the  letters 
are  first  taught  without  reference  to  their  names.  There  arc  differ- 
ent  forms  of  this  method,  some  using  a  phonetic  alphabet,  and 
reading  books  with  a  phonetic  type  such  as  is  proposed  by  our 
spelling  reformers.  Some  use  the  common  letters  with  the  diacriti- 
cal marks  of  the  dictionary  which  are  to  be  learned  in  connection 
with  the  letters.  When  a  new  alphabet  is  agreed  upon  and  our 
papers  and  books  begin  to  be  printed  with  it,  this  method  will  be 
the  proper  one,  but  until  then  we  hardly  think  it  practicable.  (See 
Spelling,  sec.  37).    • 

22.  The  letters  must  be  learned  sooner  or  later,  but  to  attempt 
to  teach  children  a  number  of  characters  which  to  them  convey  no 
ideas,  is  for  them  dry  and  uninteresting,  and  to  interest  pupils  should 
be  the  first  object  of  the  teacher.  First  interest  the  pupils  by  show- 
ing the  pictures  and  asking  questions  about  them.  Get  some  object 
as  a  box  and  showing  them  the  box  and  the  picture  of  the  box,  teach 
them  the  difference  by  telling  them  that  this  is  a  box  and  this  is  the 
picture  of  a  box;  but  here  is  the  word  box,  and  show  them  the  word 
in  the  book,  or  on  a  chart,  or  print  it  on  the  blackboard.  Have  all 
pronounce  the  word  several  times.  Then  take  some  other  word 
having  some  of  the  same  letters  as  ox,  and  proceed  in  a  similar 
manner.  Then  some  such  words  as  fox  or  rat,  cat,  //at,  etc.,  until 
they  have  learned  a  few  words  so  that  they  can  call  them  at  sight. 
Then  teach  the  letters  composing  these  words,  print  them  standing 
separately,  and  have  them  repeat  their  names.  Ask  them  to  find 
these  letters  from  among  others  on  a  printed  page.  Give  the  sounds 
of  the  letters  by  repeating  the  words  slowly  so  as  to  isolate  the 
sounds.  Let  the  pupils  attempt  to  draw  the  letters  with  pencil  or 
chalk. 

23.  In  this  wav  by  teaching  a  few  things  at  a  time  and  always 
trying  to' keep  up  an  interest,  they  will  soon  learn  a  number  of  letters 
and  words.  Then  combine  the  words  into  as  many  easy  sentences 
as  possible.  You  will  have  your  pupils  reading  in  a  very  short  time 
bv  thus  patiently  drilling  them  every  day.  It  is  not  besl  to  make 
the  lessons  too  long;  better  give  short  lessons  and  oftenei.  for  chil- 
dren are  soon  tired  of  one  thin-. 

24.  Carrying  out  the  idea  that  we  must  interest  before  we  can 


READING.  15 

instruct,  instead  of  having  pupils  read  the  same  selections  over  and 
over  again,  it  would  be  better  to  have  more  reading  matter  in  our 
reading  books.  Children  are  interested  in  stories.  Our  juvenile 
magazines  and  nursery  books  have  much  to  do  in  teaching  young 
people  to  read.  If  our  readers  were  much  larger  and  had  more 
matter  of  the  same  grade,  so  that  pupils  would  not  be  obliged  to 
read  the  same  pieces  over  more  than  once  or  twice,  it  would  be 
much  better.  The  teacher  may,  in  a  measure,  make  up  for  the  lack 
of  matter  in  readers  by  assigning  lessons  occasionally  from  news- 
papers, magazines,  etc.  A  story  may  be  clipped  from  a  paper,  cut 
up  into  paragraphs,  and  a  slip  given  to  each  member  of  the  class 
who  may  copy  it  on  his  slate,  and  when  the  class  recites,  the  interest 
will  be  well  maintained  because  all  will  be  anxious  to  get  the  rest 
of  the  story.  Occasional  lessons  ma}'  be  assigned  from  the  histories 
or  geographies  where  the  grades  of  pupils  are  such  that  they 
possess  copies  of  these  text-books. 

25.  Reading  should  be  carried  into  all  branches.  If  a  pupil 
reads  a  sentence  from  his  grammar  he  should  read  it  correctly. 
Parts  of  the  history  or  geography  lessons  should  sometimes  be  read 
by  pupils  in  these  classes,  and  in  such  cases  as  much  attention  should 
be  paid  to  this  reading  as  if  in  a  reading  class. 

26.  Urge  pupils  to  read  papers  and  books  at  home.  Silent 
reading  improves  the  reader.  One  cannot  well  read  too  much.  The 
pozcer  of  readily  grasping  thought  is  one  of  the  objects  to  be  at- 
tained by  the  reader,  and  it  is  much  practice  in  reading  that  facili- 
tates this  power.  The  teacher  may  stimulate  pupils  somewhat  in 
this  respect  by  asking  questions  on  the  subject  matter  read,  epiestions 
that  will  bring  out  the  thought.     (See  How  to  Study.) 

27.  The  dictionary  should  be  used  freely  by  all  pupils  old 
enough  to  know  how  to  use  it.  Words  may  be  assigned  at  each 
lesson  to  be  looked  up  in  the  dictionary.  It  is  not  best  to  assign  too 
many  words  at  one  time.  Different  words  may  be  assigned  to 
different  pupils;  one  to  each  member  of  the  class  for  his  special  in- 
vestigation awl  report.  All  important  words  in  the  lesson  should 
be  spelled  and  all  allusions  and  references  explained.  In  fourth,  fifth 
and  sixth  reader  classes,  some  of  the  principal  kinds  of  poetic  feet, 
the  more  common  rhetorical  figures  should  be  explained  by  the 
teacher,  and  frequent  questions  asked  about  them.      (See  Prosody.) 

28.  To  secure  natural  tone  and  manner  in  reading  it  is  a  good 
plan  sometimes  to  require  the  pupil  to  close  the  book  and  repeat  the 
sentence  he  has  just  rend  (9).  It  is  a  good  plan  also  to  require  the 
pupil  occasionallv  to  step  upon  the  platform  and  read  a  paragraph 
keeping  his  eyes  on  the  printed  page  only  long  enough  to  catch  the 
sentence;  in  other  words,  to  read  as  one  would  a  sermon  or  lecture. 
This  will  cultivate  the  power  of  perception,  and  also  tend  to  wear 
off  embarrassment. 

29.  There   are   certain    words    which    are    frequently    mis'pro- 


16  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  UBRARV. 

DOunced  by  teachers  who  wish  to  be  very  precise.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned  such  words  as  ca/f,  half,  past,  calm.  It  is  rather 
difficult  to  give  the  proper  sound  of  a  in  these  words,  and  they  are 
often  pronounced  with  the  broad  sound  of  a  as  in  awe.  The  article 
the  should  be  pronounced  with  the  word  following.  In  attempting 
to  do  this  teachers  often  overdo  the  matter,  and  pronounce  it  before 
consonant  sounds,  giving  the  e  the  sound  of  u  in  but,  as  "  thu  boy" 
and  before  vowel  sounds  they  prolong  the  e  as  "t/i-c  apple."' 

30.  I  hive  no  arbitrary  rules  for  reading.  Let  sense  in  all  cases 
determine  the  correct  rendering  of  a  passage. 

31.  The  teacher  should  see  that  pupils  take  a  proper  position 
while  reading.  The  pupil  should  stand  upright,  with  the  shoulders 
thrown  hack;  the  head  in  a  line  with  the  body,  not  too  far  back ; 
the  feet  with  the  heels  together,  and  toes  apart  about  an  angle  of 
forty-live  degrees.  For  a  change  and  rest  the  weight  of  the  body 
may  come  on  one  foot,  the  other  set  forward  as  a  brace, but  kept 
at  the  same  angle.  The  book  should  be  held  in  the  left  hand,  high 
enough  that  the  pupil  will  not  be  obliged  to  bend  his  head  down. 
The  right  hand  should  hang  easily  at  the  side  except  when  neces- 
sary to  turn  the  leaves.  If  pupils  are  trained  to  this  habit  from  the 
primary  classes  up  there  will  be  no  need  of  criticism  when  they 
reach  the  fifth  and  sixth  reader  grades. 

QUESTIONS    ON    READING. 

The  numbers  refer  to  the  sections  in  the  text.  Many  of  the  questions  consist  of  one  word. 
The  teacher  should  write  or  express  them  in  full.  The  most  important  questions  are  given. 
They  will  suggest  many  others  which  may  he  askeu$>y  the  teacher. 

I.  Define  reading;  elocution.  2.  Why  should  teachers  be  good  readers? 
3.  What  are  the  qualifications  of  a  good"  reader?  4.  Articulation?  How- 
teach  children  to  articulate?  5.  How  practice  the  vowel  sounds?  What 
should  be  the  position  of  the  pupil  while  practicing?  Give  words  illustrating 
the  sounds  of  each  letter  in  the  alphabet. 

6.  Name  some  of  the  common  errors  in  articulation.  7.  In  what  case  is 
the  accent  changed  in  reading?  Poetic  accent?  7.  Define  emphasis.  How 
is  emphasis  indicated?  9.  What  determines  the  place  for  emphasis?  10.  Give 
examples  where  a  change  of  emphasis  indicates  an  entirely  different  sense. 

II.  Define  pitch.  In  what  cases  use  medium  pitch?  High  pitch?  Low 
pitch?  12.  Define  inflection.  Kinds?  General  rules?  Define  circumflex; 
monotone.  1-?.  Define  rate.  Where  use  medium  rate?  Rapid  rate?  Slow 
rate?  Advantages  of  reading  in  concert?  14.  What  would  you  do  with  a 
pupil  who  diil  not  read  loud  enough? 

15.  What  is  the  proper  tone  for  ordinary  reading?  17.  What  is  the  \\  ebb 
method?  18.  The  object  method?  19.  The  word  building  method? 
.0.  The  drawing  method?  21.  The  phonic  method?  22.  How  do  you 
teach  children  their  Idler-?  23.  How  many  lessons  a  day  do  you  give  chil- 
dren who  are  taking  the  first  steps  in  reading?  24.  How  can  you  avoid  the 
monotony  of  the  reading  lessons?  25.  Do  you  require  your  pupils  to  read  as 
correctly  as  they  can  in  other  than  the  reading  classes? 

'What  is  the  advantage  of  much  practice  in  reading?  27.  Do  your 
pupils  use  the  dictionary?  Do  you  explain  difficult  point-  in  the  reading 
lesson-5  28.  What  plans  do  vou  use  to  secure  natural  tones  and  delivery? 
29.  Pronounce  calf,  half,  past,  calm.  30.  What  are  your  rules  for  reading? 
31.     How  should  the  pupil  stand  ar.d  hold  his  book  while  reading? 


SPELLING. 


1.  Spelling  is  the  proper  expression  of  the  letters  or  sounds  of 
a  word.     It  may  be  literal  or  phonic. 

2.  Literal  spelling  is  the  proper  expression  of  the  letters  of  a 
word  and  may  be:  (i)  oral,  the  names  of  the  letters  uttered  by 
the  mouth  in  their  proper  order;  (2)  written,  the  word  written 
with  its  letters  in  the  proper  order. 

3.  Phonic  spelling  is  the  mere  utterance  of  the  sounds  of  the 
word  in  their  proper  order,  but  isolated  from  each  othef. 

4.  The  articulation  of  a  word  is  the  utterance  of  its  sounds 
taken  together,  or  in  groups,  each  group  being  uttered  with  one 
impulse  or*  the  voice. 

5.  These  groups  of  sounds  or  single  sounds  when  isolated  in  a 
word  are  called  syllables. 

6.  The  pronunciation  of  a  word  is  the  articulation  of  its  sounds 
with  the  proper  accent.  Accent  is  a  greater  stress  given  to  one 
syllable  than  to  others  in  the  same  word.     (See  Reading,  Sec.  6.) 

7.  To  illustrate  each  of  the  above  points,  take  the  word 
"daughter."  1.  If  you  were  to  name  each  letter  distinctly  as 
d-a-u-g-h-t-e-r,  that  would  be  oral  and  literal  spelling.  2.  If  you 
were  to  write  the  word  by  putting  all  the  letters  down,  as  daughter^ 
that  would  be  ivritten  and  literal  spelling.  3.  If  you  were  to  vo- 
calize each  sound  isolating  it,  thus:  d-a-t-r  (these  being  all  the 
sounds  heard  in  the  word),  that  would  he  phonic  spelling-.  4.  If 
you  were  then  to  utter  the  entire  word  by  joining  the  sounds  in 
groups,  thus:  da-tr,  that  would  be  articulation.  5.  If  you  were  to 
articulate  the  word  giving  the  proper  accent,  thus:  da-tr,  it  would  be 
pronunciation.  6.  The  syllables  would  be  dangh-tcr,  the  letters 
«,  g,  h  and  c  being  considered  as  silent  in  articulation. 

8.  A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable;  of  two 
syllables,  a  dissyllable;  of  three,  a  trisyllable;  of  more  than  one 
syllable,  a  polysyllable.  The  last  syllable  of  a  word  is  called  the 
ultimate  <>r  final  syllable;  the  next  to  the  last  is  called  the  penul- 
timate, or  penult;  the  last  but  two  is  called  the  ante-penult;  the 
last  but  three  is  called  the  preante-penult. 


18  TEACHERS-  AND  STUDENTS  LIBRARY 

9.  The  letters  arc-  divided  into  vowels  and  consonants;  a,  e,  i, 
o,  u,  are  vowels,  the  others  arc  consonants.  The  vowels  can  be 
sounded  with  the  mouth  open,  and  are  said  to  be  voice  sounds.  The 
consonants  cannot  usually  be  sounded  without  the  aid  of  vowels. 

10.  While  there  are  only  26  letters  in  the  English  alphabet, 
there  are  about  40  sounds.  Thev  arc  classified  variously  by  differ- 
ent authorities.  The  general  classes  as  usually  recognized  are :  (1) 
vocals,  or  tonics,  pure  tone  and  voice  only  as  a,  e,  i,  o,  u;  (2  )  sub- 
vocals,  or  sub-tonics,  voice  and  breath  combined,  as  b,d,  m,  n,  1,  r; 
I  3  )  aspirates,  or  atonies,  pure  breath  only,  as  p,  k,  t,  f. 

11.  A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowel  sounds  in  one  syl- 
lable. A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowel  sounds  in  one 
syllable.  A  proper  diphthong  is  one  in  which  both  vowels  are 
sounded,  as  oi  in  noise.  An  improper  diphthong,  or  vowel  digraph 
i-  one  in  which  only  one  of  the  vowels  is  sounded,  as  ea  in  heat. 

12.  Words  are  divided  as  to  composition  into:  (1)  simple, 
which  cannot  be  separated  into  two  or  more  words  without  altering 
or  destroying  its  signification;  (2)  compound,  made  up  of  two  or 
more  simple  words. 

They  are  divided  as  to  derivation  into:  (1)  primitive,  one 
which  is  not  derived  from  some  other  word;  (2)  derivative,  one 
which  is  derived  from  some  other  word. 

13.  A  prefix  is  a  "  letter,  syllable  or  word,  set  before  a  word,  or 
combined  or  united  with  it  at  its  beginning  to  vary  its  signification, 
as  pre  in  prefix,  con  in  conjure,  with  in  withstand."  A  suffix,  or 
affix,  is  "  a  letter  or  syllable  added  or  annexed  to  the  end  of  a  word 
as,  er  in  laborer" 

14.  A  majority  of  the  words  of  the  English  language  arc  of 
foreign  origin.  Sometimes  many  words  are  formed  from  a  single 
foreign  root  by  the  use  of  different  prefixes  and  suffixes.  As  an 
example  take  the  word  inspect.  The  following  words,  as  may  be 
plainly  seen,  are  all  from  the  same  Latin  root:  Expect,  suspect, 
respect,  aspect,  prospect,  conspectus,  spectator,  spectacle,  spectacu- 
lar, inspection,  expectation,  respectable,  prospector,  prospectus,  re- 
spectful. This  shows  the  importance  of  a  study  of  the  derivation  \>f 
words.  All  large  dictionaries  give  the  origin  of  words,  and  they 
should  be  frequently  consulted. 

15.  Diacritical  spelling  is  the  writing  of  words,  marking  the 
principal  sound--  of  the  letters  according  in  the  notation  of  diction- 
aries. These  marks  arc  given  and  explained  in  all  dictionaries, 
large  and  small. 

16.  The  spelling  of  English  word-  is  very  arbitrary.  The  rules 
arc  so  many  and  each  one  has  so  many  exceptions  that  they  are  of 
very  little  value  as  guides.  It  may  be  said  that  the  only  good  rule 
for  spelling  i  to  learn  how  to  spell  each  word  in  the  language.  We 
give  a  few  of  the  rules  which  are  the  most  important  and  available. 
The  rules  for  the  use  of  capitals,  however,  which  is  properly  a  part 
of  spelling,  are  fixed  and  definite,  and  should  be  learned. 


SPELLING.  19 

17.     Rules  for  the  Use  of  Capitals. 

i.  To  begin  the  first  word  of  a  sentence;  as,  Exercise  and 
temperance  are  the  best  physicians. 

2.  To  begin  all  proper  names  and  words  derived  from  them. 
This  includes  names  of  streets,  squares,  highways,  days  of  the  week, 
months,  holidays,  particular  days,  races,  people  of  certain  regions, 
popular  appellations,  names  of  regions  and  parts  of  countries  indi- 
cated by  direction,  religious  sects,  political  parties,  clubs,  societies  and 
organizations  of  all  kinds  for  whatever  purpose;  as,  Mary,  Chicago, 
Fifth  Street,  Madison  Square,  National  Road,  Monday,  March, 
Christmas,  Lent,  Caucasian,  Creoles,  Hoosiers,  Transalpine,  East, 
Methodist,  Democrat,  Ku-Klux,  Free  Mason. 

3.  To  begin  the  appellations  of  the  Deity,  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Trinity  and  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  all  pronouns  referring  to  the  Deity 
and  Christ  when  used  without  the  antecedent,  or  when  with  the  ante- 
cedent, to  distinguish  them  from  other  pronouns;  as  God,  Father, 
Almighty,  Most  High,  Providence,  the  Redeemer,  Master,  Son  of 
Man,  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Mother  of  God;  In 
all  thy  ways  acknowledge  Him  and  He  shall  direct  thy  paths.  The 
word  Devil,  when  a  personal  being  is  meant,  and  synonymous  terms, 
as  Father  of  Lies,  Satan,  Old  Nick,  etc. 

4.  To  begin  every  line  of  poetry,  except  in  humorous  style 
where  a  word  is  divided  at  the  end  of  a  line  for  the  sake  of  a  rhyme; 
as, 

"  There  first  for  thee  my  passion  grew, 
Sweet,  sweet  Matilda  Pottingen! 

Thou  wast  the  daughter  of  my  tu- 
tor, law  professor  at  the  U- 

niversity  of  Gottingen." 

5.  To  begin  all  titles  of  office,  honor,  respect,  or  endearment; 
as,  Reverend  Sir,  Thomas  Jones,  Esq.,  President  Arthur,  Father 
Matthew,  Brother  Smith,  General  Grant. 

Remark. — Compound  titles  as  Lieutenant-Governor  should  have  both  words 
capitalized.  When  a  person  is  mentioned  by  his  title  only,  his  name  having 
been  before  mentioned,  the  capital  should  be  used ;  as,  Capt.  Burnett  was  there. 
The  Captain  is  a  fine  man. 

6.  To  begin  the  principal  words  in  the  titles  of  all  books,  peri- 
odicals, pictures,  statuary,  chapters,  discourses,  and  in  head-line;*  of 
newspapers,  advertisements,  etc.;  as,  Appleton's  Geography  ;  The 
Chicago  Inter  Ocean,  "  From  Shore  to  Shore,"  "  The  Stag  at 
Bay,"  Rules  for  Spelling,  etc. 

7.  To  begin  words  synonymous  with  the  Bible,  or  for  parts 
of  it;  as,  Scriptures,  Gosjiel,  Epistles,  Deuteronomy. 

S.  In  Botany,  Zoology  and  Paleontology  to  begin  the  names 
of  classes,  orders,  families  and  genera.  When  the  scientific  name 
of  a  plant,  animal,  or  fossil  is  given,  the  generic  name  is  written 
with  a  capital  and  the  specific  following  with  a  small  letter  if  it  is 


20  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  lilt  ART. 

not  derived  from  a  proper  name;  as  Cants  fatniliaris.    Some  late 
authorities  never  capitalize  the  specific  name. 

9.  To  begin  names  of  things  personified;  as,  O,  Popular 
Applause. 

10.  To  begin  complete  quotations  when  not  introduced  by 
conjunctions;  as,  Virgil  says,  Labor  conquers  all  things. 

11.  The  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  O  are  always  in 
capitals. 

12.  To  begin  any  word  which  is  the  particular  subject  of  dis- 
course, or  any  word  which  we  wish  to  make  of  special  importance. 
This  is  a  matter  of  taste,  and  it  is  not  best  to  use  capitals  thus  too 
freely. 

18.     Rules  for  Spelling. 

1.  Words  ending  in  ie  drop  the  e  and  change  i  to  y  on 
taking  the  syllable  ingj  as  die,  dying,  lie,  lying. 

2.  Words  ending  in  e  generally  omit  it  when  taking  an  ad- 
ditional syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel,  and  retain  it  when  the  ad- 
ditional syllable  begins  with  a  consonant,  as  bride,  bridal;  pale, 
paleness. 

Exceptions. — The  e  is  retained  in  dyeing,  singeing,  tingeing,  and 
a  few  others;  it  is  dropped  in  argument,  awful  and  truly. 

}.  Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  change  y  to  i 
on  taking  an  additional  syllable,  beginning  with  anything  else  than 
if  as,  icy,  iciest;  tidy,  tidiness.  Exceptions. — Adjectives  of  one  syl- 
lable ending  in  y  as  shy,  shyness;  dry,  dryly. 

.).  Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel,  generally  retain 
the  y;  as  gay,  gayety;  obey,  obeying.  Exceptions. — Day,  daily; 
lay,  laid;  pay,  paid;  say,  said;  slay,  slain. 

5.  Ei  follows  c  soft,  and  ie  follows  other  consonants;  as 
receive,  deceive,  ceiling;  believe,  grieve,  reprieve.  This  is  a  rule 
worth  remembering. 

19.  There  are  two  rules  for  pronunciation  which  are  worth 
remembering: 

1.  The  consonants  c  and  g  are  hard  before  a  o  u  I  and  r, 
and  soft  before  e  i  and  y.  Exceptions : — get,  give,  gaol,  gibbous, 
'nuggv,  and  a  few  others. 

2.  II  is  silent  after  g  and  r,  and  when  preceded  by  a  vowel 
in  the  same  syllable. 

METHODS    OK    TEACHING     SPELLING. 

20.  There  are  many  methods  of  teaching  spelling.  Those 
methods  which  appeal  through  the  eye  rather  than  through  the  ear 
seem  to  be  the  mosl  effectual.     Our  English  words  are  not  phonic 

as  a  rule,  that  is,  the  sound  of  the  word  does  not  indicate  the  letters 
to  be  used  in  its  spelling,  hence  the  difficulty  in  learning  to  spell. 
When  we  s(.-t   ;1    strange   person    we    rememher  his  face  because  we 


SPELLING.  21 

remember  how  it  appeared  to  us,  the  form  and  symmetry,  or  lack 
of  symmetry,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  the  features.  So  when  we  see 
a  picture  of  a  landscape  or  the  landscape  itself,  the  objects  are 
remembered  by  their  form  anil  relations  to  each  other  and,  as  it 
were,  a  picture  is  formed  on  the  memory.  The  artist  who  spends 
days  copying  a  picture  on  paper  or  canvas,  has  it  painted  also  on 
his  memory.  The  inference  from  all  this  is  that  the  most  effectual 
method  of  teaching  spelling  is  that  which  requires  the  pupil  to 
write  his  spelling  lessons.  He  reproduces  the  picture  and  thus 
fixes  it  on  his  mind.  Oral  spelling  should  be  practiced  occasionally 
as  a  change  to  avoid  monotony,  and  as  a  drill  in  pronunciation. 

21.  The  writing  of  spelling  lessons  has  the  additional  advan- 
tages of:  (i)  improving  the  pupil's  penmanship;  (2)  cultivating 
habits  of  neatness;  (3)  affording  occupation  for  pupils  who  might 
otherwise  be  idle  in  the  school  room,  this  being  an  important  factor 
in  school  government;  (4)  if  properly  conducted,  teaching  the  use 
of  capitals,  punctuation  and  abbreviations. 

22.  Pupils  who  are  not  old  enough  to  write  readily  should  be 
required  to  print  their  lessons  on  slates,  copying  them  from  the  books 
as  a  study.  In  such  cases  oral  spelling  must  be  employed  in  recita- 
tion, hut  whenever  pupils  are  able  to  write  with  ordinary  readiness 
the  majority  of  the  recitations  should  he  conducted  in  writing,  and 
the  lessons  should  be  studied  by  copying  them  one  or  more  times  on 
slates. 

23.  We  can  best  illustrate  the  method  of  teaching  spelling  to 
classes  whose  members  are  able  to  write,  by  giving  a  model  lesson. 
A  list  of  words  similar  to  those  given  below,  is  written  on  the  black- 
board and  allowed  to  remain  before  the  pupils  during  their  study 
hours. 

1 .  singeing  6.  rheumatism 

2.  stationary  7.  Noah  Webster,  L.L.  D. 

3.  stationery  8.  chief-justice 

4.  grammar  9.  Smith,  Brown  &  Co. 

5.  The  Chicago  Inter  Ocean  10.  Hon.  David  Davis,  M.  C. 

The  words  arc  to  be  written  just  as  they  would  appear  in  the 
middle  of  a  sentence  without  capitals  or  punctuation,  unless  they 
would  require  such  in  any  position.  The  pupils  are  expected  to 
copy  them  on  their  slates,  and  they  may  he  required  also  to  look  up 
the  meanings  and  abbreviations  in  the  dictionary. 

24.  It  is  not  best  to  assign  many  words  at  a  lesson.  From  ten 
to  twenty  selected  words,  a  few  of  them  requiring  capitals  and  ab- 
breviations as  given  above,  is  better  than  a  longer  list  of  compara- 
tively easy  words.  If  the  teacher  has  not  the  time  to  write  the 
words  on  the  board,  he  can  select  them  at  his  leisure  and  write  them 
on  slips  of  paper,  and  get  some  pupil  who  can  write  plainly  to  put 
them  on  the  blackboard.  The  teacher  should  occasionally  inspect 
the  slates  of  the  pupils  to  see  if  they  have  copied  correctly,  as  there 


22  TEAi  HERS"  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

always  are  pupils  who  will  make  mistakes  through  carelessness.  Or 
a  pupil  may  be  assigned  the  duty  of  examining  the  slates  and  criti- 
cising them. 

25.  ■  The  recitation  may  be  conducted  sonfewhat  as  follows  : 
All  words  are  to  be  erased  from  the  slates  of  the  pupils,  and  the 
numbers  written  for  the  required  number  of  words.  Then  the 
teacher  pronounces  the  words  distinctly  (twice  and  no  more)  giv- 
ing the  full  form  the  abbreviation  represents,  and  the  pupils  write 
from  his  dictation  ascarefully  and  rapidly  as  they  can.  A  reasonable 
time  being  given  for  all  to  \\  rite  the  words,  the  teacher  may  conduct 
the  remainder  of  the  exercise  in  various  ways,  lie  may  ask  the  pupils 
to  exchange  slates  and  call  on  them  individually  to  spell  the  words 
they  find  on  the  slates  they  hold  and  criticise  the  spelling.  He 
may,  without  exchanging, call  for  the  spelling  of  each  pupil  and  ask 
criticisms  from  the  others,  or  he  may  spell  the  words  himself,  re- 
quiring each  pupil  to  mark  the  words  misspelled.  All  words  that 
are  wrong  cither  in  spelling,  capitals  or  punctuation,  should  he 
marked  and  the  per  cent,  of  correctly  spelled  words  made  out  and 
recorded.  The  average  of  these  per  cents,  at  the  close  of  a  term 
will  show  the  pupil's  standing  pretty  accurately. 

26.  Words  misspelled  should  he  re- writ  ten  by  the  pupil.  Those 
words  which  are  missed  by  the  majority  of  the  class  should  he  noted 
down   and   assigned   again   at  some  future  lesson.      In  this  way  the 

•  pupils  will  study  only  difficult  words  and  nvvd  not  waste  their  time 
on  easy  ones. 

27.  It  would  he  well  to  require  each  pupil  to  write  his  name, 
post  office  address,  and  the  date  in  connection  with  each  lesson,  and 
let  it  he  subject  to  criticism  in  regard  t<>  spelling,  capitalization, 
punctuation,  etc.  This  constant  practice  will  he  valuable  aid  to  let- 
ter writing.     (See  Com  position  and  Letters.) 

28.  The  pupils  ma\  be  required  in  some  classes  to  mark  all  the 
important  sounds  in  their  spelling  lessons  with  their  proper  diacriti- 
cal marks.  This  will  he  the  most  effectual  method  of  teaching  the 
names  and  uses  of  these  marks. 

29.  Very  young  pupils  will  readily  learn  the  most  important 
rules  for  capital  letters.  They  can  he  told  that  all  names  of  per- 
sons or  of  places  must  he  spelled  with  a  capital,  and  this  rule  em- 
braces the  majority  of  cases  where  capitals  should  he  used  in  the 
middle  of  a  sentence.  In  oral  spelling,  even,  the  capital  letter  may 
he   indicated    h\    t  he  pupil  in  recitation,  thus :    Capital  J-o-h-n,  John. 

30.  Words  which  would  not  he  missed  when  spelled  orally  are 

frequently  missed  in  writing,  from  mere  carelessness.  Frequenl 
exercises  in  copying  sentences  and  paragraphs  from  hooks  may  be 
assigned  and  the  pupil's  work  criticised.     Parts  of  the  pupil's  reading 

lesson  may  he  written  in  this  way  by  pupils  and  criticised  by  the 
teachers  or  other  pupils.  Careless  habits  should  he  broken  up  by 
much  practice  and  criticism.  Sentences  may  he  dictated  hv  the 
teachei  aid  written  by  the  pupils,  and  tin-  errors  corrected. 


SPELLING.  ~3 

31.  Instead  of  slates  pupils  may  use  paper  and  pencil,  or  pen 
and  ink.     Blank  spellers  are  now  made  which  are  very  convenient 

for  this  purpose. 

Spelling  should  be  taught  incidentally  to  many  other  branches. 
Whenever  written  work  is  done  by  the  pupils,  the  spelling  should 
be  carefully  criticised. 

SPELLING    REFORM. 

32.  The  fact  that  our  present  system  of  spelling  the  English 
language  is  so  complex  and  cumbersome,  one  letter  representing 
several  sounds,  and  the  same  sound  represented  by  several  different 
letters,  and  so  many  words  which  have  silent  letters,  has  led  men  to 
desire  a  change  in  the  whole  system.  It  is  said  that  only  fifty  words 
in  English  are  written  as  they  are  pronounced,  or  pronounced  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  names  of  their  letters.  The  word  "  though  "  has 
six  letters  and  only  two  sounds.  Hundreds  of  cases  might  be  shown 
of  the  awkwardness  of  our  spelling.  ■ 

33.  The  first  regular  step  taken  in  the  direction  of  reform  was 
with  the  organization  of  the  Spelling  Reform  Association,  in  1876, 
at  an  International  Convention  for  the  Amendment  of  English 
Orthography,  held  in  Philadelphia.  Some  of  the  greatest  linguists, 
scholars  and  educators  of  the  day  expressed  their  concurrence  in  the 
work  of  reform.  Among  them  we  may  mention,  Prof.  Max  Muller, 
of  Oxford  University,  England,  the  greatest  linguist  of  England  ; 
Prof.  W.  D.  Whitney,  of  Yale  College,  another  distinguished  lin- 
guist; Chas.  Sumner,  John  Stuart  Mill,  \Ym.  E.  Gladstone,  Hon. 
Wm.  T.  Harris,  Prof.  F.J.  Childs,  of  Harvard,  Rev.  A.  H.  Sayce, 
of  Oxford,  England,  Rev.  W.  W.  Skreat,of  Cambridge  University, 
England. 

34.  A  reform  of  this  kind  requires  time  to  accomplish  any  defi- 
nite results.  Thus  far,  we  cannot  say  that  anything  very  definite 
has  been  accomplished,  except  to  arouse  an  interest  in  the  matter. 
This  they  have  succeeded  in  doing.  The  National  Union  of  Ele- 
mentary Teachers  in  England,  passed  a  resolution  recommending  a 
royal  inquiry  into  the  subject,  and  the  American  Philological  As- 
sociation started  a  memorial  to  Congress  praying  that  body  to  ap- 
point a  Commission  on  Spelling  Reform.  This  memorial  was  signed 
by  the  professors  in  nearly  all  the  leading  colleges  and  universities 
in  the  U.  S.  The  public  press  has  h\  many  instances  lent  its  aid  in 
the  work,  and  several  papers  have  been  started  for  its  special  advo- 
cacy, and  a  number  of  books  have  been  written  on  the  subject. 

35.  There  is  a  great  diversity  of  views  among  the  advocates  of 
reform  as  to  the  proper  method  of  accomplishing  the  result.  These 
views  may  be  summed  up  under  three  general  heads:  1.  Those  who 
are  in  favor  of  a  partial  reform  without  a  new  alphabet.  2.  'Those 
who  want  a  phonetic  spelling  with  a  few  new  letters.  3.  Those 
who  wish  a  new  alphabet  with   many   new   letters.     Several  new 


34  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS  LIBRART. 

alphabets  have  been  invented,  and  are  in  use  by  different  papers  ad- 
vocating reform. 

30.  The  final  aim,  it  would  seem  to  he,  is  to  have  a  new  alphabet 
adopted  which  shall  he  perfectly  phonetic,  but  in  order  to  bring  this 
about  gradually,  the  Reform  Spelling  Association  has  recommended 
and  adopted  various  special  rules  ("or  spelling  without  new  types'. 
Five  of  these  rule-  have  become  widely  known  and  pretty  generally 
agreed  upon.  They  are  known  as  the  "Few  New  Rules."  and  are 
as  follows: — 

i.     Omit  a  from  the  digraph  ca  when  pronounced  as  e  short, 
as  in  head,  health,  etc.,  spelling  them  lied,  helth,  etc. 

2.  Omit  silent  final  c  after  a  short  vowel;  as  in  have,  give, 
live,  etc.,  spelling  them  hctv,  giv,  fiv,  etc. 

3.  Write  f  for  ph    in    such     words    a-    alphabet,  phantom, 
philosophy,  etc.,  spelling  them  alfabet,  fantom,  JUosofy,  etc. 

4.  When  a  word  ends  with  a  double  letter,  omit  the  last;  as 
in  shall,  cliff,  etc.,  spelling  them  shal,  el  if,  etc. 

5.  Change  ed  final   to  /   where  it  has  the  sound  of  t ;  as  in 
lashed,  impressed,  etc.,  spelling  them  lasht,  imprest,  etc. 

37.  In  furtherance  also  of  the  reform,  at  a  meeting  of  the 
American  Philological  Association,  in  1878,  the  committee  on  Re- 
form of  English  Spelling,  composed  of  Prof.  F.  A.  Marsh;  Profs. 
W.  D.  Whitney,  and  J.  H.  Trumbull,  of  Yale;  F.J.  Child,  of  Har- 
vard; Prof.  S.  S.  Haldeman,  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  re- 
ported as  follows: — 

"In  accordance  with  the  plan  of  preparing  a  list  of  words  for 
which  an  amended  spelling  may  be  adopted,  concurrent  with  that 
now  in  use,  as  suggested  by  Pres.  J.  Hammond  Trumbull,  at  the 
session  of  [875,  and  favorably  reported  upon  by  the  committee  of 
that  session,  the  committee  now  present  the  following  words  as  the 
beginning  of  such  list,  and  recommend  them  for  immediate  use: 
Ar,  catalog,  definit,  gard,  giv,  hav,  infinit,  liv,  thru,  wisht. 

Trot".  Francis  A.  Match,  L.L.  D.,  says,  [we  give  it  in  the  reform  spelling, J 
■•  Printing  in  pure  fonetic  speling,  or  with  new  type-,  seems  as  yet  to  be  mision- 
ary  work.  It  costs  a  good  deal  of  money.and  the  return-  ar  mainly  sentimen- 
tal. It  is,  however,  a  prime  necesity  in' order  to  keep  our  goal  before  us,  and 
din  cl  al  minor  changes,  a-  wel  as  tor  a  metric  alfabet.  The  'few  rules'  and  the 
eleven  words  giv  beter  promise." 

There  is  no  doubt  that  some  very  radical  changes  will  come  about  in  the 
coiir-e  of  a  few  sears  in  the  matter  of  English  spelling, and  it  behooves  teachers 

to  keep  themselves  posted  in  regard  to  this  matter,  and  to  be  abreast  of  the  tunes 

by  lending  their  aid  to  whatever  will  truly  advance  a  desirable  reform.  Further 
information  in  regard  to  this  matter  may  be  obtained  by  addressing  O.  C  Black- 
mer,  A.  M.,  54  Franklin  Street,  Chicago,  111.,  or  to  Mellville  Dewey,  A.  M.,  T,l 
llawley  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

QUES1  [ONS    <>N    SPELLING. 

(Sec  note  to  questions  >n  reading;,  page  i<>). 
1.     Define  spelling      2.     Kinds*     3.     What  is  phonic  -pelling5     4.     Define 
articulation.       e,        Whal  1     Byllable?     6.     Define    pronunciation;    accent. 


GEOGRAPHY.  35 

8.     What  is  a  monosyllable?     A  dissyllable?     A  trisyllable?     A  polysyllable? 
The  ultimate?     The  penult?     The  ante-penult?     The  preante-penult? 

9  What  is  a  vowel?  A  consonant?  io.  Uovv  many  sounds  in  the 
English  language?  What  arc  vocals?  Tonics?  Sub-tonics?  Sub-vocals? 
Sub-tonics?     Aspirates?     Atonies? 

ii.  What  is  a  diphthong?  A  triphthong?  A  proper  diphthong?  A  vowel 
digraph?  12.  What  is  a  simple  word?  A  compound  word?  A  primitive 
word?     A  derivative  word? 

13.  Define  prefix;  suffix;  affix.  14.  What  can  be  said  of  the  origin  of  English 
words?  15.  What  is  diacritical  spelling?  16.  What  are  the  advantages  of 
learning  niles  for  spelling?  17.  What  are  the  most  important  rules  for  the 
use  of  capitals?     Correct  the  errors  in  the  following: 

the  people  of  indiuna  ;ire  culled  hoosiers.  this  hook  is  published  at  no.  70,  metropolitan  block, 
Chicago,  he  said,  i  will  visit  your  place  about  christmas. 

iS.  Name  two  rules  for  spelling.  19.  Name  two  rules  for  pronunciation. 
20.  What  is  your  method  of  teaching  spelling?  21.  What  are  the  advantages 
of  writing  spelling  lessons?  23.  How  do  you  teach  abbreviations?  24.  How 
many  words  would  you  assign  as  a  spelling  lesson? 

25.  What  plans  do  you  use  to  avoid  monotony  in  spelling  recitations? 
27.  Do  you  make  any  use  of  misspelled  words?  29.  Do  you  teach  young 
pupils  the  use  of  capital  letters?  30.  What  are  the  advantages  of  copying 
sentences  and  paragraphs?  36.  What  are  the  "  Few  New  Rules  "?  37.  The 
"eleven  words  "? 

— — '*i^ii'"  — — 


GEOGRAPHY. 


GENERAL    OUTLINE    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 


This  outline  may  be  filled  out  by  advanced  pupils  as  t  review  exercise.     Parts  of  it  may  be 
used  as  topic  lists  for  study  and  recitation.    The  figures  in  parentheses  refer  to  sections  of  the 

text.     *     *     *     *     indicate  where  the  subject  may  be  further   amplified.     For   more   complete 
discussion,  see  "  Outline  of  the  Earth  as  to  Physical  Features,"  preceding  Physical  Geography. 

For  an  explanation  of  the  index  figures,  see  "  Systems  of  Outlining."      Note,  however,  that  it 
makes  complete  sense  without  the  figures. 

the  earth.  23     Change  of  Seasons. 

i1     Form.  41     Representation  of  Surface.  (6). 

i1     Proofs.  (2).  I2     Maps. 

*     *     *     *  22     Globes. 

2l     Size.  (3).  51  Position  on  Surface, 

i'     Circumference.  I1     Circles.  (6). 

2s     Polar  Diameter.  i3     Kinds. 

3»    Equatorial.  i4     Great. 

4»     Area  of  Surface.  15     Equator. 

31     Motions.  (5).  25     Meridians. 

I*     Points.  35     Ecliptic. 

Is     Axis.  2*     Small. 

23     Poles.  i5    Parallels. 

23     Kinds.  iG     Principal  —  Climatic    or 

i3     Diurnal.  Fixed  Circles.    (8). 

23     Annual.  i7     Tropic  of  Cancer. 

32     Results.  27    Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

i3     Length  of  Day  and  Year.  3T     Arctic  Circle. 

45     Phenomena.  47     Antarctic  Circle. 

Is     Dav  and  Night  2*     Degrees.  (7). 


26 


TEACHERS'  AND  STVDEX is'  1.1BHART. 


i4     Length. 

*     *     *     * 

^4     Divisions. 

71     Climate.  (16). 

3<     Use. 

I2     As  to  Temperature. 

33     Uses.  (6». 

I3     Depending  Upon. 

i4    To  Determine  Position. 

*     *     *     * 

iD    Latitude. 

22     As  to  Moisture. 

*    *    *    * 

I3     Depending  Upon 

2^     Longitude. 

IJC                   rfC                  JjC                   -ft 

*     *     *     * 

32     As  to  Winds. 

2*     To    Mark  Zones  and 

Hemis 

I3     Depending  Upon 

pheres. 

*     *     *     * 

23     Zone>.   191 

S1     Life. 

T            T             T            * 

i2     Plants.  (17). 

3-     Hemispheres.  (10). 

13     Conditions. 

*     *     *     * 

$     $    ^     ♦ 

42     Cardinal  Points.      (4). 

23     Distribution. 

t    *     #     # 

*     *     *     * 

61     Divisions. 

22     Animals.  (17). 

I2     Land. 

*     *     *     * 

i3     Natural  Divisions. 

32     Man 

I4     As  to  Si/.e.  (il). 

j3    Classes. 

1'"     Continents. 
2s     Islands. 
24     As  to  Contour. 


(12). 


1  *  As  to  Physical  Characteristics. 
i6     Races.     (20). 

:j:        %        :Jc        % 


x'°     Capes. 

24      A 

sto  Social  Condition. 

2b     Peninsulas. 

I» 

In    Regard    to    Education. 

3J     Isthmuses. 

(26). 

34     As  to  Relief.  (13). 

.J:       *       *        * 

ib     Lowlands. 

2'" 

In  Regard  to  Religion.  (27) 

i°     Plains. 

*     ♦     ♦     * 

Valleys. 

3b 

In  Regard  to  Government 

2'0     Highlands. 

(30). 

16     Plateaus. 

$     $     $     $ 

J6     Mountains. 

45 

In   Regard   to  Occupation 

23     Political  Divisions. 

(32)- 

I4      States. 

$      $      $      ♦ 

24     Empires. 

91     Mineral  Resources.  (35). 

34     Kingdoms. 

I2 

Metal 

s. 

44     Principalities. 

*        * 

■■r-      ■:; 

z,*      Provinces,  etc. 

j;5 

Build 

ing   Material. 

Water. 

*     * 

*     * 

I3     Oceanic.    (14). 

32 

Mi  sec 

:llaneous  Minerals. 

*     *     *     * 

*     * 

*     * 

23     Inland.  (15). 

1.       GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Geography  is  a  description  of  the  earth.  It  is  usually 
divided  into :  (1  )  Mathematical  Geography  which  treats  nf  the  form, 
size,  position  and  motions  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  manner  of  indi- 
cating the  relative  position  of  places  on  its  surface;  (3)  Physical 
Geography  which  treats  of  the  natural  divisions  of  land  and  water, 
of  climate,  of  the  distribution  of  minerals,  plants  and  animals,  and 
of  the  causes,  laws  and  relations  of  these  facts;  (3)  Political  Geog- 
raphy which  treats  of  the  human  inhabitants,  then  social  condition 
as  to  government,  religion  and  manners,  their  industrial  pursuits  and 
production-,  and  of  the  boundary  lines  they  have  drawn  on  its  surface. 


(,EOGRAPHT.  27 

Neither  of  these  divisions  can  be  intelligently  treated  without 
reference  to  the  others,  and  it  is  the  general  course  of  text-books  to 
discuss  the  facts  of  Political  Geography  with  some  of  the  facts  of 
Mathematical  and  Physical  Geography  uneer  the  general  name 
"Geography,"  while  Physical  Geography  proper  is  treated  as  a 
separate  work. 

2.  The  earth  is  nearly  spherical  in  shape.  This  is  evident  from 
the  following  facts: — 

i.  Men  have  circumnavigated  it;  that  is,  they  have  sailed 
in  one  continuous  direction  as  nearly  as  the  configuration  of  the  land 
would  permit,  and  have  arrived  at  the  point  of  starting. 

i.  When  we  stand  on  the  shore  and  observe  a  ship  coming 
in  from  the  sea,  we  notice  that  the  tops  of  the  masts  are  seen  first, 
and  lastly  the  hull,  or  body.  The  hull  is  hidden  by  the  curved 
surface  of  the  water.  In  traveling  across  extensive  plains,  in  like 
maimer,  the  tops  of  mountains  are  seen  before  their  bases. 

3.  An  eclipse,  of  the  moon  is  caused  by  the  shadow  of  the 
earth  falling  on  the  moon.  This  shadow  is  always  circular.  A 
spherical  body  is  the  only  one  which  will  east  a  circular  shadow  in 
any  position  in  which  it  may  be  placed. 

3.  The  earth  is  24,899  miles  in  its  greatest  circumference, 
7,899  miles  in  its  shorter,  or  polar  (5)  diameter,  and  7,925  miles  in 
its  longer,  or  equatorial  (6)  diameter.  Its  surface  contains  nearly 
200,000,000  square  miles. 

4.  The  line  bounding  our  view,  or  where  the  earth  and  sky 
appear  to  meet,  is  called  the  horizon.  If  you  stand  looking  toward 
the  rising  sun,  your  face  will  be  to  the  east,  your  back  to  the  west, 
your  right  hand  to  the  south  and  your  left  to  the  north.  These  are 
called  the  cardinal  points  of  the  horizon. 

The  compass  is  an  instrument  for  ascertaining  direction  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  It  consists  of  a  circular  card  representing  the 
horizon  and  its  points,  with  a  magnetic  needle  balanced  so  that  it  is 
free  to  move  in  any  direction.  This  needle  always  points  to  the 
north. 

5.  The  earth  has  two  constant  motions:  (1)  its  diurnal 
motion,  or  rotation  on  its  axis  (its  shorter  diameter)  from  west  to 
east ;  (2)  its  annual  motion,  or  movement  in  a  nearly  circular  path 
(called  its  orbit)  around  the  sun.  Tho  length  of  time  the  earth  is 
turning  on  its  axis,  is  called  a  day.  Every  part  of  the  earth's 
surface  being  successively  carried  into  light  and  shade,  the  daily 
rotation  causes  the  phenomena  of  day  and  night.  The  length  of 
time  the  earth  is  in  passing  around  the  sun,  is  called  a  year.  It  turns 
on  its  own  axis  in  tine  same  time  about  3653.^  times,  hence  there  are 
3651^  days  in  a  year.  As  the  earth  revolves  from  west  to  east  the 
sun  will  appear  to  travel  from  east  to  west. 

The  points  on  the  earth's  surface  at  the  ends  of  the  axis  are 
called  poles.      The   one  which   is   nearest  a  certain  fixed  star  called 


28  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

the  north  star,  is  the  north  pole,  the  other  is  the  south  pole.  The 
:ixi-  of  the  earth  is  inclined  231^  degrees  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit. 
This  fact,  together  with  the  revolution  of  the  earth  round  the  sun, 
causes  the  change  ot"  seasons.  During  one  part  of  the  earth's  revo- 
lution, the  North.  Pole  is  toward  the  sun,  and  consequently  its  rays 
fall  more  directly  upon  the  northern  half  of  the  earth,  and  that 
part  has  summer  while  the  southern  half  has  winter.  At  another 
time  the  North  Pole  is  turned  away  from  the  sun,  and  the  sun 
shining  less  directly  on  the  northern  half,  there  is  then  winter  in 
that   part   and  summer  in  the  southern  half. 

Thus  when  the  sun  shines  most  directly  upon  us  we  have  mid- 
summer, and  when  most  obliquely,  midwinter.  When  interme- 
diate between  these  we  have  spring  and  autumn. 

G.  The  surface  of  the  earth  is  represented  by  maps  and  globes. 
Position  is  represented  by  means  of  certain  lines  drawn  on  maps 
and  globes,  called  "  circles  of  situation."  By  having  certain  fixed 
points  on  the  earth  and  imagining  these  lines  to  be  drawn  on 
its  surface,  we  determine  the  location  of  places.  As  a  globe  is 
simply  a  spherical  body  to  represent  the  form  of  the  earth  in  mini- 
ature, any  points  fixed  upon  it  will  represent  similar  positions  on 
the  earth. 

A  line  drawn  around  a  globe  midway  between   the  poles  divid- 
ing it  into  two  equal  parts,  is  called   the  equator.     As  the  poles  are 
fixed  points,  this  line  will  be  a  fixed  line.     Now  if  a  line  be  drawn 
around  the  globe,  passing  through  the  poles  and  crossing  the  equator 
at  right  angles,  it  will  divide  the  globe  into  two  equal  parts.  But  any 
number  of  lines   may    be   drawn    through    the   poles    and    at   right 
angles  to  the  equator,  which    will    divide    the  globe  into  two  equal 
parts.     These    lines   are   called    meridian   circles.       A  certain  one 
then  is  taken  as  the  standard  and  called  the  first,  or  prime  meridian 
circle.     A  meridian  is  half  of  a  meridian  circle.     The  one  imaer- 
ined  to  pass  through  the  town  of  Greenwich,  England,  where  there 
is    a    famous    observatory,  is    chosen    as    a    prime   meridian.      The 
meridian  of  Washington  City   is  also  used.      The  equator  and  some 
fixed  meridian  then  are  two  fixed  lines  from    which   to  measure  dis- 
tance.     Distance  north  or  south   from    the  equator  is  measured  on  a 
meridian  and  called  latitude.      Distance   east    or   west  measured    on 
tlu'  equator  (or  on  lines  drawn  parallel  with  it  called  parallels  of 
latitude),  is  called  longitude. 

7.  Every  circle,  whether  great  or  small,  is  divided  into  360 
equal  parts  called  degrees  (°),  each  degree  into  60  parts  called 
minutes  ( '  ).  and  each  minute  into  60  parts  called  seconds  (" ).  The 
distance  then  from  the  equator  to  either  pole  is  90  .  There  can  be 
then  but  (jo  north  or  south  latitude.  Places  on  the  equator  have 
no  latitude,  and  are  marked  zero.  Places  on  the  prime  meridian 
would  be  marked  zero,  and  there  could  be  only  1800  east  or  yvest 
longitude.     The  length  of  a  degree  of  longitude  on  the  equator  is 


GEOGRAPHT.  29 

69  yi  statute  miles.  They  become  shorter  as  we  near  the  poles, 
where  they  are  zero.  The  length  of  a  degree  of  latitude  is  69  % 
statute  miles. 

8.  Those  parallels  which  are  drawn  235^°  from  the  equator 
are  called  tropics.  The  northern  one  is  called  the  Tropic  of  Cancer, 
and  the  southern  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  Those  parallels  which 
are  233^°  from  the  poles  are  called  polar  circles.  The  northern 
one  is  called  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  the  southern  the  Antarctic 
Circle. 

9.  Those  divisions  of  the  earth's  surface  bounded  by  the  tropics 
and  polar  circles  are  called  zones.  The  space  on  either  side  of  the 
equator  and  between  the  tropics,  is  called  the  torrid  zone,  and  is 
47°  wide.  The  space  between  the  tropic  of  cancer  and  the 
arctic  circle,  is  called  the  north  temperate  zone.  That  between 
the  tropic  of  Capricorn  and  the  antarctic  circle  is  the  south  tem- 
perate zone.  The  temperate  zones  are  each  43°  wide.  The  space 
between  the  arctic  circle  and  the  north  pole  is  called  the  north 
frigid  zone,  and  that  between  the  antarctic  circle  and  the  south 
pole  the  south  frigid  zone.     The  frigid  zones  are  each  23^°  wide. 

10.  For  convenience  the  earth  is  considered  as  divided  into 
halves,  or  hemispheres,  the  equator  dividing  it  into  northern  and 
southern  hemispheres,  and  the  meridians  of  160  west,  and  20  east, 
into  eastern  and  western  hemispheres.  It  may  also  be  considered 
as  divided  so  that  nearly  all  the  land  will  be  in  one,  called  the  land 
hemisphere,  and  nearly  all  the  water  in  the  other,  called  the  water 
hemisphere. 

About  one-fourth  of  the  earth's  surface  is  land,  and  about 
three-fourths,  water. 

11.  The  land  is  divided  as  to  size  into:  (1)  continents,  very 
large  bodies  of  land;  (2)  islands,  smaller  bodies  entirely  surrounded 
by  water.  The  eastern  hemisphere  has  four  continents,  or  large 
land  masses  called  respectively  Europe,  Asia,  Africa  and  Australia, 
tooethcr  called  the  "  Old  World," — and  sometimes  all  called  the 
«  Eastern  Continent."  The  western  hemisphere  contains  two  con- 
tinents, North  America  and  South  America,  and  sometimes  both 
together  called  the  "  Western  Continent,"  or  the  "  American  Con- 
tinent." Australia  might  be  considered  as  a  large  island.  An 
archipelago  is  a  group  of  islands. 

12.  The  land  is  divided  as  to  contour  into :  ( 1 )  peninsulas,  bodies 
of  land  nearly  surrounded  by  water;  (2)  capes,  points  of  land  pro- 
jecting into  the  water;  (3)  isthmuses,  necks  of  land  connecting  two 
bodies  of  land. 

13.  The  land  is  divided  as  to  relief  into:  (i)  lowlands,  hut 
slightly  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  (2  )  highlands,  con- 
siderably elevated  above  sea  level.  The  lowlands  are  divided  into 
plains  and  valleys.  A  plain  is  generally  level  and  not  much  ele- 
vated above  the  sea.     In  different  parts  of  the   world   plains  have 


30  TEACHERS' AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

received  different  name-.  In  the  United  States  the  extensive  tracts 
destitute  of  trees  and  covered  with  grass  are  called  prairies.  Sim- 
ilar plains  in  South  America  arc  called  pampas.  The  river  plains 
of  South  America,  which  arc  covered  with  vegetation  dining  the 
rainy  season,  are  called  llanos.  Higher  plains,  covered  with  trees, 
are  in  that  country  called  selvas.  The  great  plains  of  Siberia  are 
called  steppes.  Plains  which  are  destitute  of  vegetation  are  called 
deserts.  Spots  in  the  desert  which  are  made  fertile  by  springs  are 
called  oases. 

Valleys  are  tracts  of  land  generally  narrow  and  depressed  he- 
low  the  level  of  the  surrounding  land.  Avery  narrow  valley  with 
steep  sides  is  a  ravine  or  defile.  In  Western  United  States  very 
deep  ravines  are  called  canyons. 

The  highlands  are  divided  into  plateaus  or  table  lands  and 
mountains.  A  plateau  is  a  very  high  plain.  A  mountain  is  a 
very  high  and  abrupt  elevation  of  land.  Smaller  abrupt  eleva- 
tions are  called  hills,  knolls,  etc.  A  volcano  is  a  mountain  that 
sends  forth  fire,  melted  matter,  etc. 

14.  The  water  may  he  considered  as  oceanic  and  inland.  The 
great  body  of  salt  water  which  everywhere  surrounds  the  large 
land  masses  and  penetrates  into  their  interior,  is  sometimes  alluded 
to  as  the  ocean  or  sea,  but  it  is  by  the  configuration  of  the  land 
divided  into  five  great  bodies  which  have  each  received  the  name 
of  ocean,  as  the  Atlantic,  the  Pacific,  the  Indian,  the  Arctic  and 
the  Antarctic  oceans.  A  sea  is  a  large  body  of  water  connected 
more  or  less  closely  with  the  main  ocean. 

A  gulf  is  a  body  of  water  indenting  the  land  from  the  ocean  or 
a  larger  body  of  water.  A  bay  means  about  the  same,  hut  gener- 
ally applied"  to  bodies  of  water  which  are  less  completely  sur- 
rounded by  land.  The  terms  inlet,  cove, harbor  Jiavcv,  fiord,  estu- 
ary, and  roadstead  axe  applied  to  smaller  indentations  of  the  land 
by  the  water. 

Strait  is  a  general  term  denoting  a  narrow  body  of  water  con- 
necting two  larger  bodies  of  water.  A  strait  which  is  shallow  is 
called  a  sound,  one  that  is  comparatively  wide  is  railed  a  channel. 

15.  The  inland  waters  are:  (i)  lakes,  bodies  of  water  sur- 
rounded by  land,  generally  fresh  water,  hut  sometimes  salt,  some 
large  bodies  of  salt  water  completely  surrounded  by  land  being 
called  seas,  as  the  Caspian  Sea,  Dead  Sea,  etc.;  (2)  rivers,  large 
streams  of  water  flowing  through  the  land  and  into  some  othei 
bodies  of  water,  as  lakes,  seas,  oceans,  or  other  rivers.  When  a 
river  runs  into  a  lake  it  is  called  the  inlet  of  the  lake;  when  the 
lake  empties  itself  through  a  river  into  some  other  body  of  water, 
that  river  is  called  its  outlet.  Streams  of  water  like  rivers  are 
found  flowing  through  the  ocean.     They  are  called  ocean  currents. 

16.  Climate.  "  The  physical  agencies  acting  through  the  at- 
mosphere upon  organic  life,    constitute  climate,   of  which    heat  ami 


GEOGRAPHr  31 

moisture  arc  the  essential  elements,  the  winds  being  the  medium  of 
circulation.  Temperature,  however,  is  the  fundamental  phenomena 
of  climate,  for  the  winds  and  the  rains  result  from  differences  in  the 
temperature  of  the  air." — Guyot.  (For  full  discussion  see  article  on 
Physical  Geography  in  this  work.)  As  a  general  law  it  may  be 
stated  that  the  heat  is  greatest  at  the  equator,  and  gradually  dimin- 
ishes as  we  go  toward  the  poles,  but  this  law  is  modified  by  many 
other  facts;  for  example,  as  we  ascend  above  the  sea  level  it  gets 
colder,  so  that  perpetual  snow  is  found  upon  high  mountains  which 
lie  upon  or  near  the  equator. 

17.  (For  a  full  discussion  of  the  distribution  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life  see  article  on  Physical  Geography.)  The  Frigid 
Zones  produce  very  scanty  vegetation,  mosses  and  lichens  and 
some  stunted  specimens  of  the  higher  forms,  as  the  willow,  birch 
and  pine.  The  animal  world  is  much  more  varied  as  to  species.  Here 
are  found  the  reindeer,  the  musk  ox  and  the  white  bear,  and  many 
smaller  fur-bearing  animals  on  the  land,  while  in  the  sea  or  on  its 
shores  are  found  whales,  walruses,  seals,  and  water-fowls  of  many 
species.  ' 

18.  In  the  torrid  zone  is  found  the  most  dense  and  varied  vege- 
tation, flowers  of  the  most  brilliant  hues  and  of  the  largest  size,  the 
most  delicious  fruits,  the  most  powerful  aromatics,  the  most  valuable 
woods;  in  fact,  the  most  of  those  production'-  which  add  to  the  lux- 
uries of  life.  The  animal  world  is  represented  by  the  greatest 
number  of  species,  among  which  are  those  of  the  largest  size,  the 
most  powerful  and  active,  and  the  most  intelligent.  It  is  the  home 
of  the  elephant,  the  giraffe,  the  lion,  the  tiger,  the  monkey,  the 
ostrich,  the  condor,  parrots;  and  of  reptiles  of  the  largest  size,  as 
the  crocodile  and  boa  constrictor,  as  well  as  those  of  the  most 
poisonous  character. 

19.  In  the  temperate  zones  are  found  the  vegetation  most  use- 
ful to  man,  as  the  oak,  the  pine,  the  maple  and  other  useful  timber 
trees;  the  indispensable  grains,  as  wheat,  maize,  barley,  rye;  the 
useful  fruits,  as  the  apple,  peach,  pear,  etc.,  and  the  fabric  plants,  as 
tlax  and  cotton.  The  animal  kingdom  is  represented  by  the  bear, 
the  bison,  the  elk  and  deer,  the  wolf;  and  the  domestic  animals  m, 
useful  to  man,  a-  the  horse,  the  oxen,  sheep  and  goats;  and  many 
species  of  fowl,  as  pigeons,  ducks,  geese,  turkeys,  etc. 

20.  Naturalists  divide  mankind  according  to  certain  physical 
characters  into  varieties, ox  races.  Authorities  differ  greatly  in  this 
classification.  Cuvier  made  three  races,  Pritchard,  seven,  Agassiz, 
eight,  and  Pickering,  eleven,  but  the  classification  most  commonly 
accepted  is  that  into  Ave  races  as  made  by  Blumenbach  as  follows: 
(i)  the  Caucasian,  European  or  white  race;  (2)  the  Mongolian, 
Asiatic  or  yellow  race;  (3)  the  Ethiopian,  African  or  black  race; 
(4)  the  American,  Indian  or  red  race;  (5)  the  Malay,  or  brown  race. 
The  first  three  are  much  more  clearly  marked,  and  are  considered  bv 


32  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIHRARV. 

Guyot  as  primary  races;  the  others  being  modifications  of  these 
three,  he  designates  as  secondary  races.  Because  of  the  blending  ot 
types  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  classification,  hence  the  difference 
anion"-  authorities.  The  points  on  which  the  classification  is  based 
are  mainly,  the  size  and  proportions  of  the  body,  the  shape  ot  head 
and  the  features,  the  hair  and  heard,  and  the  color  of  the  skin. 

21.  The  Caucasian  race  are  characterized  by  tall  stature,  oval 
head  and  face,  high  forehead,  regular  features,  abundance  and  soft- 
ness of  hair  and  beard  and  usually  fair  skin,  hut  in  some  it  is  lawny 
or  swarthy  as  in  the  Hindoos,  Arabs  and  others.  They  stand  at 
the  head  in  intelligence  and  civilization.  This  race  is  represented 
by  the  principal  inhabitants  of  Europe  and  their  descendants  in 
America,  and  by  the  inhabitants  of  India,  Arabia  and  of  Western 
Asia  and  Northern  Africa. 

22.  The  Mongolian  race  arc  distinguished  by  short  stature, 
round  head,  wide  face,  high  cheek  hones,  obliquely  set  eyes,  coarse 
straight  hair,  scarcely  any  heard,  and  yellowish  color  of  the  skin. 
They  are  distributed  oyer  the  whole  of  Eastern  Asia  except  in 
India  and  include  the  Esquimaux  of  the  northern  part  of  North 
America. 

23.  The  Ethiopian  race  are  characterized  by  medium  stature, 
generally  ungainly  form,  low  and  retreating  forehead,  head  full 
back  of  the  ears,  Hat,  broad  nose,  projecting  jaws,  thick  lips,  short 
curly  hair  (woolly),  and  skin  generally  black  or  dark.  They  oc- 
cupy all  of  Africa  except  the  northern  part,  and  many  of  their 
descendants  are  found  in  America. 

24.  The  American  race  resemble  the  Mongolian,  but  the  head 
is  not  so  round,  the  face  less  wide  and  Hat,  the  eyes    horizontal,  the 
hair  black  and  straight,  and  beard  scanty,  and  the  skin  a  reddish  or 
copper-color.      They  occupy  North  and  South  America    except 
the  Arctic  shores. 

25.  The  Malay  race  resemble  also  the  Mongolian,  but  have 
thicker  lips,  horizontal  eyes,  hair  less  Straight,  generally  full  beards, 
aui\  color  usually  brown^  They  occupy  the  Malay  peninsula  and 
the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans. 

26.  In  regard  to  general  culture  and  intelligence,  mankind  may 
be  divided  into  classes  as  follows:  (i)  savages,  those  who  are 
scarcely  elevated  above  the  brutes,  live  in  tribes  and  siihsist  by  hunt- 
ing and  fishing;  (2)  barbarians,  those  who  have  possessions  as 
flocks  and  herds, and  practice  agriculture  t<>  some  extent,  yet  have 
made  no  progress  in  arts  and  sciences ;  (3)  half-civilized,  those 
who  have  made  some  progress  in  the  arts,  have  towns  and  cities, 
hut  depend  chiefly  npon  agriculture;  (4)  civilized,  those  who  have 
made  considerable  progress  in  science  and  art,  engage  in  commerce 
.nu\  have  a  written  language;  (5)  enlightened,  those  who  stand  at 
the  head  of  the  scale,  have  a  division  <>f  labor,  systems  of  education, 
and  have  made  the  greatest  progress  in  science,  art,  and  in  morality. 


GEOGRAPHY.  J3 

27.  In  regard  to  religion,  mankind  may  be  divided  into  two 
general  classes:  (i)  those  who  worship  one  god  (monotheistic); 
(2)  those  who  worship  more  than  one  god  (polytheistic).  Of  the 
first  class  we  have:  (  1  )  the  Christian  which  recognizes  the  Bible 
as  the  revealed  word  of  God  and  Jesus  Christ  ;is  the  Son  of  God; 

(2)  the  Jewish  which  recognizes  the  Old  Testament  as  the  word  of 
God,  but  does  not  acknowledge  Christ;  (3)  the  Mohammedan, 
or  as  its  followers  call  it,  the  religion  of  Islam,  whose  two  articles 
of  faith  are,  "  There  is  no  god  but  God,  and  Mohammed  is  the 
Prophet  of  God/' 

28.  Of  the  second  class  there  are:  (1  1  Brahminism,  or  Hin- 
dooism,  or  the  religion  of  the  people  of  India,  a  very  ancient 
religion  which  has  many  good  moral  doctrines,  but  has  many 
strange  ideas  of  a  future  state,  and  recognizes  many  gods;  (2) 
Buddhism,  an  offshoot  of  Brahminism,  now  practiced  by  the 
people  of  China  and  Japan,  founded  by  Sakya-mouni  who  adopted 
the  title  of  Buddha  (the  enlightened),  a  religion  which  has  been 
more  enthusiastic  in  making  converts  than  any  other,  except  Christi- 
anity, and  has  many  good  moral  precepts  but  is  practically  atheistic; 

(3)  Fetichism,  a  very  low  form  of  superstition  which  consists  in 
the  worship  of  material  objects  either  living  or  dead,  as  animals  or 
idols  of  wood  or  stone.  All  who  are  followers  of  polytheistic 
religions  are  called  Pagans  or  Heathens. 

29.  The  Christian  religion  is  the  prevailing  one  among  civilized 
and  enlightened  nations,  and  numbers  about  395,000,000  followers. 

It  embraces  three  principal  sects :  Catholics  (201 ,000,000),  Protest- 
ants (110,000,000),  and  Greek  Church  (78,000,000).  The  Mo- 
hammedan is  the  religion  of  the  Turks,  and  many  of  the  people  of 
Asia  and  Northern  Africa,  and  has  about  232,000,000  followers. 
Brahminism  {prevails  principally  in  the  peninsula  of  Hindostan, 
and  numbers  150,000,000  followers.  Buddhism  prevails  in  China, 
Japan,  Indo-China  and  some  other  parts  of  Asia,  and  has  455,000,- 
000  followers.  Fetichism  prevails  among  the  lowest  and  most  de- 
graded people  of  Africa,  and  the  Islands  of  the  Indian  and  Pacific 
Oceans. 

30.  The  principal  forms  of  government  are:  (1)  the  mon- 
archical, that  form  where  one  person  exercises  chief  power  to 
which  he  succeeds  by  inheritance,  and  holds  for  life;  (2)  republi- 
can, where  the  power  is  vested  in  men  who  are  chosen  by  the 
people  for  a  limited  period.  An  absolute  monarchy  is  one  where 
tiie  ruler  has  unlimited  or  absolute  power,  his  will  being  the  sole 
law.     It  is  also  called  a  despotism. 

A  limited  or  constitutional  monarchy  is  one  where  the  ruler's 
power  is  limited  by  a  constitution,  or  laws  made  by  the  representa- 
tives of  the  people.  In  a  monarchical  government  the  ruler  receives 
various  titles  in  different  countries,  ;is  emperor,  king  or  queen,  czar, 
sultan,  shah   and   mikado.     In  a  republican  government  the  chief 


34  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

officer  is  called  a  president.     The  capital  of  a  country  is  the  place 
where  the  laws  are  made  and  the  government  is  administered. 

31.  The  term  state  is  used  in  a  general  sense  to  denote  the 
whole  body  of  people  united  under  one  government  of  whatever 
form,  but  in  this  country  the  term  means  one  of  the  separate  divi- 
sions of  the  United  States,  which  has  a  government  of  its  own  with 
full  powers  over  all  matters  pertaining  to  its  own  particular  affairs, 
hut  has  delegated  certain  powers  to  the  general  government.  The 
chief  officer  of  one  of  these  .States  is  called  a  governor.  A  county 
is  a  division  of  a  State.  A  township,  or  town  is  a  division  of  a 
county.  A  city  is  also  a  division  of  a  county.  These  divisions  of 
a  State  are  for  the  convenience  of  carrying  out  the  plan  of  govern- 
ment. 

32.  The  occupations  of  men  may  he  considered  in  two  general 
classes:  (i)  Industries;  (2)  Professions.  The  principal  indus- 
tries are:  (1)  agriculture,  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  for  the  pur- 
pose of  producing  vegetable  material  for  food  and  clothing;  (2) 
grazing,  the  raising  of  domestic  animals  which  furnish  food  and 
clothing;  (3)  lumbering,  the  cutting  down  of  forest  trees  and 
shaping  them  for  the  various  purposes  as  building,  manufacturing, 
etc.;  (|)  mining,  the  procuring  of  important  minerals  from  the 
earth  for  use  in  building,  manufacture  and  fuel;  (5)  navigation, 
traversing  the  ocean  and  other  bodies  of  water  in  the  interests  ol 
commerce,  science,  art  or  pleasure;  (6)  commerce,  the  exchanging 
of  the  productions  or  manufactures  of  one  country  or  part  of  a 
country  for  that  of  another;  (7)  manufacturing,  the  working  up 
of  a  raw  material  into  forms  suitable  to  the  wants  of  man;  (8) 
fishing,  an  occupation  which  furnishes  employment  to  many  people, 
the  whale  fishery  and  that  of  the  cod  and  mackerel  being  verj 
great;  (<j)  transportation,  the  carrying  of  goods  from  one  coun- 
try or  section  to  another,  whether  by  railroad,  steamship,  sailing 
vessel,  or  by  means  of  domestic  animals. 

33.  The  principal  professions  are:  (1)  the  law,  which  may 
include  the  occupations  of  all  those  who  have  anything  to  do  with 
the  administering  of  justice,  either  in  defending  the  rights  of  ag- 
grieved citizens,  prosecuting  criminals,  or  deciding  questions  oi  law 
and  right;  (2  )  medicine,  which  may  include  all  who  have  advisory 
care  of  the  sick  or  injured  in  any  way;  (3)  the  ministry,  all  those 
whose  business  it  is  to  see  after  the  moral  and  religious  instruction  of 
the  people;  (.})  teaching,  though  not  generally  recognized  as  one 
of  the  professions,  is  certainly  the  most  noble  of  all;  (5)  journal- 
ism, the  editing  and  managing  of  periodical  publications;  (6) 
authorship,  the  composing  or  compiling  of  books;  (7)  politics, 
including  all  who  are  engaged  in  the  study  and  practice  of  the 
science  of  government. 

34.  The  prosperity  and  wealth  of  a  country  depend  largely 
upon   its  mineral  resources.      Nature   has  bestowed   her    mineral 


GEOGRAPHT.  35 

wealth  in  lavish  abundance,  asking  onlv  the  labor  of  man  to  make 
it  useful.  As  a  rule  the  useful  and  valuable  minerals  are  found  in 
rocky  or  mountainous  countries.  These  countries  not  being  adapted 
to  agriculture  the  people  find  employment  in  mining  and  manufac- 
turing the  raw  material  which  is  stowed  awav  in  their  hills,  depend- 
ing for  subsistence  upon  commerce  with  their  agricultural  neighbor-. 
of  the  plains.  On  the  other  hand,  the  inhabitants  of  the  plain-, 
must  depend  upon  their  neighbors  of  the  hills  for  material  which 
adds  to  their  comfort  and  convenience.  Wherever  that  most  use- 
ful of  metals,  iron,  is  found,  near  by  is  always  found  coal  which  i-. 
necessary  in  reducing  the  iron  to  useful  forms.  Timber  also  grows 
abundantly  on  the  mountains.  This  also  is  necessary  to  the  manu- 
facturer. The  streams  Of  hilly  countries  have  greater  fall  and  are 
thus  adapted  for  water  power  which  also  adds  to  the  advantages. 
The  industries  of  a  people  may  thus  be  guessed  from  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  physical  features  of  their  country. 

35.  The  principal  useful  metals  are  iron,  copper,  lead,  zinc, 
tin  and  nickel.  Gold,  silver  and  platinum,  are  classed  as  precious 
metals.  The  principal  kinds  of  building  material  are  sandstone, 
limestone,  granite,  marble,  slate,  sand,  clay  and  gravel.  The 
following  miscellaneous  minerals  are  of  great  value:  coal,  petro- 
leum, salt,  plumbago  or  graphite,  and  mineral  paints.  Some  of 
the  most  important  of  the  precious  stones  are  the  diamond,  the 
ruby,  the  sapphire,  the  emerald.  Pearls  are  small  secretions, 
sometimes  of  great  value,  found  in  the  pearl  oyster  and  other  mol- 
lusks.  Pearl  fishery  is  of  great  importance  in  some  parts  of  the 
world. 

II.     DESCRIPTION  OF  COUNTRIES. 

NORTH    AMERICA. 

36.  The  northernmost  grand  division  of  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere extends  from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  which  links  it  with 
South  America,  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the  north  about  4,800  miles, 
and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean;  in  its  widest  place,  about 
3,000  miles,  comprising  an  area  of  about  8,900,000  square  miles,  and 
has  a  coast  line  of  nearly  30,000  miles. 

37.  It  is  triangular  in  form  and  has  an  irregular  outline,  beiny 
indented  by  numerous  gulfs,  bays  and  inlets.  The  principal  indenta- 
tions are  Baffin's  Bay  and  Hudson's  Bay  on  the  north,  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  on  the  east,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Carribean  Sea  and 
Gulf  of  California  on  the  south,  and  Behring  Sea  on  the  north- 
west. The  eastern  coast  has  a  more  irregular  outline  than  the 
western,  an  advantage  in  a  commercial  point  of  view. 

38.  The  principal  projections  of  land  are  the  peninsula  of  Nova 
Scotia  on  the  east,  the  peninsulas  of  Florida,  Yucatan,  and  Lower 
California  on  the  south,  and  Alaska  on  the  northwest;  and  the  fob 


36  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

lowing  capes:  Farewell,  Cod,  Sable,  Hatteras,  on  the  cast  coast, 
and  San  Lucas  and  Mendocino  on  the  southwest  and  west,  and 
Pt.  Barrow  on  the  northwest. 

39.  Its  surface  is  varied.  Two  principal  elevations;  (i)  the 
Rocky  Mts.  extending  along  the  whole  western  half  and  yz)  the 
Appalachian  Mts.  on  eastern  side.  The  Mississippi  Valley  heiween 
these  ranges  and  the  arctic  lowlands  in  the  north  comprise  the 
principal  lowlands. 

40.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Mackenzie,  running  north 
into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  St.  Lawrence,  draining  the  Great  Lakes 
and  emptying  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  Mississippi  draining  the 
interior  of  the  country  and  emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the 
Colorado  and  the  Columbia  on  the  western  slope  emptying  into 
the  Pacific. 

41.  The  principal  lakes  are  Great  Bear,  Great  Slave,  and 
Athabasca,  in  the  northern  part  drained  by  the  Mackenzie;  Supe- 
rior, Michigan,  Huron,  Erie  and  Ontario,  called  the  "  Great 
Lakes,1'  and  drained  by  the  St.  Lawrence  in  the  eastern  part, 
and  the  Great   Salt  Lake  in  the  western  part,  which  has  no  outlet. 

42.  It  has  a  climate  of  great  extremes,  heing  in  three  zones. 
In  most  of  the  temperate  zone  it  is  very  hot  in  summer  and  very 
cold  in  winter.  The  Pacific  coast  has  a  more  equable  climate  than 
the  other  parts  in  the  temperate  zone,  as  it  is  modified  by  the  warm 
currents  of  the  Pacific. 

43.  The  political  divisions  are  the  United  States,  Dominion  of 
Canada,  New  Foundland,  Mexico,  Central  America3  West  Indies, 
and  Danish  America. 

THE    UNITED    STATES. 

44.  The  United  States  comprises  38  States.  S  organized  Terri- 
tories, one  unorganized  Territory,  one  Federal  District,  and  the 
unorganized  territory  of  Alaska,  purchased  from  Russia  in  1S67. 
It  extends  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  about  2,Soo  miles  in  its 
wi<iL'st  part,  and  from  Mexico  to  British  America,  about  1,600  miles. 
It  lies  between  490  and  25  X.  Lat.,  and  1  250  and  67°  \Y.  Long. 
it'i  Mm  Greenwich).  It  is  nearly  as  large  as  Europe,  having  an  area, 
including  Alaska,  of  3,605,88.}  square  miles. 

45.  The  population,  according  to  the  census  of  1S80,  is  over 
^0,000,000.  The  center  of  population  in  June,  1 880,  was  8  miles 
southwest  of  Cincinnati,  in  the  State  of  Kentucky.  In  1790  it  w  as 
near  Baltimore,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  it  has  traveled 
westward,  on  nearly  the  same  parallel  of  latitude  (39  X.)  at  the 
rate  of  about  50  miles  every  ten  years.  The  geographical  center 
of  the  U.  S.  is  somewhere  near  Omaha,  Neb. 

46.  In  form,  location  and  natural  resources,  it  has  great  advan- 
tages over  any  other  country  of  North  America.  Its  excellent 
harbors,  navigable  rivers,  great    lakes,   great   extent  of  fertile  soil, 


GEOGRAPlir.  37 

vast  deposits  of  coal  and  iron,  copper  and  lead,  and  the  richness 
of  its  gold  and  silver  regions,  together  with  its  favorable  climate 
and  the  nature  of  the  stock  of  its  inhabitants,  explain  why  it  has 
in  so  comparatively  short  a  period  taken  the  front  rank  among 
the  countries  of  the  world. 

47.  The  education  of  all  the  people  has  been  liberally  pro- 
vided in  nearly  all  the  States,  so  that  the  poorest  can  enjoy  the 
benefits  of  education  at  the  public  expense.  The  government 
secures  equal  rights  to  all  citizens,  and  there  is  comparatively  no 
feeling  of  caste"  or  aristocracy.  There  is  no  prescribed  form  of 
religion.  All  are  free  to  worship  as  their  consciences  may  dictate. 
These  facts,  together  with  its  natural  advantages,  attract  people 
from  the  Old  World,  and  have  contributed  much  to  its  rapid  growth 
and  prosperitv. 

48.  The  "general  government  is  a  Federal  Republic,  and  is 
administered  according  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
adopted  in  17SS.  (For  an  explanation  of  the  Constitution  see 
article  on  Civil  Government).  The  State  governments  are 
modeled  after  the  general  government,  each  State  having  its  own 
constitution.  The  Territories  are  under  control  of  the  general 
government. 

49.  The  leading  industry  in  the  U.  S.  is  agriculture,  in  which 
nearly  one-half  of  the  entire  industrial  population  are  engaged. 
Maize,  or  Indian  Com  is  the  most  valuable  grain  produced.  It 
is  fed  in  great  quantities  to  hogs,  cattle  and  horses,  is  used  in  making 
whisky  and  for  making  glucose.  The  stalks  are  used  to  some 
extent  for  the  production  of  cane  sugar.  Wheat  is  next  in 
value  and  first  as  an  article  of  export.  Oats  is  raised  mostly  for 
food  for  horses.  Barley  is  raised  for  the  manufacture  of  beer. 
Cotton  is  produced  in  the  southern  part,  and  is  a  leading  pro- 
duction of  that  region.  Sugar-cane  is  produced  largely  in 
Louisiana  and  other  parts  of  the  South,  while  in  many  of  the 
Northern  States  sorghum  is  cultivated  for  the  manufacture  of 
molasses.  Tobacco  and  rice  are  also  produced  in  great  quantities. 
Grass,  hay,  and  potatoes,  buckwheat  and  rye  are  quite  extensively 
cultivated  in  the  northern  parts.      (80). 

50.  About  one-third  as  many  are  engaged  in  manufacturing 
as  in  agriculture.  More  machinery,  perhaps,  is  used  in  the  U.  S. 
than  in  any  other  country  of  the  world.  Among  the  most  import- 
ant manufactures  are  iron  work,  flour,  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
boots  and  shoes,  and  leather. 

51.  A  great  proportion  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  commerce. 
It  is  next  to  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  France  in  foreign  com- 
merce, and  the  domestic  commerce  is  very  great.  The  principal 
exports  are  breadstuffs,  cotton,  petroleum,  tobacco,  live  stock  and 
manufactured  articles.  There  are  about  93,500  miles  of  railroad  in 
operation,  and  new  roads  constantly  being  built. 


38  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS  LIBRARY. 

62.  Mining  is  an  important  industry,  and  engages,  it  is  esti- 
mated, 230,000  persons.  Most  of  these  arc  engaged  in  mining 
coal,  of  which  the  U.  S.  has  more  than  any  other  country.  Iron 
is  mined  in  great  quantities  in  Pennsylvania  and  Missouri,  and  in 
the  western  regions  gold  and  silver  are  mined  now  mostly  by 
machinery.  Lead  and  copper  are  also  extensively  mined  in  the 
northern  and  central  parts. 

THE      STATES. 

63.  li  is  customary  to  treat  the  States  in  the  order  of  their 
geographical  position.  For  convenience  we  shall  here  name  them 
in  groups  and  then  discuss  them  in  alphabetical  order.  The  classi- 
fication into  groups  is  that  made  by  Applcton's  Geography. 

54.  "  Classification  of  the  States. — The  38  States  may  be 
arranged,  according  to  their  situation  and  similarity  of  character- 
istics, in  seven  groups: — 

1.  New  England  States. — Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Ver- 
mont, Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut. 

2.  Middle  Atlantic  States. — New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  \Vcst  Virginia. 

3.  Southern  States. — North  Carolina,  South  Carolina. 
Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkansas, 
Tennessee,  Texas. 

4.  Central  States.— Kentucky,  Missouri,  Kansas. 

5.  North  Central  States. — Ohio,  Indiana.  Illinois,  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Nebraska. 

6.  Rocky  Mountain  State. — Colorado. 

7.  Pacific  States. — Oregon,  California,  Nevada. 
Territories. 

In  North  Central  Group. — Dakota. 

With  Pacific  States  and  Rocky  Mt.  State.—  Washington,  Idaho, 
Montana,  Wyoming,  Utah,  New  Mexico,  Arizona. 
With  Southern  States. -  Indian. 

55.  Alabama,  a  very  little  larger  than  North  Carolina.  Gen- 
erally level  in  die  central  and  southern  parts,  mountainous  in  the 
northern  part.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Mobile,  Tombigbee, 
Alabama,  Chattahoochee,  and  Tennessee.  Mobile  Bay,  the  prin- 
cipal indentation.  Long  summers  and  mild  winters;  warmer  in 
the  southern  part.  One  of  the  leading  cotfow-growing  States;  coal, 
iron,  granite,  marble.  Agriculture  the  leading  industry.  Mont- 
gomcrw  the  capital  in  the  central  part,  Mobile,  largest  city,  on 
Mobile  Bay,  and    one  of  tin   great  ports  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

56.  Arkansas. — Low,  level  and  swampy  in  eastern  part,  hilly 
in  central,  and  mountainous  in  the  western  part.  Little  -mailer  than 
Wisconsin.  Principal  rivers,  Mississippi  and  Arkansas.  Mild 
climate.      Cotton  and    corn    the   staples.      Coal,    iron,   zinc,    copper 

.md  lead.     Valuable  timber.     Agriculture,  leading  industry.    Lit- 


GEOGRAPHY.  39 

tie  Rock,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  on  Arkansas  R.,  central  part. 
Hot  Springs,  a  place  of  resort. 

57.  California. — Next  to  Texas  the  largest  of  the  U.  S.;more 
than  five  times  as  large  as  Indiana;  144  times  as  large  as  Rhode 
Island.  Mountainous;  principal  mountains,  Sierra  Nevada  and 
Coast  Range;  principal  peaks,  Mt.  Whitney  (15,000  ft.)  and  Mt. 
Shasta  (14,442  ft.)  The  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  the  prin- 
cipal rivers.  Lakes  Tulare  and  Takoe.  Extensive  coast  line  but 
comparatively  few  important  indentations,  the  harbor  of  San  Fran- 
cisco being  the  principal.  Climate  peculiar  and  varied;  except  on 
the  high  mountains,  sub-tropical;  two  seasons,  the  wet  and  the  dry. 
"Produces  more  gold,  quicksilver,  wine,  xvool  and  barley  than  any 
other  State."  Wheat  a  staple,  and  a  principal  export.  Remarkable 
for  the  size  and  excellence  of  its  fruits  and  vegetables.  Agriculture 
and  mining  the  leading  industries.  Sacramento  the  capital.  San 
Francisco  the  metropolis.  Some  of  the  grandest  scenery  in  the 
world.  Waterfalls  1,300  ft.  in  height.  Trees  300  ft.  high  and  40 
ft.  in  diameter.  The  Yosemire  Valley  is  famous  for  the  grandeur 
and  beauty  of  its  scenery.  A  great  many  Chinese  in  San  Fran- 
cisco and  other  parts  of  the  State. 

58.  Colorado. — A  little  larger  than  Nevada,  a  little  more  than 
twice  the  size  of  Arkansas.  High  plateau  the  eastern  half,  the 
western  half  mountainous;  Rocky  Mts.;  "from  Mt.  Lincoln  axe 
visible  200  peaks  nearly  13,000  ft.  high  and  about  2^  of  14,000  or 
over."  Head  waters  of  the  Rio  Grande,  vlrkausas,  Platte,  Color- 
ado and  Kansas  rivers.  Twin  Lakes  near  Leadville  a  place  of 
resort.  Climate  dry  and  healthy.  Cattle  and  sheep  ;  silver,  gold 
and  almost  every  valuable  mineral.  Grazing  and  mining  the 
principal  industries.  Denver  the  capital  and  largest  city;  Lead- 
ville over  10,000  ft.  above  sea  level,  a  city  of  marvelously  rapid 
growth  in  the  midst  of  rich  mines  of  gold  and  silver. 

59.  Connecticut. — Smallest  of  the  States  except  Rhode  Island 
and  Delaware.  Beautifully  diversified  with  hills  and  valleys; 
White  Mts.  and  Green  Mts.  prolonged  into  the  State.  Principal 
river,  the  Connecticut;  many  smaller  streams  furnishing  water 
power.  Good  harbors  on  Long  /stand  Sound.  Extremes  of 
climate,  long,  cold  winters,  hot  summers.  Manufacturing  the 
leading  industry ;  greater  variety  of  manufactures  than  any  other 
State;  rubber  goods,  hardware,  clocks  and  sewing  machines  of 
special  importance;  commerce  extensive.  Hartford,  the  capital. 
New  Haven  formerly  one  of  the  capitals,  the  largest  city  and  scat 
of  Tale  College. 

60.  Delaware. — Smallest  State  except  Rhode  Island.  Mostly 
level  and  sandy.  Delaware  Ray  forms  greater  pari  of  coast  line. 
Noted  for  fruit  growing.  Agriculture  and  manufacturing  lead- 
ing pursuits.      Dover,  the  capital,    Wilmington  the  only    large   city. 


40  77:. ! (  HERS'  AND  S Tl  DEN  IS'  A ,'/»'/,'. I R  V. 

noted  for  its  manufacture   of  machinery,    railroad   cars,   gunpowder 
and  for  ship-building. 

61.  Florida. — A  little  larger  than  Georgia.  A  long,  narrow 
peninsula,  surface  generally  low  and  level;  swampy.  An  exten- 
sive morass  called  the  everglades,  in  the  southern  part,  overgrown 
with  cypress  trees.  Principal  rivers,  the  Appalachicola  and  Su- 
wanee.  Lake  Okeechobee  in  southern  part,  and  many  small  lakes  in 
the  eastern.  More  coast  line  than  any  other  .State;  Appalachee 
Bay  and  Tampa  Bay  the  largest  indentations.  Climate,  sub-trop- 
ical, moist.  Cotton,  sugar,  rice;  oranges,  lemons  and  other  trop- 
ical fruits  ;  and  sponges,  turtles,  cigars,  cedar  and  live  oak  exported. 
Tallahassee,  the  capital,  Jacksonville,  largest  city,  at  Key  West  a 
U.  S.  naval  station,  St.  Augustine  the  oldest  city  in  the  U.  S.  (1565). 

62.  Georgia. — A  little  smaller  than  Florida.  Low  on  the 
coast,  higher  and  hilly  in  the  central  part  and  mountainous  in  the 
northern.  Principal  rivers,  Chattahoochee,  Flint,  Altamaha  and 
Savannah.  Comparatively  small  extent  of  coast  line.  Climate 
hot  and  damp  on  the  coast,  mild  and  delightful  in  the  interior. 
Cotton,  corn,  rice,  sweet  potatoes /  gold,  coal,  iron  and  statuary  mar- 
hie  in  the  mountainous  region.  Agriculture  and  manufacturing, 
leading  pursuits.  Atlanta, the  capital  and  largest  city,  Savannah 
an  important  seaport  and  second  cotton  port  of  the  U.  S.  "The 
most  populous  and  flourishing  of  the  Southern  States." 

63.  Illinois.  --Very  little  larger  than  Iowa,  not  quite  as  large 
a-  Michigan.  Generally  level,  essentially  a  prairie  State.  The 
Mississippi  l\.  forms  its  entire  western  boundary,  the  Ohio  its 
southern,  and  the  Wabash  part  of  its  eastern;  Illinois,  Kaskaskia 
and  Rock  Rivers  are  important  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi.  Lake 
Michigan  washes  the  northeast  corner.  Climate  somewhat  on  ex- 
tremes, cold  winters  and  hot  summers,  yet  healthy.  .Stands  at  the 
head  in  the  production  of  corn,  wheat  and  oats;  among  the  first  in 
livestock;  coal  and  lead  also  found.  Agriculture  the  leading  in- 
dustry; stands  high  in  manufactures.  Springfield,  the  capital, 
noted  lor  manufactures  and  live  stock  trade  and  has  a  line  State 
House;  Chicago,  the  largest  city  and  the  metropolis  of  the  North- 
west, with  a  population  of  half  a  million,  is  second  only  to  New 
York  in  commerce,  the  greatest  grain  and  live  stock  market  and 
pork  packing  city  in  the  world,  the  center  of  1  \  railroads,  has  2,300 
acres  in  public  parks,  and  an  extensive  system  of  boulevards,  the 
finesl  hotels  of  any  city  in  the  world;  in  1S71  the  entire  business 
part  was  destroyed  by  fire,  hut  soon  rebuilt  more  elegantly  than 
before;  is  supplied  with  water  from  Lake  Michigan  by  means  of 
two  tunnels  2  miles  in  length;  Quincy  and  Peoria  are  next  in  size 
to  Chicago.  Illinois  has  more  miles  of  railroad  than  any  other 
State. 

64.     Indiana. — About  one-third  the  size  of  Nevada.     Generally 
level,  undulating  and  hilly  in  the  southern    part,    a    great    extent    of 


GEOGRAPHr.  41 

prairie,  but  a  considerable  part  covered  with  dense  growth  of  tim- 
ber when  first  settled.  The  Ohio  R.  forms  its  southern  boundary, 
and  the  Wabash  part  of  its  western;  White  R,  an  important  trib- 
utary of  the  Wabash;  Lake  Michigan  washes  its  northwestern 
corner.  Climate  similar  to  Illinois.  Wheat,  cor??,  cattle  and  hogs, 
hard  wood,  lumber/  coal.  Agriculture  leading  industry;  manu- 
facturing, mining  and  stock  raising  also  considerable.  J??dia??ap- 
olis,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  "the  largest  city  in  the  Union 
not  on  navigable  waters;"  an  elegant  State  House  in  process  of 
erection;  Eva??sville  next  in  size,  on  the  Ohio  R.,  has  an  extensive 
trade;  Ft.  Wayne,  the  third  city,  noted  for  manufactures.  The 
southern  part  of  the  State  contains  many  caves,  among  which  Wy- 
andotte equals  if  not  excels  the  famous  Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky. 

65.  Iowa. — Not  quite  so  large  as  Illinois.  Essentially  a  prairie- 
State,  undulating.  Lies  between  the  two  great  rivers,  the  Missis- 
sippi on  the  east  and  the  Missouri  on  the  west;  Cedar,  Ioxva  and 
Des  Moines  Rivers  are  important  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi. 
Climate  similar  to  Illinois  but  colder  in  the  northern  part;  very 
healthv.  Ranks  among  the  first  in  cor??,  wheat  and  oats/  hogs 
and  cattle/  coal,  lead,  gyps?????.  Agric?ilt?irc  the  leading  industry. 
No  large  cities,  but  many  which  are  growing  rapidly.  Des  Moines 
the  capital  and  largest  city,  has  a  fine  State  House  in  process  of 
erection;  Dubuque,  Davc??port,  B??rli>?gtoii  and  Keokuk  are  im- 
portant places.  Scarcely  an  acre  of  Iowa  but  is  capable  of  culti- 
vation. 

66.  Kansas. — More  than  twice  as  large  as  Ohio.  A  prairie 
State,  almost  level.  The  Missouri  R.  forms  its  northeastern  bound- 
ary. The  Arka??sas  R.  flows  through  the  State;  the  Ka?/sas  R., 
with  many  important  tributaries,  flows  into  the  Missouri.  Climate- 
dry,  rather  mild,  and  healthy;  much  wind.  Wheat,  cor??  and  other 
grains;  coal,  lead,  li??iesto??e  and  salt/  cattle  and  hogs.  Agric?//- 
ture  and  stock  raisi>?g  the  leading  industries.  Yopcka  the  capital, 
Leavenworth  the  largest  city. 

67.  Kentucky. — Not  so  large  as  Virginia.  Mountainous  in 
the  southeast,  hilly  in  the  middle  part,  and  an  undulating  plain  in 
the  west.  The  Ohio  R.  forms  its  northern  and  most  of  its  western 
boundary,  and  the  Mississippi  washes  a  small  portion  of  its  west- 
ern extremity ;  the  Big  Sandy  separates  it  from  Virginia,  the 
Cun?bcrla??d  and  Tc>i??csscc  Rivers  flow  through  the  southwestern 
extremity.  Climate,  rather  mild.  Stands  first  in  production  of 
tobacco;  hc???p  and  Jlax  largely  produced;  corn  and  -.cheat;  live 
stock ;  noted  for  thoro?ighbred  horses,  mules  and  cattle ;  coal,  iron, 
li???estone.  Leading  industries  agriculture  and  stock  raising. 
Fra??kfort  the  capital,  Louisville,  on  the  Ohio  R.,  largest  city  and 
commercial  metropolis.  Covington  and  Newport,  opposite  Cin- 
cinnati, extensive  manufactures.  The  Mammoth  Cave  has  a  world- 
wide fame. 


42  TEA(  HERS  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRARY. 

68.  Louisiana. — A  little  larger  than  Ohio,  and  not  half  as 
large  as  Minnesota.  Low,  and  in  some  places  swamp}  ;  generally 
level.  The  Mississippi  R..  forms  pari  of  the  eastern  boundary, 
the  Red  R.  is  a  principal  tributary,  and  the  Sabine  separates  it  in 
part  from  Texas;  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  are  subject  to  over- 
flow, and  are  protected  by  hanks  of  earth  called  levees.  Lake 
Ponchartrain  is  in  the  southern  part;  The  coast  on  the  (iulf  of 
Mexico  has  numerous  indentations  and  projections,  among  which 
arc  I  'ermillion  Pay  and  Atchafalaya  Ray,  and  the  Delta  of  the 
Mississippi^  which  is  a  mass  of  land  built  up  bv  the  material  car- 
ried down  by  this  mighty  stream.  The  climate  is  hot  and  moist, 
and  sometimes  unhealthy.  The  great  sugar  producing  State; 
ranks  high  in  rice  and  cotton;  oranges,  figs  and  other  tropical 
fruits;  some  salt,  sulphur  and  gypsum.  .  Igriculture  and  commerce 
the  leading  industries.  New  Orleans  the  capital,  and  commercial 
metropolis  of  the  South,  the  greatest  cotton  market  of  the  world, 
greatest  sugar  market  of  the  U.  S.,  and  the  third  cityin  commercial 
importance.      The  State  is  divided  into  parishes  instead  of  counties. 

69.  Maine.  Larger  than  all  the  other  New  England  States 
put  together.  Much  diversified;  isolated  mountain  peaks  in  north- 
ern part,  Aft.  Katahdin  (5,385  ft.)  being  the  highest.  Principal 
rivers,  the  Poiobscot,  Kennebec,  Androscoggin,  Saco,  St.  Croix  and 
St,  John.  Numerous  lakes  ("  The  Lake  State")  one-tenth  of  it- 
surface  covered  with  water;  the  principal  lakes,  Moosehead,  Afoose- 
tocmagantic,  Chesuncook,  Sebago  and  Schoodic.  Extensive  coast 
line  with  numerous  indentations  ("Hundred-harbored  Maine"),  the 
principal  of"  which  are  Caseo  Bay,  Penobscot  Haw  and  Passama- 
quoddy  Bay.  The  climate  somewhat  severe,  long,  cold  winters 
and  hot  summers.  Lumber,  hemlock  bark;  potatoes,  rye,  barley, 
buckwheat y  slate,  limestone,  granite.  Leading  industries,  ship- 
building, fishing,  lumberings  manufacturing.  Augusta,  the  capi- 
tal, Portland  largest  city  and  prominent  seaport,  Bangor  noted  as 
a  lumber  market,  Bath  for  shipbuilding. 

70.  Maryland. —  A  little  larger  than  Vermont,  and  about  one- 
third  the  size  of  Indiana.  Level  in  the  eastern  part,  mountainous 
in  the  western.  The  Potomac  /»'.  separates  it  from  Virginia, 
and  the  Susquehanna  crosses  its  northern  border.  It  has  a  verj 
irregular  coast  line,  a  great  arm  of  the  sea.  the  Chesapeake  Pay 
cuts  ii  nearly  in  two;  capes  Charles  an  1  /fairy  project  into  the 
entrance  of  the  bay.  Climate  mild  and  agreeable.  Corn,  -wheat, 
tobacco,  coal  and  iron.  The  shores  and  waters  of  the  Chesapeake 
furnish  shad  and  herring,  oysters,  terrapins  and  wild  ducks. 
Leading  industries  Agriculture,  manufacturing,  and  commerce, 
cigars  and  tobacco,  flour,  canned  fruits  and  oysters,  refined  sugar, 
manufactured  and  exported.  Annapolis,  the  capital,  Baltimore  the 
largesl  city,  great  market  for  "flour,  tobacco,  canned  fruits  and 
oyster*. 


GBOGRAPHr.  43 

71.     Massachusetts.- — Nearly  six  times  as  large  as  Rhode  Island. 
Low  and  level  on  the  coast,  mountainous  in  the  western  part.     The 
Connecticut  R.  crosses  it  west   of    the   center,   the    Merrimac   runs 
along  the  northeast  border.     It  has  a  comparatively  great  extent  ot 
coast  line,  the  principal  indentations  being,  Massachusetts  Bay,  Cape 
Cod  Bay  and  Buzzard's  Bay;    Cape  Cod  and  Cape  Ann,  are  im- 
portant projections,  and  Martha's    I  "nteyard  and  Nantucket  islands 
lie  off  the  coast.     Not   naturally   well  adapted  to  agriculture,  yet  is 
cultivated  as  carefully  as  a  garden,  and  is  made  very  productive, yel 
does  not  furnish  enough  to  feed  its  own  population.      Manufacturing  ( 
and  commerce  the   leading  industries,  fishing  largely   engaged   in; 
third    in  manufactures,  and   second   in    commerce.      Boston  is   the 
capital,  largest  city,  and   a  celebrated  literary  center;  Cambridge,  a 
suburb  of  Boston,  is  the  seat  of  Harvard  University,  and  the  residence 
of  many   noted   literary   men;  Lowell  is  noted  for   manufacture  of 
cotton  goods,  Lynn  of  shoes,  Salem  of  leather,  Springfield   has  a 
U.  S.  Arsenal.    "The  most  thickly  peopled  of  all  the  States. 

72.  Michigan.  A  little  larger  than  Illinois.  Two  peninsulas, 
the  lower  formed  by  Lakes  Huron,  St.  Clair  and  Erie  on  the  east 
and  Michigan  on  the  west,  the  upper  by  Lake  Superior  on  the  north 
and  Michigan  on  the  south;  the  upper  is  hilly  or  mountainous,  the 
lower  generally  level.  The  Muskegon,  Grand  and  Manistee 
Rivers  flow  into  L.  Michigan,  the  Saginaw  and  Flint  into  Lake 
Huron;  the  St.  Croix  flows  from  L.  Huron  into  L.  St.  Clair,  and 
the  Detroit  R.  from  L.  St.  Clair  into  L.  Eric;  these  rivers  and 
lakes  separate  the  State  from  Canada.  Saginaw  Bay  is  a  large  in- 
dentation from  L.  Huron.  Climate  milder  than  other  States  in  the 
same  latitude  on  account  of  the  proximity  of  the  lakes.  lid/eat, 
potatoes,  apples,  peaches;  pine  lumber,  maple  sugar,  wool;  copper, 
iron,  salt.  Agriculture,  lumbering,  mining,  fishing,  arc  leading- 
industries;  manufacturing  and  commerce  considerable.  Lansing  the 
capital,  Detroit^  largest  city  and  noted  for  its  commerce. 

73.  Minnesota.  Larger  than  Kansas.  High  table  land,  inclu- 
ding in  the  northern  part  the  "  Height  of  Land "  or  water  shed 
which  separates  the  Mississippi  system  from  the  waters  flowing  into 
Hudson's  Bay.  The  "Father  of  Waters"  here  lakes  its  rise  in 
Lake  Itasca;  the  Red  River  of  the  North  forms  pan  of  the  boundary 
line  separating  it  from  Dakota.  Like  Maine,  the  State  contains 
many  lakes;  Lake  of  the  Woods,  and  Rainy  Lake  form  part  of  the 
boundary  between  it  and  British  America.  A  small  portion  borders 
on  L.  Superior.  The  climate  is  dry  and  cold,  long  winters,  but  the 
•cold  is  stead v  and  not  disagreeable;  many  who  suffer  from  pulmo- 
nary disease  seek  this  country.  Elk,  deer  and  fur-bearing  animals 
abound;  fish  are  plentiful  in  "the  rivers  and  lakes;  one  of  the  leading 
States  in  wheat  and  oats;  timber  in  great  abundance.  Agriculture 
and  lumbering  the  leading  industries.  St.  L^airi  the  capital  and 
largest  city,  Minneapolis  at  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi  is  noted  for  its  manufacture  of  flour  and  lumber. 


44  TEAL  HERS    AND  STUDENTS    LIBRARY. 

74.  Mississippi.  A  little  Larger  than  New  York.  Generally 
level,  and  low  in  the  south  and  west  and  subject  to  overflow.  The 
Mississippi  R.  forms  the  whole  western  boundary,  the  Yazoo  and 
Big  Black  being  its  principal  tributaries.  The  Pearl  R.  forms  a  part 
of  the  boundary  between  it  and  Louisiana,  and  flow-  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  It  has  a  small  extent  of  coast  line  on  the  Gulf.  The 
climate  is  hot  and  rather  unhealthy  along  the  Mississippi  in  the 
southern  part,  and  more  pleasant  in  the  northern  part.  Takes  the 
lead  in  cotton  growing;  corn  and  sweet  potatoes.  Agriculture,  the 
leading  industry,  'jfacksou,  the  capital,  Natchez  on  the  Mississippi, 
an  important  trading  point,  also  Vicksburg  which  is  also  noted  for 
the  famous  siege  during  the  Civil  War. 

75.  Missouri.  Nearly  twice  the  size  of  Indiana,  and  nearly  as 
large  as  all  the  New  England  States.  In  northern  and  western  part 
it  is  a  rolling  prairie,  in  southeastern  part  rough  and  mountainous; 
the  Ozark  Mts.  extend  through  the  State  south  of  the  center.  The 
Mississippi  R.  forms  its  entire  eastern  boundary,  and  the  Missouri 
forms  oai't  of  its  western  boundarv,  and  then  divides  the  State  into 
two  unequal  portions;  the  Osage  is  an  important  tributary  of  the 
Missouri.  The  climate  is  mild,  the  summers  long  and  warm,  the 
winters  never  severe.  Great  natural  resources;  com,  zvheat,  tobacco, 
hemp  and  grapes ,'  next  to  California  in  production  of  wine/  "  the 
Iron  State,"  iron,  lead,  coal,  also  copper,  tit/,  zi>ic,  cobalt,  nickel,  salt, 
marble  and  granite.  Agriculture  and  mining  the  leading  industries, 
manufactures  increasing,  yefferson  City,  the  capital;  St.  Louis 
the  largest  city  and  the  metropolis  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  is  the 
terminus  of  20  railroads,  the  third  city  in  manufacturing  and  first  in 
quantity  of  flour  produced;  Kansas  City  is  a  growing  city  on  the 
western  border. 

76.  Nebraska.  A  little  more  than  twice  as  large  as  Kentucky. 
An  undulating  prairie.  The  Missouri  R.  forms  its  eastern  boundary 
and  the  Platte  R.  traverses  it  from  west  to  east.  Climate,  similar  to 
Kansas,  perhaps  a  little  cooler,  plenty  of  wind.  Com,  wheat,  cattle  ; 
timber  scarce  but  trees  are  being  planted  in  great  numbers.  Agricul- 
ture and  grazing  the  leading  industries.  Lincoln  the  capital, 
Omaha,  the  largest  city  and  a  growing  commercial  center. 

77.  Nevada.  Nearly  the  size  of  Colorado.  A  Aery  high 
plateau  with  an  average  height  of  4,000  ft.;  a  number  of  short 
mountain  ranges,  among  which  are  the  Humboldt  Mts.  The  Colo- 
rado K.  forms  a  small  portion  of  the  southeastern  boundary;  some 
rivers  in  the  .State,  which  flow  into  salt  lakes  and  are  lost  in  the  samls. 
Climate  dry.  Much  of  the  country  is  an  almost  barren  alkaline 
plain;  but  there  are  some  rich  pastures,  noted  as  having  the  richest 
Silver  mines  in  the  world;  lead  also  abundant.  Mining  the  leading 
industry;  stock  raising  largely  followed.  Carson  City  the  capital, 
Virginia  City  the  metropolis. 

78.  New  Hampshire.      A   little  larger  than   New  Jersey,  not 


GEOGRAPHT.  45 

one-fourth  as  large  as  Ohio.  The  northern  part  mountainous, 
abounding  in  beautiful   scenery.     The   White  Mis.   are   noted,  Aft. 

Washington  being  the  highest  peak  (6,288  ft.).  The  Connecticut 
R.  separates  it  from  Vermont;  the  Mcrrimac  R.  noted  as  furnishing 
water  power  which  moves  more  machinery  than  any  river  in 
the  world ;  the    Piscataqua     also  noted  for  its  water  power.     Lake 

Winuipiscogee  is  in  the  eastern  part.  The  State  has  but  lS  miles  of 
coast  line  and  one  good  harbor,  Portsmouth.  Climate  similar  to 
Maine  and  Vermont.  Dairy  products  important.  Leading  industry, 
manufacturing;  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  boots  and  shoes,  and  iron 
ware  among  the  principal  manufactures.  Concord,  the  capital,  a 
manufacturing  place;  Manchester,  the  largest  city  and  noted  for 
manufactures;  Portsmouth,  the  one  seaport,  noted  for  commerce. 

79.  New  Jersey.  Nearly  four  times  as  large  as  Delaware. 
Hilly  or  mountainous  in  the  northern  part,  level  and  low  in  the 
southern  part.  The  Delaxvare  R.  separates  it  from  Pennsylvania. 
It  has  comparatively  a  large  extent  of  coast  line,  the  principal  inden- 
tations being,  New  York  Bay  and  Delaware  Bay,  separating  it  from 
Delaware.  Climate,  rather  mild.  Known  as  the  "  Garden  State" 
producing  great  quantities  of  vegetables  and  fruits  for  which  New- 
York  and  Philadelphia  furnish  a  good  market;  marl,  iron  and  zinc. 
Afarket  gardening  and  manufacturing,  the  leading  industries. 
Trenton,  the  capital,  "  produces  more  crockery  than  any  other  city 
in  America;"  Newark,  the  largest  city,  noted  for  manufacture  of 
India  rubber  goods,  saddlery,  carriages,  jewelry,  etc. ;  Paterson  for 
manufacture  of  locomotives,  and  is  first  in  production  of  silk  goods. 

80.  New  York. — Nearly  as  large  as  Mississippi.  Mountainous 
and  hilly  in  eastern  and  northern  parts,  elevated  and  uneven  in  the 
western  part.  The  Hudson  R.  traverses  nearly  the  whole  length 
of  the  State  from  north  to  south,  the  Mohawk  a  prominent  tribu- 
tary. The  Niagara  R.  the  outlet  of  L.  Erie  and  the  inlet  of  L. 
Ontario  and  the  St.  Lawrence  the  outlet  of  L.  Ontario,  these  rivers 
and  lakes  forming  the  northwestern  boundary  separating  it  from 
Canada.  L.  Champlain  separates  it  partly  from  Vermont;  numer- 
ous smaller  lakes  are  in  the  interior  of  the  western  part,  among 
which  are  Oneida,  Cayuga  and  Seneca.  It  has  a  very  small  ex- 
tent of  coast  line,  but  the  harbor  of  New  York  is  the  best  on  the 
Atlantic  coast;  Long  Island  and  several  smaller  islands  belong  to 
the  State.  Climate  similar  to  New  England  States,  perhaps  milder. 
Produces  more  hay,  potatoes,  buckwheat  and  dairy  products  than 
any  other  State;  large  quantities  of  corn,  wheat,  barley  and  rye  are 
also  raised.  Leading  industries,  agriculture,  manufactures,  com- 
?nerce;  it  stands  at  the  head  in  the  extent  of  its  manufactures  and 
commerce. 

Albany,  the  capital;  New  York  City,  the  metropolis  of  the 
New  World,  is  second  only  to  London  in  commercial  importance;  it 
is  situated  mainly  on  Manhattan  f stand;  it  is  supplied   with   water 


46  TEACHERS1  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART.- 

from  Croton  R.  by  an  aqueduct  40  miles  in  length;  ships  of  all 
nations  may  lie  seen  in  its  harbor;  Broadway  is  one  of  the  finest 
streets  in  the  world;  Central  Park  covers  S62  acres.  "It  is  the 
center  of  the  great  railroad  companies,  insurance  companies,  manu- 
facturing companies  and  banking  institutions  of  our  country." 
Brooklyn  the  third  city  in  the  Union  in  size  is  situated  opposite 
New  York  on  Long  Island,  and  is  noted  for  its  extensive  manufac- 
tures and  fine  churches.  Buffalo  is  the  third  city  in  the  State,  situa- 
ted on  L.  Erie.  Rochester,  Troy,  Syracuse  and  Utica  are 
important  places.  Niagara  Palls  noted  the  world  over;  the  Hud- 
son R.  noted  for  its  beautiful  scenery. 

81.  North  Carolina. — Very  nearly  as  large  as  Alabama.  Low 
and  swampy  on  the  coast;  mountainous  in  the  western  part;  the 
Alleghany,  Blue  Ridge  and  Black  Mts.  parts  of  the  Appalachian 
system.  The  Roanoke,  Tar,  Cape  Fear  and  JVeuse  arc  the  principal 
rivers.  The  coast  line  is  extensive,  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  sounds 
the  principal  indentations;  Cape  Ilattcras  the  most  easterly  j^rojec- 
tion.  Climate  mild.  Sweet  potatoes,  corn,  cotton,  tobacco,  peanuts, 
pitch,  tar,  turpentine  and  rosin  arc  peculiar  products;  shad,  and  her- 
ring fisheries  important ;  gold,coal  ami  iron.  Leading  industry,  agri- 
culture/ lumbering  and  manufacturing;  the  products  of  the  pine  are 
important.  Raleigh,  the  capital,  Wilmington  the  largest  city  and 
an  important  seaport  "is  the  greatest  market  in  the  world  for  naval 
stores. " 

82.  Ohio. — Nearly  40,000  sq.  mi.  Hilly  in  the  southern  and 
eastern  part,  level  in  the  northwestern  part.  When  settled  covered 
with  dense  growth  of  timber.  The  Ohio  R.  forms  its  southern 
boundary;  the  Miami,  Muskingum  and  Scioto  are  tributaries;  the 
Maumee  and  Cuyahoga  run  north  into  L.  Erie  which  forms  its 
principal  northern  boundary.  Second  only  to  Pennsylvania  in  pro- 
duction of  coat,  iron,  salt,  petroleum  and  building  stone ;  valuable 
hard  wood  lumber /  flax,  barley,  wheat,  corn,  hay,  potatoes,  orchard 
products, grapes,  tobacco  and  wool.  Leading  industries,  agricul- 
ture, mining,  stock  raising  and  manufacturing /  the  principal 
manufactures  are  agricultural  implements,  flour,  whisky,  leather 
and  iron  ware.  Columbus,  the  capital,  lias  aline  .State  House.  Cin- 
cinnati, the  metropolis,  noted  for  its  beautiful  suburbs,  manufac- 
tures, inland  commerce  and  pork  packing  establishments;  Cleve- 
land, the   second  city,  is   an    important   place.      Toledo,    Dayton   and 

■  S priii g field  aw  flourishing   places. 

83.  Oregon.  -More  than  twice  as  large  as  New  York.  The 
eastern  part  a  high  plateau,  the  western  mountainous,  with  many 
fertile  valleys;  the  Cascade  range.  The  Columbia  R.  forms  a 
great  part  of  the  boundary  between  it  and  Washington  T.,  the 
Snake  or  Lewis  A',  an  important  branch,  separates  it  partly  from 
Idaho.  Many  lakes  in  the  plateau  region.  Large  extent  of  coast 
line,  but   few   indentations  of  importance.     Climate,  very  mild   for 


GEOGRAPHV.  47 

the  high  latitude;  perhaps  the  healthiest  State  in  the  Union.  Wheat 
the  staple  grain;  oafs,  fruits,  lumber,  copper,  iron;  live  stock. 
The  leading  industries,  agriculture,  grazing  and  lumbering. 
Canning  salmon  which  are  caught  in  the  Columbia  R.  is  an  im- 
portant business.  Salem,  the  capital,  Portland,  the  largest  city,  is 
connected  with  San  Francisco  by  line  of  steamers. 

84.  Pennsylvania. — Smaller  than  New  York.  The  greater 
part  of  the  State  is  mountainous,  the  great  Appalachian  system 
spreads  over  about  one-fourth  of  the  State  in  nearly  parallel  ridges. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Susquehanna  crossing  the  State  from 
north  to  south.  The  Delaware,  separating  it  from  New  Jersey  and 
New  York  on  the  east,  the  Ohio  formed  of  the  Alleghany  and  the 
Monongahela  in  the  western  part.  Lake  Erie  washes  the  north- 
west corner;  wheat  and  com  the  staple  grains;  rye,  hay,  tobacco, 
orchard  and  dairy  products;  in  coal  and  iron  it  stands  at  the  head; 
petroleum,  slate,  marble,  copper,  z'nie,  plumbago,  lead,  salt.  Prin- 
cipal industries,  mining,  agriculture,  manufacturing,  commerce, 
llarrisburg,  the  capital;  Philadelphia,  the  largest  city  and  the 
second  city  in  the  U.  S.  in  size  and  stands  first  in  manufactures.  It 
was  founded  by  Wm.  Penn  and  is  laid  out  on  an  ample  scale.  Fair- 
mount  Park  is  famous,  and  Independence  Hall  where  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence  was  signed;  it  is  supplied  with  water  from  the 
Schuylkill  R.  Pittsburgh  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio  is  a  noted  manu- 
facturing city  and  second  in  size;  is  the  greatest  petroleum  market 
in  the  world. 

85.  Rhode  Island. — The  smallest  of  the  States;  Texas  would 
make  z  io  such  States  and  have  territory  left.  The  surface  is  undu- 
lating. Mt.  Hope  the  highest  elevation,  is  only  300  ft.  above  sea 
level.  It  has  a  comparatively  great  coast  line,  with  Narragansctt 
/Jay  as  the  principal  indentation.  Manufacturing  the  leading  in- 
dustry;  a  great  variety  of  manufactures,  but  the  most  extensive  are 
those  of  cotton  and  xvoolen  goods.  Providence  and  Newport  are 
the  capitals;  the  former  is  the  second  city  in  New  England  and 
noted  for  its  manufactures,  the  latter  is  noted  as  a  fashionable  water- 
ing place. 

86.  South  'Carolina. —  A  little  larger  than  Indiana.  Low  and 
level  along  the  coast,  higher  and  more  uneven  in  the  central  and 
northwestern  parts.  The  Savannah  R.  separates  it  from  Georgia, 
the  Sautee  and  the  Pedee  are  rivers  running  through  the  State.  The 
coast  line  i>  extensive,  with  no  great  indentations.  Climate,  warm 
temperate  or  semi-tropical.  Produces  mote  rice  than  any  other 
State ;  cotton  of  two  kinds,  upland  and  Sea  Island,  the  latter  with  a 
long,  silky  fiber;  agriculture  the  leading  pursuit.  Columbia,  the 
capital,  Charleston  the  largest  city  and  an  important  cotton  port. 

87.  Tennessee.  — Nearly  the  size  of  Pennsylvania.  Distinctly 
divided  into  three  physical  sections,  Bast  Tennessee,  mountainous; 
Middle    Tennessee,   hilly;    West    Tennessee,  generally  level.     The 


48  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

Mississippi  forms  its  entire  western  boundary,  the  Tennessee  R. 
crosses  the  State  twice,  the  Cumberland  flows  into  the  State  and  out 
of  it  again.  Climate,  very  mild  and  delightful.  Corn,  cotton, 
hemp  and  tobacco  ;  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs ;  coal,  iron,  cop- 
per, salt,  salt  peter.  Leading  industries  agriculture,  mining  and 
grazing.  Nashville,  the  capital,  Memphis,  the  largest  city,  a  cot- 
ton and  grain  market  on  the   Mississippi. 

88.  Texas. — The  largest  State  in  the  Union;  it  might  be  carved 
up  into  8  States  each  the  size  of  Indiana  and  have  nearly  enough 
territory  left  to  make  three  States  the  size  of  Rhode  Island.  Con- 
sists  of  three  great  terraces,  the  fust  along  the  coast  low  and  level, 
the  second  hilly  or  high  rolling  prairie,  third  a  high  table  land  over 
2000  ft.  and  forming  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mts.  The  Rio  Grande 
separates  it  from  Mexico,  the  Sabine  from  Louisiana;  the  Colorado 
the  Brazos  and  Trinity  are  large  rivers  running  from  the  interior 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  has  a  great  extent  of  coast  line  on  the 
Gulf,  the  principal  indentations  being  Galveston  Bay,  Matagorda 
Ray  and  Corpus  Christi  Bay.  The  climate  on  the  coast  is  moist 
and  semi-tropical,  on  the  second  and  third  terraces  it  is  dry  ami 
healthy;  cotton,  rice,  sugar  and  tobacco  on  the  first  terrace;  corn, 
wheat  and  other  grains  on  the  second  terrace;  cattle,  horses  and 
sheep  on  the  second  and  third  terraces;  stands  at  the  head  in  cattle 
raising.  Leading  industries,  grazing  and  agriculture.  Austin  the 
capital,  Galveston,  the  largest  city  and  chief  cotton  port. 

89.  Vermont. — Larger  than  New  Hampshire,  smaller  than 
Maryland.  Mountainous,  the  Green  Mts.  extend  through  the  State. 
The  Connecticut  R.  separates  it  from  New  Hampshire.  Lake 
Champlaiu  lies  between  it  and  New  York,  Lake  Memphremagog 
is  on  the  northern  border.  Maple  sugar,  hay,  oats,  com,  buck- 
wheat and  potatoes  ;  dairy  products,  wool ;  marble,  slate.  Agricul- 
ture and  grazing  the  leading  industries;  manufacturing  receives 
considerable  attention.  Theclimate  rather  severe,  long  cold  winters. 
Montpclier,  the  capital,  Burlington,  the  largest  city. 

90.  Virginia. — A  little  larger  than  Kentucky.  The  eastern 
part  generally  level,  the  western  mountainous.  The  Potomac  R. 
separates  it  from  Maryland,  the  Rappahannock  and  the  yames  are 
important  rivers  in  the  interior.  Has  rather  an  extensive  coast  line 
much  indented  by  the  Chesapeake  Bay  and  smaller  inlets.  Climate 
mild.  Tobacco,  wheat  and  corn;  coal,  iron,  marble,  slate,  salt. 
Agricultur e  the  leading  industry ;  mineral  resources  great  but  not 
ruTly  developed.  Richmond  the  capital  and  largest  city,  has  exten- 
sive tobacco  factories,  Hour  mills  and  iron  works;  Norfolk  and 
Portsmouth  on  the  coast,  are  commercial  cities. 

91.  West  Virginia. — Just  half  the  size  of  Pennsylvania. 
Mountainous  throughout.  The  Ohio  R.  separates  it  from  Ohio  and 
the  Big  Sandy  from  Kentucky.  Corn  and  tobacco;  live  stock; 
petroleum,  salt,  coal,    iron.     Mining  and   agriculture,  leading  in- 


GEOGRAPHY.  49 

dustries.      Wheeling  on  the    Ohio    R.    is    the    capital    and    largest 
city. 

92.  Wisconsin. — A  little  larger  than  Arkansas.  A  prairie 
similar  to  Illinois  in  the  southern  part  and  a  high  plateau  region  in 
the  northern  part.  The  Mississippi  with  its  tributary  St.  Croix 
R.  forms  the  most  of  the  western  boundary;  the  Wisconsin  R.  is 
in  the  interior.  Lake  Michigan  forms  a*  greater  part  of  the  east- 
ern boundary  and  L.  Superior  a  portion  ot'  its  northern  boundary. 
Green  Bay  is  an  important  indentation;  numerous  smaller  lakes 
are  dispersed  through  the  State,  the  largest  of  which  \$>  L.  Winneba- 
go. Climate,  severe  long  winters,  but  the  cold  is  steady  and  conse- 
quently not  so  disagreeable.  Oats,  rye,  barley,  cor//,  potatoes,  hay 
and  hops/  live  stock,  ivool  and  cheese;  lumber;  lead,  iron,  zinc, 
marble.  Industries,  agriculture,  lumbering,  mining,  manufacturing. 
Madison,  the  capital;  Milwaukee,  the  metropolis,  is  a  beautiful  and 
flourishing  city,  a  great  wheat  market. 

THE    TERRITORIES. 

93.  Arizona. — More  than  twice  as  large  as  Michigan.  High 
plateau.  The  Colorado  R.  forms  greater  part  of  western  bound- 
ary, has  a  very  deep  canyon.  Hottest  and  driest  climate  of  any 
part  of  the  U.  S.  Rich  mines  of  silver,  gold,  copper  and  other 
minerals.     Parts  of  it  adapted  to  stock  raising.     Prescott,  capital. 

94.  Alaska. — More  than  one-fifth  as  large  as  all  the  rest  of  the 
U.  S.  The  Yukon  R.  is  a  large  stream  flowing  through  the  center 
of  it.  Important  chiefly  on  account  of  its  Jisheries  and  fur  bearing 
animals.  Timber  and  ice  exported.  Garden  vegetables  may  be 
raised  during  the  sbort  summer.  No  territorial  government 
at  present,  though  a  desire  is  manifested  for  one  and  some  steps  arc- 
being  taking  to  secure  it.  Sitka  is  the  only  town  of  importance. 
A  garrison  is  stationed  there. 

95.  Dakota. — More  than  three  times  as  large  as  New  York. 
A  plateau,  mountainous  in  the  western  part.  Gold  and  other 
minerals  in  the  Black  Hills.  Game  abundant.  Best  wheat  land 
in  the  world.  Destined  to  be  one  of  the  best  agricultural  and 
mining  regions  in  the  U.  S.  Yankton,  the  capital.  Dcadxuood  a 
city  of  rapid  growth  in  the  Black  Hills  country. 

96.  Idaho. —Nearly  as  large  as  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  togeth- 
er. Mountainous,  fertile  valleys.  Gold,  mining  and  stock  raising. 
Boise  City,  the  capital. 

97.  Indian.  -More  than  twice  the  size  of  South  Carolina. 
Set  apart  by  the  U.  S.  government  for  certain  tribes  of  Indians; 
some  of  these  are  civilized  and  cultivate  the  soil,  have  schools, 
churches  and  laws  of  their  own.  The  climate  and  productions 
somewhat  similar  to  Texas. 

98.  Montana. —  More  than  three  times  as  large  as  New   York 


50  TEACHERS1  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 

M  iuntains  and  high  plains.  Adapted  to  grazing  ;  gold, silver,  iron 
and  copper.  Helena,  the  capital.  Virginia  City  an  important 
place. 

99.  New  Mexico. — More  than  three  times  as  large'as  Ohio. 
Mountains  ami  high  plateaus.  Climate  dry  and  hot.  Abundant 
undeveloped  mineral  wealth.  Grazing  the  principal  industry. 
Santa  Fe  the  second  oldest  city  in  the  U.  S.,  the  capital. 

100.  Washington. — A  little  larger  than  Indian  T.  Similar  to 
Oregon  in  its  physical  features  and  climate.  Fine  harbors  on  the 
coast.  Is  destined  to  be  an  important  part  of  the  country  from  its 
internal  resources  and  advantages  tor  commerce.  Olympia  the 
capital. 

101.  Wyoming. — More  than  twice  as  large  as  New  York. 
Mountainous.  Undeveloped  mineral  resources.  Cheyenne  the 
capital.  The  National  Park  which  is  situated  mostly  in  the  north- 
western part,  is  a  tract  of  land  nearly  as  large  as  the  State  of  Con- 
necticut, set  aside  by  the  U.  S.  government  as  a  great  national 
pleasure  ground;  it  contains  magnificent  scenery,  great  geysers  and 
boiling  springs,  great  waterfalls,  in  fact,  more  natural  curiosities  than 
any  tract  of  similar  size  in  the  world. 

102.  Utah.  —More  than  twice  as  largre  as  Louisiana.  High 
plateaus  and  mountains,  much  of  it  barren.  Silver,  copper,  coal. 
Agriculture  carried  on  mostly  by  irrigation.  Inhabited  principally 
by  Mormons,  a  peculiar  religious  sect.  Salt  Lake  City  the  capital. 
Salt  Lake  is  a  large  body  of  salt  water  with  no  outlet. 

103.  District  of  Columbia.— A  tract  containing  64  sq.  miles 
on  the  Potomac  R.  ceded  to  U.  S.  by  Maryland  for  the  location  of 
the  national  capital.  It  is  governed  by  Congress,  through  a  com- 
mittee. Washington  City,  the  capital  of  the  U.  S.  It  has  many 
beautiful  parks  and  the  following  important  buildings:  The  Capitol 
of  white  marble,  covering  314  acres  and  one  of  the  most  imposing 
structures  in  the  world,  the  General  Post  Office,  the  Patent  Office, 
the  Treasury  Building,  the  Smithsonian  Institution  and  Museums, 
the  Naval  Observatory  and  the  Botanical  Gardens. 

DOMINION    OF    CANADA. 

104.  The  Dominion  of  Canada  is  nearly  as.  large  as  the  U.  S.; 
extends  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  It  comprises  the  provinces  of  Ontario, 
Quebec,  Vova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  Prince  Edward  Island, 
British  Columbia  and  Manitoba,  besides  the  District  of  Keewatin 
and  the  great  Northwest  and  Northeast  Territories. 

105.  It  is  under  the  government  of  Great  Britain,  the  chief 
office!'  with  the  title  of  Governor  General  being  appointed  by  the 
British  Sovereign.  It  has  a  Parliament  or  legislative  body,  and 
each  province  has  also    a    Legislature   and    a    chief  officer   styled 


GEOGRAPHY.  51 

Lieutenant  Governor,  who  is  appointed  by  the  Governor  General. 

106.  Ottawa,  the  capital,  is  in  the  province  of  Ontario.  Each 
province  has  its  own  capital. 

107.  The  climate  varies  from  a  cold  temperate  in  the  southern 
part  to  a  frigid  in  the  northern  parts,  which  are  scarcely  inhabited. 
Pop.  about  5,000,000. 

108.  Ontario. — About  twice  the  size  of  Wisconsin.  Lies  just 
north  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Agriculture  and  lumbering ;  wheat 
the  staple;  most  populous  and  important  of  the  provinces. 
Toronto,  the  capital  and  largest  city. 

109.  Quebec. — Larger  than  California.  Lies  just  north  of  St. 
Lawrence  R.  and  Gulf.  Oats,  potatoes,  hay  and  ?naplc  sugar. 
Lumbering  and  agriculture.  Quebec  the  capital  and  oldest  city  of 
the  Dominion,  strongly  fortified;  Montreal  the  largest  city,  noted 
for  its  fine  churches.  People  of  the  province  mostly  of  French 
descent  and  belong  to  the  Catholic  church. 

110.  New  Brunswick. —  Larger  than  West  Virginia.  Lies 
northeast  of  Maine  and  has  an  extensive  coast  line.  Lumbering, 
fishing,  ship  building  and  commerce/  coal.  Frederickton,  the 
capital.     St.  John  the  largest  city. 

111.  Nova  Scotia. — About  twice  the  size  of  Verm6nt.  A 
peninsula  with  many  good  harbors.  The  Bay  of  Fundy  noted  for 
its  extremely  high  tides.  Fishing  and  ship  building.  Coal,  iron, 
and  gold,  gypsum.  Llalifax,  the  capital,  has  one  of  the  best  of 
harbors.      Cape  Breton  Island  is  part  of  Nova  Scotia. 

112.  Prince  Edward  Island. — About  the  size  of  Delaware. 
Lies  between  Cape  Breton  Island  and  New  Brunswick.  Agricul- 
ture, fishing  and  ship  building ;  oats,  potatoes,  wheat   and   barley. 

Charlottetown   the   capital.       The   most   thickly   peopled   and    the 
smallest  of  the  provinces. 

113.  British  Columbia. — The  largest  of  the  provinces,  more 
than  three  times  the  size  of  Ontario.  On  the  Pacific  coast.  Moun- 
tainous. Gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  coal;  furs,  lumber,  fish. 
Climate  mild  for  the  latitude.  Victoria  on  Vancouver's  Island  the 
capital. 

114.  Manitoba. — About  half  as  large  as  New  Brunswick. 
Lies  north  of  Dakota  and  Minnesota.  Lakes  Winnipeg  and  Mani- 
toba penetrate  its  northern  edge.  Excellent  wheat  land.  Winni- 
peg the  capital. 

115.  The  vast  territory  lying  between  the  provinces  and  the 
Arctic  Ocean  once  belonged  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  who 
carried  on  an  immense  trade  in  furs,  was  purchased  by  the  Dominion 
in  1S69.  It  is  divided  into  the  Northwest  Territory,  the  North- 
east Territory,  and  the  District  of  Keewatin  lying  between  them. 
It  consists  of  extensive  forests  and  vast  prairies,  and  is  inhabited 
mostly  by  Indians. 


52  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

\  I   u  I  OUNDL.AND. 

116.  The  island  of  Newfoundland  is  a  colony  of  Great  Britain. 
In  its  government  is  included  Labrador;  on  the  main  land.  Copper 
is  found.  The  principal  industry  is  Jishing.  The  Grand  Banks, 
shallow  places  in  the  sea,  arc  the  feeding  grounds  of  myriads  of  cod 
fish.  Scats,  herring  and  salmon  are  also  caught.  "  The  hest  fish- 
ing grounds  in  the  world." 

MEXICO. 

117.  Mexico  is  about  one-fifth  as  large  as  the  U.  S.  It  lies 
mostly  between  15  and  30°  N.  Lat.  Separated  from  the  U.  S. 
partly  by  the  Rio  Grande  R.  The  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  east, 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  west.  The  principal  indentations 
being  the  Bay  of  Campeachy  from  the  Gulf  of  Tehuantepec  and 
the  Gulf  of  California  from  the  Pacific,  the  latter  setting  off  the 
peninsula  of  Lower  California.  It  consists  of  high  plateaus  bor- 
dered on  the  cast  and  west  with  mountain  chains  and  narrow  skirts 
of  lowland  along  each  coast.  A  number  of  volcanoes  are  in  the 
highest  part,  the  most  important  of  which  is  Popocatepetl  over 
17,000  ft.  high.  Great  quantities  of  sulphur  are  found  within  its 
crater  which  is  a  mile  wide  and  1,000  ft.  deep. 

118.  The  climate  and  vegetable  productions  depend  greatly 
upon  the  degree  of  elevation.  The  low  lands  are  hot  and  unhealthy, 
producing  tropical  fruits,  sugar,  coffee  and  indigo.  The  intermedi- 
ate elevations  are  dry  and  healthy  and  produce  wheat,  corn,  olives 
and  grapes.  The  highest  regions  are  cold  and  generally  unproduc- 
tive. Some  of  the  products  peculiar  to  the  country  are  cochineal,  a 
dye  stud"  which  is  the  dried  bodies  of  a  species  of  insects  which 
feed  on  cactus  plants,  cultivated  for  that  purpose;  the  agave  or 
maguey  plant  is  cultivated  for  its  juice  which  is  made  into  an  intoxi- 
cating drink  called  -pulque;  vanilla  leans,  the  beans  of  the  cacao 
tree  from  which  chocolate  is  made;  rosewood  and  mahogany.  Her 
mineral  wealth  is  great  ;  gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  tin,  iron,  warble. 
Mules,  /mrscs,  cattle.  .  [griculture,  stork  raising  and  mining  are 
the  principal  industries.  Manufacturing  and  commerce  are  but  limited. 
The  country  is  not  adapted  to  commerce  having  few  good  harbors 
and  scarcely  any  railroads,  goods  being  transported  chiefly  by  pack 
mules  and  OX    carts. 

119.  The  people  are  about  two-thirds  Indians,  the  rest  made 
up  of  Creoles,  as  the  white  natives  descended  from  the  Spanish  are 
called;  negroes,  mulattoes,  Europeans  and  mestizos  or  crosses  be- 
tween the  Indians  and  whites.  The  government  is  a  republic  of 
27  States,  one  federal  district  and  the  territory  of  Lower  California. 
The  country  is  frequently  in  a  state  of  revolution.  The  prevailing 
religion  is  Roman  Catholic.  Mexico  is  the  capital  and  largest  city. 
It  is  situated  on  a  high  plateau  near  lofty    snow-covered    mountains. 


GEOGRAPHT.  53 

Leon  is  the  second  city  in  size,  Acapulco  is  an  important  port  on 
the  Pacific;  Vera  Cruz  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  the  principal 
commercial  citv. 

CENTRAL    AMERICA. 

120.  Central  America  is  in  the  central  part  of  the  Western 
Hemisphere,  lying  wholly  within  the  torrid  zone.  It  comprises  the 
republics  of  Guatemala,  Honduras,  San  Salvador,  Nicaragua  and 
Costa  Rica  and  the  British  colony  of  Balize.  Nicaragua  the  largest 
of  these  republics,  is  the  size  of  tin-  State  of  Georgia.  The  surface 
of  the  country  is  similar  to  Mexico.  There  are  several  active  vol- 
canoes and  the  country  is  subject  to  frequent  earthquake  shocks. 

121.  The  characteristic  products  are  valuable  cabinet  woods, 
dye  stuffs,  India  rubber,  corn,  sugar  cane  and  coffee;  gold  and 
silver,  coal. 

122.  The  population  is  mostly  Indians  and  Mestizos.  The 
Roman  Catholic  religion  prevails. 

THK    WEST    INDIES. 

123.  The  West  Indies  comprise  about  a  thousand  islands 
greatly  varying  in  size  and  lying  between  Florida  and  the  coast  of 
South  America,  an  area  a  little  greater  than  the  State  of  Oregon. 
They  produce  sugar,  tobacco,  corn,  coffee,  cotton,  indigo,  sponges, 
honey,  valuable  cabinet  woods,  spices  and  tropical  fruits.  They 
have  a  population  of  over  4,000,000.  They  are  divided  into  three 
groups;  the  Greater  Antilles  containing  Cuba,  Hayti,  Porto  Rico, 
Jamaica  ;  the  Lesser  Antilles  comprising  many  small  islands  near 
the  coast  of  S.  A.  and  belonging  to  different  European  nations. 
The  Bahamas,  a  group  of  islands  of  coral  formation  lying  near 
Florida,  belonging  to  Great  Britain. 

124.  Cuba.— About  the  size  of  the  State  of  Tennessee,  the 
largest  of  the  islands.  Belongs  to  Spain.  Produces  more  sugar 
than  any  other  country.  Havana,  the  capital,  is  the  greatest  sugar 
market  in  the  world  and  second  city  in  the  New  World  in  foreign 
commerce,  noted  also  for  its  famous  cigars. 

125.  Hayti.— The  second  in  size,  comprises  the  independent 
republics  of  San  Domingo  and  Hayti.  Population  mostly  negroes 
and  mixed  races. 

126.  Porto  Rico  belongs  to  Spain.  Jamaica  belongs  to  Great 
Britain.  It  is  noted  for  its  rum  and  allspice.  Kingston,  the  capital, 
noted  for  its  trade  in  turtles.  "The  llesh  of  the  turtle  is  eaten,  its 
shell  is  wrought  into  articles  for  use  and  ornament,  its  oil  serves  the 
natives  instead  of  butter,  and  is  burned  in  lamps." 

DAMsli    AMERICA. 

127.  Greenland. — Belongs  to  Denmark.  The  interior  has 
never  been  explored.      Barley  and  garden  vegetables   are   produced 


54  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  Kit  ART. 

in  the  southern  part.  It  is  inhabited  by  a  few  Danes  and  Esqui- 
maux Indians  who  subsist  mostly  by  fishing  and  hunting  seals.  It 
is  mostly  covered  with  glaciers,  and  may  be  an  island  or  several 
islands  joined  bv  ice. 

128.  Iceland. — An  island  about  the  size  of  the  State  of  Ohio. 
It  appears  to  have  been  the  result  of  volcanic  action.  Mt.  Hecla 
iv  a  noted  volcano.  The  geysers,  of  which  there  are  a  hundred, 
are  quite  celebrated.  One  of  them  throws  boiling  water  to  the 
height  of  tOO  ft.  The  country  is  a  dependency  of  Denmark.  It 
was  settled  a  thousand  years  ago  by  people  from  Norway.  The 
people  are  honest,  hospitable  and  intelligent.  Cattle  and  sheep  are 
raised.  Eider  ducks,  from  which  a  valuable  soft  down  is  obtained, 
frequent  the  island.      Reykjavik  is  the  capital. 

SOUTH    AMERICA. 

129.  The  southern  grand  division  of  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
extends  from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  which  connects  it  with 
North  America,  to  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  about  4,Soo  miles,  and 
from  the  Atlantic  on  the  east  to  the  Pacific  on  the  west;  at  its 
widest  part  about  3,000  miles;  triangular  in  form,  the  widest  part 
being  near  the  northern  extremity.  It  has  an  area  of  6,850,000 
sq.  mi.,  and  a  quite  regular  coast  line  of  16,500  miles.  The  most 
northern  point  of  land  is  Cape  Gallinas,  the  most  southern  Cafe 
Horn,  the  most  eastern  Cape  St.  Roque,  and  the  most  western 
Cape  Blanco.  Lines  drawn  connecting  these  points  will  inclose  a 
figure  nearly  corresponding  to  the  outline  of  the  continent. 

130.  Surface.— The  Andes  Mts.  extend  the  whole  length  from 
north  to  south  along  the  western  border,  and  reach  in  places  to  very 
lofty  heights.  The  eastern  portion  consists  of  mountains  and  high 
plateaus,  and  the  central  portion  of  vast  lowland  plains.  The  Am- 
azon R.  drains  a  vast  tract  extending  from  west  to  east  across  the 
northern  portion,  and  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  with  its  tributaries,  drains 
the  central  and  southern  part. 

131.  The  climate  is  partly  tropical  and  partly  temperate,  lying 
as  it  does  in  the  torrid  and  temperate  /ones.  The  altitude,  how- 
ex  er,  has  much  to  do  with  the  climate.  Tarts  lying  in  the  torrid 
zone  and  having  a  great  altitude,  have  a  temperate  climate.  It 
has  the  most  luxuriant  vegetation  of  any  part  of  the  world,  owing 
to  its  great  heat  and  moisture.  Some  of  the  animals  peculiar  to 
this  country  are  the  tapir,  sloth,  armadillo,  jaguar,  llama,  many 
species  of  parrots  and  humming  birds,  flamingo,  toucan  and  condor. 

132.  The  population  is  about  jS.ooo,ooo,  made  up  of:  (1) 
whites,  descendants  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  the  ruling 
classes;  (j  1  native  Indians, generally  indolent  and  uncivilized;  (3) 
negroes,  descendants  of  African  sla\e^  ;  (4)  mixed  races.  The  pre- 
vailing religion  is  Roman  Catholic. 

133.  The  ]■■  divisions   are   the   empire   of  Brazil,   the   re- 


GEOGRAPHY.  55 

publics  of  Venezuela,  the  United  .States  of  Colombia,  Ecuador, 
Peru,  Bolivia,  Chili,  Uruguay,  Paraguay  and  Argentine  Republic, 
and  the  colonies  of  British,  Dutch  and  French  Guiana.  Patagonia 
has  no  government. 

134.  Argentine  Republic. — Nearly  ten  times  as  large  as  the 
State  of  Kansas.  Lies  mainly  between  22°  and  440  S.  Lat.  Con- 
sists of  great  grassy  plains,  called  pampas,  bordering  on  the  Andes 
at  the  west.  The  Parana  and  other  streams  forming  the  La  Plata, 
are  the  principal  rivers.  Climate  mild.  Raising  cattle  and  sheep 
the  great  industry.  Exports,  wool,  hides,  tallow,  horns,  live  cattle 
and  dried  beef.  Education  receive-  much  attention,  and  emigration 
from  Europe  is  rapidly  increasing.  Buenos  Ayres  is  the  capital 
and  largest  city. 

135.  Bolivia. — Over  500,000  sq.  mi.,  almost  wholly  within  the 
torrid  zone.  High  mountain  ranges  and  plateaus  in  the  western 
part,  lowlands  in  the  eastern.  The  Andes  here  reach  their  greatest 
height.  Drained  by  branches  of  the  Amazon  and  Parana  Rivers. 
Small  extent  of  coast  line.  The  silver  mines  of  Potosi  are  the 
most  celebrated  in  the  world.  The  cinchona  tree,  from  which 
quinine  is  made,  grows  in  the  mountain  regions.  Sucre  the  capital, 
La  Paz  the  largest  city. 

136.  Brazil. — Larger  than  the  U.  S.,  not  including  Alaska; 
larger  than  all  the  other  States  of  S.  A.  taken  together.  Mountains 
and  plateaus  in  the  eastern  pan;  great  lowland  plain,  the  valley  of 
the  Amazon,  in  the  northern  part,  and  covered  with  a  dense 
forest.  Great  natural  resources.  Coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  rice,  corn; 
all  the  variety  of  tropical  fruits;  cinchona  and  India  rubber  trees; 
valuable  cabinet  and  dye  woods;  surpasses  all  other  countries  in  the 
variety  and  extent  of  its  vegetation;  gold,  silver,  iron,  copper,  dia- 
monds and  other  precious  stones. 

It  is  the  only  monarchy  in  the  Western  Hemisphere.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  civilized  people  speak  the  Portuguese  language.  The 
country  is  progressing  in  civilization.  It  has  about  500  miles  of 
railroad,  and  is  connected  with  the  U.  S.  and  Portugal  by  submarine 
telegraphs.      Rio  Janeiro  is  the    capital,   and    is    the   largest    city    in 

S.  A. 

137.  Chili. — About  twice  as  large  ;is  the  State  of  Missouri. 
Lies  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Andes;  Ml.  Aconcagua  (22,422 
ft.)  one  of  the  loftiest  peaks  in  America.  Long  and  narrow,  hav- 
ing a  coast  line  of  2,000  miles.  In  same  lat.  as  Argentine  Rip. 
The  counterpart  of  California  in  climate,  except  the  seasons  are  re- 
versed. Raises  and  exports  wheat.  Copper  and  silver  are  mined. 
It  is  the  most  progressive  of  the  S.  A.  States.  Santiago  the  cap- 
ital and  largest  city.  Valparaiso,  next  to  San  Francisco,  the  lead- 
ing commercial  city  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

138.  Ecuador. —  About  half  a-  largeas  Bolivia.  The  equator 
passes  through  its  northern  border.     Chimborazo  and  Cotopaxi  are 


56  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

noted  volcanoes.  Cocoa,  India  rubber,  cinchona  and  vegetable  ivory. 
Quito,  the  capital,  is  9,543  ft.  above  sea  level  and  lies  on  the  equator 
Has  a  climate  which  is  a  perpetual  spring. 

139.  Guiana. — (British,  Dutch  and  French).  Three  colonies 
belonging  respectively  to  Great  Britain,  Holland  and  France.  The 
country  is  low  and  has  a  hot  and  moist  climate.  Valuable  wood-,, 
tropical  fruits,  sugar,  rice,  cotton  and  coffee.  Population  mostly 
negroes.  Georgetown,  the  capital  of  British  G.;  Paramaribo,  cap- 
ital of  Dutch  G.;  Cayenne,  capital  of  French  G. 

140.  Paraguay. — Twice  as  huge  as  the  State  of  Pennsylvania. 
The  only  State  of  S.  A.  which  has  no  sea  coast.  Lies  between 
two  large  rivers,  the  Parana  and  Paraguay.  The  principal  export 
is  mate,  or  Paraguay  tea«_    Asuncion  the  capital  and   largest  city 

"141.  Peru.— Larger  than  Bolivia.  Mountains  and  plateaus. 
Lake  Titicaca,  between  Peru  and  Bolivia,  is  one  of  the  highest 
lakes  in  the  world.  Noted  for  the  exportation  of  guano;  silver, 
copper,  saltpeter  and  quicksilver  are  mined.      Lima,  the  capital. 

142.  Uruguay. —  The  smallest  of  the  S.  A.  republics.  More 
than  twice  as  large  as  the  State  of  Maine.  Horses  and  cattle  chief 
source  of  wealth.     Montevideo  the  capital. 

143.  United  States  of  Colombia. — More  than  eight  times  the 
size  of  the  State  of  Ohio.  Includes  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  A 
railroad  crosses  the  isthmus,  and  a  ship  canal  is  being  talked  of. 
Gold,  silver,  cinchona,  coffee,  tobacco  and  hides  are  exported.  Bo- 
gota the  capital  and  largest  city. 

144.  Venezuela.  Contains  over  400,000  sq.  mi.  Great,  grassy 
lowland  plains,  called  llanos.  Orinoco  R.  drains  it.  Stock-raising 
and  collie  cultivation  the  leading  pursuits.  All  the  tropical  prod- 
ucts. Caracas  the  capital.  When  the  early  Spanish  explorers 
saw  an  Indian  village  built  on  piles  over  the  water  on  Lake  Mara- 
caybo,  they  named  it  Venezuela  (Little  Venice),  because  it  had  the 
appearance  of  the  city  of  Venice  in  Italy. 

EUROI'K. 

145.  The  most  important  grand  division  of  the  Eastern  Hem- 
isphere, is  in  reality  a  large  peninsula  made  up  of  a  number  of  pen- 
insulas, and  extending  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  the  south  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the  north,  a  distance  of  2,400  miles,  and  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Ural  Mts.,  which  separate  it  from  Asia,  its 
length  in  a  diagonal  direction  from  southwest  to  northeast  being 
3,400  miles.  Cape  Matapan  is  the  most  southern  projection,  Cape 
Norththe  most  northern,  Cape  St.  Vincent  the  most  eastern  of  the 
mainland.      It  has  an  area  of  3,824,240  sq.  mi. 

146.  It  has  a  greater  coast  line  (20,000  miles)  than  any  other 
grand  division  in  proportion  to  its  size.  This  fact  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  a  commercial  point  of  view.  The  most  important  pen- 
insulas are  Norwav  and   Sweden    on    the    north,    Denmark    on   the 


GEOGRAPHT.  57 

east,  Spain  and  Portugal  on  the  southeast,  Italy,  and  Greece  on  the 
'south.     Very  important  islands  lie  off  its  coasts,  among   which   arc 
the  British  Isles  in  the  Atlantic,   Corsica,  Sardinia,    Sicily,    Candia 
and  Cvprus  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

147"  The  most  important  indentations  of  the  ocean  are  the 
White  Sea  and  Baltic  Sea  on  the  north,  the  North  Sea  and  Bay  of 
Biscay  on  the  west,  and  the  Mediterranean  on  the  south,  with  its 
various  branches,  as  the  Adriatic,  the  Archipelago,  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora and  the  Black  Sea.  The  great  Caspian,  an  inland  sea,  lies 
to  the  southeast. 

148.  The  greater  part  of  the  surface  is  low  and  level.  If  a 
line  be  drawn  from  the  month  of  the  R.  Elbe  to  the  Black  Sea 
nearly  all  north  of  that  line  is  low  and  level  except  the  peninsulas 
of  Norway  and  Sweden;  nearly  all  south  of  that  line  is  high  and 
mountainous,  the  Alps,  the  Appennines,  the  Carpathian  and  the 
Pyrenees  being  the  principal  ranges.  The  Ural  Mts.  separate  it 
from  Asia  on  the  east  and  the  Caucasus  Mts.  on  the  south.  The 
Scandinavian  Mts.  are  in  Norway  and  Sweden. 

149.  There  are  many  navigable  rivers;  we  may  mention  the 
Volga,  Don,  Dnieper,  Danube,  Rhone,  Rhine,  Elbe  and  Dwina. 
There  are  not  many  lakes  of  importance,  some  among  the  Alps 
noted  for  their  beauty,  and  a  region  of  them  in  Northern  Russia. 

150.  The  climate  on  the  west  coast  is  much  more  mild  than 
in  the  same  latitude  in  America  because  of  the  influence  of  the 
warm  currents  and  winds  from  the  Atlantic.  The  southern  part 
has  an  almost  tropical  climate  because  of  the  hot  winds  from  Africa 
modified  by  the  Mediterranean. 

151.  Europe  has  a  pop.  of  313,874,000,  and  is  more  thickly 
settled  than  any  other  of  the  grand  divisions.  The  people  are 
mostly  of  the  Caucasian  race.  The  people  of  Turkey  are  Moham- 
medan in  religion,  the  other  countries  of  Europe  are  Christian. 
The  Jews  are  scattered  throughout  the  various  nations. 

152.  The  political  divisions,  are  as  follows:  — 

KINGDOMS. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark, 
Holland,  Belgium,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy,  Greece. 

EMPIRES. 

Russia,  Germany,  Austro- Hungary,  Turkey. 

PRINCIPALITIES. 

Roumania,  Servia,  Montenegro. 

REPUBLICS. 

France,  Switzerland,  San  Marino,  Andorra. 


58  TEACHERS  A.XD  STUDENTS   LIBRART. 

GREAT    BRITAIN     AND    IRELAND. 

153.  The  island  of  Great  Britain  which  is  made  up  of  Eng- 
land, Scotland  and  Wales,  with  the  island  of  Ireland  and  many  small 
adjacent  islands,  compose  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  and  are  known  as  the  British  Isles.  It 
has  dependencies  in  all  parts  of  the  world  so  that  it  is  truly  said 
that  the  sun  never  sets  on  is  dominions.  Taken  with  all  its  de- 
pendencies it  is  called  the  "  British  Empire,"  and  has  an  area  of 
8,250,000  sq.  mi.  and  pop.  of  240,000,000.  "  It  surpasses  all  other 
nations  in  maritime  power,  commerce,  manufactures,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  coal,  iron  and  tin." 

154.  The  government  is  a  constitutional  monarchy.  The  law 
making  power  is  vested  in  Parliament,  which  consists  of  the 
House  of  Lords  whose  members  hold  their  seats  by  hereditary 
right,  and  the  HouSi  of  Co»i>/io>is,  whose  members  are  elected  by 
the  people.  All  the  people,  however,  have  not  the  right  to  vote, 
oidy  those  having  certain  qualifications. 

155.  England. — A  very  little  larger  than  the  State  of  Ala- 
bama. The  most  important  part  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Sur- 
face undulating.  The  Thames,  Severn  and  Mersey  the  most 
important  rivers.  The  English  Channel  and  the  Strait  of  Dover 
separate  it  from  France;  the  North  Sea  lies  to  the  east;  the  Bristol 
Channel  partly  between  it  and  Wales;  the  Irish  Sea  between  it 
and  Ireland;  the  Isle  of  Wight  lies  in  the  English  Channel. 
Wheat,  barley,  oat-,  potatoes,  hops;  fine  breeds  of  cattle  and  sheep; 
coal,  iron,  tin,  lead  and  copper.  Manufacturing  and  commerce 
are  the  leading  industri< 

London,  the  capital  of  the  British  Empire,  stands  at  the  head  of 
the  cities  of  the  world  in  population,  wealth  and  commerce.  It 
covers  118  sq.  mi.  of  territory  and  is  much  more  compactly  built 
than  American  cities.  Thousands  of  people  are  born,  grow  up  and 
die  without  ever  seeing  outside  of  the  city.  Some  of  the  most 
noted  buildings  are  the  Tower,  where  many  an  important  prisoner 
has  been  confined,  the  Parliament-Houses,  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  and 
Westminster  Abbey.  Liverpool  is  the  second  city  in  size  and 
commercial  importance.  Manchester,  the  third  city  in  size,  has 
more  cotton  factories  than  any  city  in  the  world;  Birmingham, 
Nottingham,  Sheffield  and  Leeds  are  also  noted  manufacturing 
places.  Oxford  and  Cambridge  are  celebrated  as  the  seats  of 
ancient  universities. 

156.  Scotland.  Not  near  so  large  as  the  State  of  Indiana. 
Hilly  and  rugged.  Picturesque  scenery  about  the  lakes  which  are 
lure  called  Lochs.  Numerous  indentations  of  the  sea  among 
which  are  the  birth  of  Forth,  birth  of  Tay,  Murray  Firth  and 
birth  of  Clyde.  The  Hebrides  are  a  group  of  islands  lying  off  the 
western  coast  and  the  Orkney,  Shetland  and   Faroe   islands   he   off 


GEOGRAPHT.  59 

the  north  coast.  Oats,  barley,  rye,  wheat  and  potatoes;  sheep  and 
cattle;  co;d,  iron,  lead  and  slate.  Agriculture,  grazing,  manufac- 
turing, mining  and  fishing  occupy  the  people.  Edinburgh,  the 
ancient  capital,  noted  as  a  literary  center,  Glasgow,  the  largest  city, 
Aberdeen,  an  important  manufacturing  and  commercial  city. 

157.  Wales. — Not  quite  so  large  as  the  State  of  Massachusetts. 
Mountainous.  The  people  descended  from  the  ancient  inhabitants 
of  Great  Britain  and  called  Welsh.  Coal,  iron,  lead  and  slate; 
Mining  and  quarrying  the  leading  industries. 

158.  Ireland. — Nearly  as  large  as  the  State  of  Indiana. 
Diversified  with  hills  and  valleys  and  lakes  which  abound  in  beau- 
tiful scenery.  St.  George's  Channel  separates  it  from  Wales  and 
the  Irish  Sea  from  England,  the  North  Channel  between  it  and 
Scotland.  Has  man}'  good  harbors.  Potatoes  form  the  principal 
food  of  the  laboring  classes;  flax  and  oats;  peat  is  used  for  fuel. 
Linen  ami  whiskey  are  manufactured.  Agriculture  the  leading 
pursuit.  Dublin,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  Cork  is  the  principal 
seaport,  and  Belfast  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  linen.  The 
people  are  much  oppressed  by  the  English  land  proprietors  and 
many  of  them  annually  emigrate  to  America. 

159.  France. — About  three-fourths  as  large  as  the  State  of 
Texas.  The  eastern  part  mountainous,  the  western  is  lower  and 
more  level;  the  Pyrenees  Mts.  separate  it  from  Spain  and  the  Alps 
from  Italy.  The  principal  rivers  arc  the  Rhone,  the  Seine,  the 
Loire  and  the  Garonne.  It  has  a  great  extent  of  coast  line;  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  south  with  the  Gulf  of  Lyons  an  indenta- 
tion, the  Bay  of  Biscay  indenting  its  western  border  and  the  Eng- 
lish Channel  and  Strait  of  Dover  separating  it  from  England.  The 
climate  is  much  warmer  than  England,  the  southern  part  being 
semi-tropical.  The  usual  grains,  vegetables  and  fruits  of  the  Tem- 
perate Zones  are  raised  in  the  northern  part,  in  the  central  and 
southern  parts,  corn  and  tobacco,  grapes  from  which  fine  wines  are 
made,  the  orange,  olive,  and  the  mulberry  tree  which*  furnishes  food 
for  the  silk  worm;  coal,  iron  and  lead.  Agriculture  occupies  the 
majority  of  the  people.  In  manufactures  it  is  next  to  Great 
Britain;  silk  goods,  laces,  fine  muslin-,  jewelry,  porcelain  and  glass- 
ware; sugar  is  made  from  beets.      Commerce  is  extensive. 

Paris,  the  capital,  is  second  city  of  the  world  in  size  and  wealth. 
It  is  the  great  center  of  fashion  and  is  noted  for  its  elegant  public 
buildings,  its  fine  arts  and  excellent  scientific  and  literary  institutions. 
Lyons  is  second  in  size  and  noted  for  its  silk  manufactures. 

France  has  some  important  dependencies.  The  island  of  Cor- 
sica, the  birthplace  of  Napoleon,  in  the  Mediterranean;  French 
Guiana  in  S.  A.,  Algeria  in  Africa,  also  possessions  in  India  and 
Indo-China,  in  Western  Africa  and  small  islands  in  the  West  Indies 
and  Oceanica.  The  government  is  a  republic;  the  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  two  houses,  the  Chamber    of    Dcfretics,   elected 


60  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

by  the  people  and  t  he  Senate  part  of  whom  hold  their  seats  for 
life  and  the  remainder  are  elected  by  electors  chosen  by  the  people; 
the  President  is  elected  by  the  votes  of  the  two  houses. 

160.  Germany. — A  little  more  than  three-fourths  the  size  of 
Texas.  The  northern  part  is  low  and  level,  (he  southern  mount- 
ainous. The  principal  risers  run  northward  into  the  Baltic  and 
North  Seas;  they  are  the  Rhine,  the  Weser,  the  Elbe,  the  Oder 
and  the  Vistula.  The  principal  coast  line  is  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  a 
small  portion  being  on  the  North  Sea.  Rye,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes, 
tlax,  hemp,  tobacco,  beets,  and  grapes;  com  grows  in  the  southern 
part;  cattle  and  sheep;  silver,  zinc,  iron  and  coal.  The  leading  in- 
dustry is  agriculture;  manufactures  are  considerable,  hut  not  equal 
to  England  or  France;  among  the  articles  manufactured  are  woolen 
and  linen  goods,  metallic  wares,  wine,  beer,  paper  and  glass;  com- 
merce is  extensive.  Berlin  is  the  capital  and  largest  city;  Ham- 
burg is  the  second  city  and  chief  seaport;  Dresden  and  Breslau  are 
important  places;  Munich  is  noted  for  its  university,  library  and  fine 
art  gallery.  Hejdelberg,  Leipsic  and  Jena  for  their  universities; 
Strasburg  won  from  France  in  the  war  of  1870  and  '71,  noted  for 
its  cathedral;   Frankfort-on-thc-Myin  as  a  great  financial  center. 

In  education,  Germany  stands  at  the  head  of  the  countries  of 
Europe.  It  has  numerous  universities,  the  largest  in  the  world; 
a  thorough  system  of  public  schools,  education  being  compulsory. 

The  empire  is  composed  of  26  States,  4  of  which  are  kingdoms, 
5  grand  duchies,  5  duchies,  7  principalities,  3  free  cities  and  one 
imperial  territory.  The  free  cities  have  a  republican  government, 
the  imperial  territory,  Alsace-Lorraine,  was  won  from  France 
(1870-71  );  the  other  States  are  limited  monarchies.  The  empire  it- 
self is  a  limited  monarchy,  the  law-making  power  vested  in  two 
houses,  the  Bundsrath,  or  Federal  Council,  whose  members  repre- 
sent the  different  .States,  and  the  Reichstag,  or  Diet  of  the  Realm, 
whose  members  are  elected  by  the  people.  Prussia  is  the  principal 
one  of  the  States,  and  the  chief  ruler  of  the  empire  is  called 
Emperor  of  Germany  and  King  of  Prussia. 

161.  Austro-Hungary.— About  one-ninth  smaller  than  Texas. 
A  greater  part  is  mountainous;  the  Alps  under  different  names  are 
in  the  southeastern  part,  the  Erzgebirge  and  R.iesengebirge  enclose 
the  plains  of  Bohemia  in  the  northeast  and  separate  it  from  Germany; 
the  Carpathian  Mts.  are  in  the  north  and  west.  The  greater  part  is 
drained  by  the  Danube  and  its  tributaries.  It  borders  for  some 
distance  on  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Wheat,  barley  and  flax  are  the 
staples  in  the  northern  part,  corn,  grapes  and  olives  flourish  in  the 
southern  part;  horses,  cattle  and  sheep;  gold,  quicksilver,  silver, 
copper,  tin,  lead,  iron,  coal  and  salt;  in  mineral  wealth  it  is  the  rich- 
est country  of  Europe.  Agriculture  the  leading  industry ;  manu- 
factures, cotton  and  woolen  goods,  metallic  wares,  leather  articles, 
glass  ware  and    musical  instruments;    foreign    commerce  is  limited. 


GEOGRAPHY.  61 

Vienna,  the  capital  and   largest  city,  is   the  third  city  of  Europe  in 
size.     Buda-Pesth,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  is  next  to  Vienna. 

The  Austrian  empire  consists  of  Austria  proper  and  Hungary, 
the  chief  ruler  hearing  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria  and  King 
of  Hungary.  The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  each  divi- 
sion has  a  separate  parliament  and  laws,  hut  a  common  army  and 
navy,  and  a  controlling  hody  known  as  the  Delegations. 

162.  Spain. — Much  larger  than  the  State  of  California.  The 
greater  part  is  a  plateau  with  several  mountain  ranges  crossing  it; 
along  the  coasts  it  is  low ;  the  Pyrenees  separate  it  from  France. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Tagos,  the  Ebro,  the  Doura,  the 
Guadalquiver  and  the  Guadiana.  Spain  and  Portugal  form  a 
peninsula  with  the  Bay  of  Biscay  on  the  north,  the  Atlantic  on  the 
west,  the  Mediterranean  on  the  south,  and  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
separating  it  from  Africa;  Cape  Finisterre  is  the  northwestern  pro- 
jection, Cape  St.  Vincent  is  the  southwestern.  Climate  dry  except 
on  the  sea  coast.  Rich  in  minerals;  iron,  lead,  copper,  quicksilver; 
noted  for  merino  sheep  and  fine  horses /  wines,  raisins,  wool, 
oranges,  silk  and  cork  exported;  iron  ore  is  shipped  to  Wales  to  be 
smelted;  produces  olives,  figs,  lemons  and  other  tropical  fruits. 
Leading  industries,  agriculture,  grazing;  once  noted  for  her  com- 
merce which  has  greatly  declined;  manufactures  not  extensive. 
Madrid  is  the  capital  and  largest  city,  noted  for  its  magnificent  pal- 
ace and  collections  of  works  of  art.     Barcelona,  second  city. 

Spain  was  once  the  first  power  in  Europe  and  has  still  great 
natural  resources  and  advantages  for  commerce,  hut  it  has  sunk  to  a 
second-rate  power  through  bad  government.  Its  government  was 
for  a  short  time  republican,  but  at  present  is  a  limited  monarchy; 
the  executive  power  resting  with  the  King  and  the  law  making  in 
the  "Cortes  with  the  King  f  the  Cortes  is  composed  of  two  houses, 
a  Senate  and  Congress.  The  Balearic  Isles  in  the  Mediterranean, 
the  Canary  Islands  in  the  Atlantic,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  several  smaller  islands  in  Oceanica  belong  to  Spain. 

Portugal. — A  little  larger  than  the  State  of  Indiana.  In  physical 
features  and  productions  it  is  similar  to  Spain.  Lisbon  is  the  capi- 
tal. The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  the  executive  power 
vested  in  the  King  and  his  cabinet,  and  the  law  making  in  two 
houses,  the  House  of  Peers  and  the  House  of  Commons,  And  togeth- 
er called  the  Cortes  Gcraes. 

163.  Italy.  About  three  times  the  size  of  Virginia.  A  low- 
plain  in  the  northern  part  drained  by  the  R.  Po,  the  Appennine 
Mts.  extending  through  its  length  a^  a  backbone  and  low  lands 
along  the  coast;  Mt.  Vesuvius,  the  noted  volcano,  is  one  of  the 
peaks  and  the  volcano  of  Mt.  Etna,  on  the  island  of  Sicily,  is  an- 
other. Italy  is  a  long  narrow  peninsula  somewhat  in  the  shape  of 
a  boot,  with  the  island  of  Sicily  opposite  to  the  toe  of  the  boot  sep- 
arated  from   it    by   the    Strait    of  Messina;    the  Gulf  of    Taranto 


62  //- .  I  (  HERS '  AND  S  TU  DENTS'  LIBRARV. 

forming  the  hollow  of  the  boot,  the  Adriatic  Sea  lying  to  the  east 
and  the  main  body  of  the  Mediterranean  washing  its  western  shores. 
The  climate  is  semi-tropical.  Produces  tropical  fruits,  rice,  wheat, 
olives,  grapes.  Produces  more  silk  than  any  other  country  ;  finest 
statuary  marble,  sulphur.  Commerce  quite  extensive.  Rome,  the 
capital,  is  the  center  of  the  world's  art,  the  residence  of  the  Pope, 
the  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.;  St.  Peter's  Church  is  the 


randest  in  the  world,  450  ft.  to  the  top  of  the  dome. 

The  government  is  a  limited  monarchy,  the  executive  power 
vested  in  the  King  and  the  legislature  in  the  King  and  Parliament, 
which  latter  consists  of  two  houses,  the  Senate  whose  members  are 
appointed  by  the  King  and  serve  for  life,  and  the  Chamber  of  Dep- 
uties, elected  by  the  people.  The  large  island  of  Sardinia  as  well 
as  Sicily  belongs  to  Italy. 

164.  Switzerland. — About  twice  the  size  of  Massachusetts. 
"A  land  of  majestic,  snow-capped  mountains,  beautiful  waterfalls, 
wonderful  glaciers  and  picturesque  landscapes  and  lakes — forming 
altogether  the  sublimest  scenery  in  Europe."  The  Alps  and  the 
Jura  are  the  principal  ranges.  Does  not  produce  enough  food  for 
home  consumption.  Grazing  and  dairying  the  leading  pursuits; 
manufactures  extensive  consisting  principally  of  cotton,  woolen, 
linen  and  silk  goods,  watches,  jewelry  and  toys.  Berne  is  the  cap- 
ital. The  government  is  a  republic  consisting  of  22  cantons  or 
divisions.  The  most  of  the  people  speak  the  German,  the  others 
French  or  Italian.      Great  attention  is  paid  to  education. 

175.  Belgium. — Little  larger  than  the  State  of  Maryland.  Low 
in  the  northern  part,  hilly  in  the  southern.  Has  a  small  extent  of 
sea  coast  on  the  North  Sea.  Coal  and  iron;  grain,  iiax,  hops  and 
vegetables,  agriculture  and  manufacturing  the  leading  pursuits; 
manufactures  linen,  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  laces,  carpets,  cutlery, 
and  glass  ware.  Brussels,  the  capital,  is  noted  for  its  carpets  and 
laces^  Antwerp  is  a  commercial  city.  The  government  is  a  limited 
monarchy  with  a  Kingand  two  houses,  Chamber  '/Representatives 
and  Senate,  these  houses  elected  by  the  people,  who  pay  taxes  to  a 
certain  amount.  The  people  speak  the  Dutch  and  French  lan- 
guages.     It  is  the  most  thickly  settled  country  in  the  world. 

fee.  Holland. — A  little  larger  than  Belgium.  A  low,  flat 
country,  the  most  of  it  below  the  level  of  the  sea;  the  land  is  recov- 
ered by  inclosing  it  with  walls  of  earth  called  dikes  and  the  water 
pumped  out.  Numerous  canals  and  rivers  intersect  it.  The  land 
is  carefully  cultivated  and  produce-  -rains  and  vegetables,  flax  and 
tobacco:  line  breeds  of  horses  and  cattle  and  noted  for  its  dairy  pro- 
ducts. Prat  is  used  for  fuel.  Windmills  furnish  power  for  manu- 
factures which  are  extensive,  especially  of  linen,  earthenware,  gin 
and  paper;  commerce  and  fishing  important;  once  the  greatest 
maritime  nation  of  the  world.  Have  possessions  in  the  Last  and 
Weal  Indies,  South  America  and  Africa.     The  Hague  is  the  capi- 


GEOGRAPHY.  63 

tal  and  Amsterdam  the  largest  city.  The  government  is  similar 
to  Belgium.  The  people  speak  the  Dutch  language,  which  differs 
considerably  from  the  German. 

167.  Denmark.  — Smaller  than  Switzerland.  Consists  of  a 
low  peninsula  and  a  number  of  islands  lying  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Baltic  Sea.  The  Skager  Rack  and  the  Cattegat  are  straits  separa- 
ting it  from  Norway  and  Sweden.  The  climate  is  mild  and  moist. 
An  agricultural  and  grazing  country;  the  fisheries  extensive.  Co- 
penhagen, the  capital  and  metropolis,  is  on  the  island  of  Zealand. 
The  government  is  similar  to  Belgium. 

168.  Sweden  and  Norway. — Larger  than  the  State  of  Texas. 
Two  countries  forming  the  peninsula  of  Scandinavia.  The  Scan- 
dinavian Mts.  extend  through  the  peninsula  separating  the  two 
countries.  The  climate  is  cold,  the  ground  being  covered  with  snow 
half  the  year.  Grain,  potatoes  and  flax;  iron  and  copper;  products 
of  forests  as  lumber,  tar;  fisheries  extensive.  Sweden  is  noted  for 
iron  of  excellent  quality.  Stockholm,  the  capital  of  Sweden,  is  sit- 
uated on  islands  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  therefore  called  the  "Northern 
Venice."  Christiana  is  the  capital  of  Norway.  The  government 
consists  of  the  two  countries  having  different  legislative  bodies 
united  under  one  King. 

169.  Russia. — The  largest  empire  in  the  world,  occupying 
about  one-half  of  Europe  and  one-third  of  Asia.  European  Rus- 
sia is  a  vast  plain  with  slight  elevations  in  the  central  part  (The 
Valdai  Hills).  The  rivers  are  large,  the  Volga  being  the  largest 
in  Europe;  the  others  of  importance  are  the  Don,  the  Dnieper,  the 
Dniester,  the  Duna  and  the  Dwina.  There  are  numerous  lakes 
in  the  northeastern  part.  The  extreme  northern  part  is  barren, 
and  a  little  further  south  the  forests  are  valuable,  the  central  part 
produces  rye  and  wheat,  hemp  and  flax;  rye  is  the  principal  food  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  southern  part  supports  immense  herds  of  cat- 
tle, sheep  and  horses.  Rich  mines  of  iron,  copper  and  platina. 
St.  Petersburg,  the  capital  and  metropolis;  Moscow  is  next  in  size. 
The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy;  the  ruler  called 
the  Czar,  whose  will  is  law.  The  religion  is  that  of  the  Greek 
Church.  The  masses  arc  not  educated,  and  until  1863  were  mostly 
serfs,  or  slaves  owned  by  noblemen  or  large  landholders. 

170.  Turkey  in  Europe. — The  Turkish,  or  Ottoman  Empire, 
includes  great  possessions  in  Asia  and  Africa.  European  Turkey  i> 
about  twice  the  size  of  Louisiana.  In  the  late  war  with  Russia  it 
lost  much  of  its  territory  and  power.  The  country  has  great  nat- 
ural resources,  and  with  rudely  conducted  agriculture  produces 
great  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  rice,  tobacco,  fruits  and  cotton.  Manu- 
factures silks,  wines,  carpets,  leather  goods;  horses  and  cattle  are 
raised  extensively.  Constantinople  i^  the  capital  of  the  Empire. 
The  government  was  an  absolute  monarchy  until  1876,  the  ruler 
called  the  Sultan,  but  since  then    has  had   a   Constitution   and  Gen- 


64  TBAC&ERS*  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

eral  Assembly  composed  of  two  houses.  The  Turks  belong  to  the 
Mongolian  race  and  their  religion  is  Mohammedanism.  They  are 
far  behind  the  resl  of  Europe  in  civilization. 

171.  Greece.  —About  twice  as  large  as  New  Hampshire.  It 
include-  a  peninsula  and  numerous  islands  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Twenty-three  hundred  years  ago  it  was  the  most  civilized  nation  in 
the  world,  famous  for  its  literature  and  art,  but  at  present  a  small 
and  weak  kingdom  infested  by  robbers  called  bandits.  It  has  rich 
minerals,  but  they  are  undeveloped.  Lead,  olive  oil,  figs,  honey  and 
(hied  currants  are  exported.  Athens,  the  capital  once  so  famous, 
-till  contain-  monuments  of  its  former  greatness.  "The  present 
kingdom  dates  from  1S32,  the  people  after  an  heroic  struggle  hav- 
ing freed  themselves  from  the  Turkish  yoke,  by  which  they  had 
been  oppressed." 

172.  Servia,    Roumania    and    Montenegro    were    until    1S7S 
tributary    to    Turkey;     are    now    independent    States.       Bulgaria, 
though  having  its  own  government,  is  tributary  to  Turkey.    These 
countries  have  a  combined    area    greater   than    Turkey    in    Europe.* 
The  productions  are  similar  to  Turkey. 

173.  San  Marino.-  -Worthy  of  note  as  being  the  smallest  and 
oldest  republic  in  the  world.  It  contains  only  i.\  sq.  mi.,  and  is  lo- 
cated in  the  northern  part  of  Italy,  ten  miles  from  the  Adriatic.  It 
lias  been  independent  since  the  10th  century,  is  governed  by  a  coun- 
cil of  60,  who  elect  themselves  for  life. 

174.  Andorra. — A  semi-independent  State,  with  an  area  of 
600  sq.  mi.,  lying  south  of  the  Pyrenees  Mts.  It  is  called  a  re- 
public, but  is' partly  under  the  control  of  France  and  partly  under 
the  control  of  the  Bishop  of  Urgal. 

ASIA. 

175.  The  largest  grand  division  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  is 
larger  than  the  whole  of  the  New  World,  about  four  times  as 
large  as  Europe,  and  about  one-third  of  the  land  of  the  globe. 

176.  The  great  mass  of  the  continent  consists  of  high  plateau- 
enclosed  by  mountain  ranges.  It  has  the  highest  plateaus,  the  loft- 
iest mountain  peaks  and  the  largest  inland  salt  seas,  or  salt  lakes  in 
the  world.  The  Himalaya  Mts.,  the  highest,  are  in  the  southern 
part,  the  Altai  are  north  of  the  center,  the  Ural  and  the  Caucasus 
Mts.  separate  it  from  Europe. 

177.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Obi,  Yenesei  and  Lena,  run- 
ning into  the  Arctic  Ocean;  the  Amoor,  the  Yang  tse  Kiang  and 
Hoang  lb.  into  the  Pacific,  the  Cambodia,  the  Brahmapootra,  the 
Ganges  and  the  Indus  into  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Caspian  Sea 
and  Sea  of  Aral  are  salt  water  and  lie  below  the  level  of  the   ocean. 

178.  It  has  an  irregular  coasl  line  of  aboul  35,000  miles;  the 
principal  projections  being  on  the  east  the  peninsulas  of  Kamtschatka 
and  Corea,  on  the  south  [ndo-China  with  the  Malay  peninsula  pro- 


GEOGRAPHY.  ft") 

jecting  from  it,  Hindostan  and  Arabia.  The  principal  indentations 
are,in  the  east  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  the  Japan  Sea  and  Yellow  Sea, 
on  the  south  the  China  .Sea,  Bay  of  Bengal  and  Arabian  Sea.  The 
Red  Sea  and  strait  of  Babel- Mandeb  nearly  separate  it  from  Africa, 
to  which  it  is  connected  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez. 

179.  It  has  every  variety  of  climate.  Taken  altogether  it  has 
greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  than  Europe,  because  not  subject 
to  the  modifying  influence  of  the  ocean.  In  some  of  the  central 
parts  rain  never  falls,  while  in  some  of  the  southern  parts  more  rain 
falls  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world. 

180.  The  vegetation  in  the  southern  part  is  tropical,  including 
coffee,  spices,  rice,  sugar  cane  and  dye  stuffs.  Tea  and  mulberry 
trees  grow  in  the  more  temperate  regions.  The  elephant,  the 
camel,  the  lion,  the  tiger,  and  the  leopard  are  found  in  the  southern 
part.  There  are  many  valuable  metals  and  precious  stones;  the 
Ural  Mts.  contain  gold,  silver,  platinum  and  iron /  the  Altai  Mts. 
lead,  copper,  gold  and  silver;  coal  and  iron  in  China,  India  and 
Japan;  Hindostan  yields  diamonds,  and  the  Persian  Gulf  and  Cey- 
lon are  noted  for  pearls. 

POLITICAL    DIVISIONS. 

181.  Siberia. — A  vast  country,  more  than  one-third  of  Asia; 
belongs  to  Russia.  It  is  valuable  for  its  minerals  and  furs.  Much 
of  it  is  cold  and  barren.  Russia  sends  her  criminals  here  in  great 
numbers  and  they  compose  a  great  part  of  the  population.  A  trade 
is  carried  on  with  China.  There  is  a  great  caravan  route  from 
Pekin,  China,  through  Irkutsk  and  Tobolsk,  principal  places  of 
Siberia,  to  Moscow,  Russia.  The  tusks  of  large  extinct  animals 
called  mammoths  are  exported  under  the  name  of  fossil  ivory '. 

182.  Transcaucasia,  including  Georgia,  which  has  long  been 
famous  as  possessing  the  handsomest  people  in  the  world.  Tiflis, 
the  capital.  It  belongs  to  Russia.  It  lies  south  of  the  Caucasus 
Mts. 

183.  Russian  Turkestan. — A  country  of  vast  plains,  lying  east 
of  the  Caspian  Se;i,  inhabited  by  wandering  tribes,  and  under  the 
control  of  Russia. 

184.  Turkey  in  Asia.— All  that  country  between  the  Black 
Sea  and  Mediterranean,  known  as  Asia  Minor;  .Syria,  which  in- 
cludes Palestine;  Armenia  and  a  portion  of  Arabia  next  the  Red 
Sea.  Smyrna,  a  commercial  city;  Damascus,  4,000  years  old,  noted 
for  manufacture  of  damask  silks;  Jerusalem,  the  city  of  the  Bible; 
Mecca,  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed,  and  held  sacred  by  his  follow- 
ers;  Mocha,  celebrated  for  its  coffee. 

185.  Arabia. — Consists  mostly  of  a  barren  plateau  inhabited  by 
wandering  people  called  Bedouins,  who  are  divided  into  tribes 
governed  by  chiefs,  and  have  fine  horses  and  camels,  and  often  at- 
tack the  caravans  of  merchants  and  rob   them. 


66  IE  AC  HERS'   AX  I)  STUDEX IS    LI  HEART. 

186.  Persia. — A  large  country  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and 
the  Persian  Gulf.  The  greater  part  i^  a  plateau  with  sandy  deserts. 
The  people  are  comparatively  progressive,  and  excel  in  several 
kinds  of  manufactures,  as  silk  goods,  shawls,  carpets,  arms  and 
jewelry.  Teheran  is  the  capital.  The  government  is  despotic,  the 
ruler  styled  the  Shah.      The  religion  is  Mohammedanism. 

187.  Belooehistan  and  Afghanistan.  Lie  east  of  Persia.  They 
are  mostly  barren  countries,  inhabited  by  warlike  tribes  under  the 
leadership  of  Khans.  Afghanistan  is  important  because  on  the 
chief  route  from  India  to  Western   Asia. 

188.  India. — Comprises  the  peninsula  of  Hindustan  and  north 
to  the  Himalaya  Mts.,  with  British  Burmah  and  the  island  of 
Ceylon.  About  half  as  large  as  the  U.  S.,  but  with  a  population 
five  times  as  great.  Agriculture  is  the  leading  pursuijL  and  rice  the 
principal  article  of  food.  Opium,  cotton,  flax,  indigo  and  tea. 
Ceylon  produces  coffee,  cinnamon  and  cocoanuts.  The  cashmere 
shawls  made  from  the  hair  of  the  Cashmere  goat  are  celebrated. 

Calcutta  is  capital,  the  greatest  commercial  city  of  Asia.  The 
country  is  mainly  under  control  of  Great  Britain.  Queen  Victoria 
has  now  the  title  of  "Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  and 
Empress  of  India."  The  language  is  Hindostanee, a  corrupt  form 
of  the  ancient  Sanskrit.  Some  of  the  higher  classes  of  Hindoos 
are  great  scholars  and  fine  reasoners,  and  have  a  literature  which 
reaches  back  4,000  years.  The  people  of  British  Burmah  are 
Mongolians  (22). 

189.  Indo-China,  or  Farther  India. — Includes  the  kingdoms 
of  Burmah,  Siam  and  Assam,  with  Lower  Cochin  China  and  Cam- 
bodia, the  two  latter  belonging  to  France,  also  the  petty  States  of 
the  Malay  peninsula  ruled  by  native  chiefs.  Rice  the  principal  prod- 
uct,  also  sugar,  spices  and  tobacco.  Most  of  the  people  are  Mon- 
golians; those  of  the  Malay  peninsula  .ire  of  the  Malay  race.  The 
three  kingdoms  first  named  are  despotic. 

190.  The  Chinese  Empire. — About  one-fourth  larger  than  the 
{].  S.,  and  with  a  population  about  nine  times  as  great,  equal  to  one- 
third  of  that  of  the  entire  globe.  The  southeastern  part,  including 
about  one-third  of  the  entire  area,  contains  the  greater  part  of  the 
population,  and  is  called  China  Proper.  The  remainder  contains 
great  deserts  and  is  inhabited  l>y  a  wandering  race  called  Tartars. 
The  peninsula  of  Corea  is  ruled  by  a  king  who  pays  tribute  to 
China.  China  Proper  is  highly  cultivated,  tea  and  rice  being  the 
great  staples.  Silk  is  produced  in  large  quantities.  The  Chinese 
are  in  many  respects  a  wonderful  people.  They' display  remark- 
able skill  in  the  manufacture  of  various  articles,  as  silk  and  satin 
goods,  porcelain,  fire  works,  etc.  They  have  a  literature  which 
reaches  hack  main  centuries,  and  claim  to  trace  their  history  back 
30,000  years.  They  have  long  practiced  arts  which  are  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin  in  other  countries.     Their  language    is  pe- 


GEOGRAPHY.  67 

culiar,  having  a  character  for  every  word,  and  is  written  up  and 
down  the  page.  Until  of  late  years  they  have  kept  themselves 
excluded  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  hence  made  no  progress.  The 
boys  are  taught  to  read  and  write,  but  the  girls  are  not  educated. 
They  consume  great  quantities  of  opium,  which  they  import  from 
India.      Pekin  is  the  capital  and  the  largest  city  in  Asia. 

The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  and  the  laws  are 
very  rigid. 

191.  Japan. — The  Empire  of  Japan  consists  of  four  large 
islands,  and  about  4,000  small  ones,  lying  east  of  Asia,  and  sepa- 
rated from  the  mainland  mainly  by  the  Japan  Sea.  The  large  islands 
are  mountainous.  The  productions  are  similar  to  China.  The 
people  are  of  the  same  race  and  religion  as  the  Chinese,  but  speak 
a  different  language  and  are  rather  more  intelligent  and  progressive. 
They  once  excluded  foreigners,  but  now  trade  with  other  nations, 
particularly  the  U.  S.  and  Great  Britain,  and  have  introduced  rail- 
roads, telegraphs,  schools,  newspapers,  etc.  Some  of  their  young 
men  are  being  educated  in  the  U.  S.  and  expect  to  go  back  to  teach 
their  fellow-countrymen.  Tokio  (formerly  called  Yeddo)  is  the 
capital.  The  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  the  ruler  styled 
Mikado. 

AFRICA. 

192.  A  large  peninsula  connected  with  Asia  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez  and  separated  from  Europe  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and 
almost  from  Asia  by  the  Red  Sea.  These  seas  are  now  connected 
by  a  ship  canal,  which  virtually  makes  an  island  of  Africa. 

193.  It  is  about  three  times  as  large  as  Europe.  Has  a  com- 
paratively small  extent  of  coast  line  (16,000  miles),  there  being  but 
few  indentations.  This  is  a  great  disadvantage,  in  a  commercial 
sense,  and  is  one  reason  why  Africa  is  behind  the  rest  of  the  world 
in  civilization.  The  Atlantic  Ocean  washes  its  eastern  shores,  with 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea  as  the  only  great  indentation;  on  the  west  is  the 
Indian  Ocean  in  which  lies  the  large  island  of  Madagascar  separated 
from  the  main  land  by  the  Mozambicpie  Channel.  The  most  north- 
ern point  is  Cape  Bon,  the  most  southern  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the 
most  eastern  Cape  Verd,  and  the  most  western  Cape  Guardafui. 

194.  "  Nearly  the  whole  surface  consists  of  broad,  low  pla- 
teaus. The  edges  of  the  continent  are  bordered,  and  its  surface 
broken  by  short  mountain  ranges."  The  Atlas  Mts.  are  in  the 
northern  part,  the  Kong  Mts.  in  the  western  ami  various  broken 
chains  in  the  southern  and  western  pa  its  among  which  towers  the 
peak  of  Kilimanjaro  (20,000  feet)  lying  near  the  equator  and  the 
highest  in  Africa.  A  vast  plain  in  the  northern  part  covered  with 
sand,  with  here  and  there  fertile  spots  called  oases,  is  styled  the 
Desert  of  Sahara. 

195.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Nile  flowing   north  into  the 


TEAi  HERS  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

Mediterranean,  the  Zambesi  flowing  into  the  Indian  O.  and  the 
Congo  and  the  Niger  into  the  Atlantic.  In  the  eastern  part  near 
the  equator  arc  a  number  of  large  lakes  equal  to  if  not  greater 
than  the  great  Lakes  of  N.  A.  but  none  of  them  have  yet  been  fully 
explored.  The  largest  are  Victoria  and  Tanganyika.  In  Central 
Africa  is  L.  Tchad.  The  Nile  R.  i<  the  outlet  of  Lakes  Victoria 
and  Albert. 

196.  The  climate  is  hotter  than  any  of  the  other  divisions. 
This  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  lies  within  the  torrid 
/one,  also  to  the  presence  of  the  great  desert  whose  sand  rapidly 
absorbs  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  radiates  it  again  into  the  air,  as  well 
as  to  the  fact  of  its  land  lying  in  a  compact  mass.  (See  Phys. 
Geog.)  The  hottest  part  is  some  distance  north  of  the  equator. 
Some  parts  of  the  coast  are  very  unhealthy.  The  Sahara  is  rainless, 
also  the  Kalahari   Desert  in  the  southern  part. 

197.  Except  in  the  rainless  districts  the  vegetation  is  luxuriant. 
Along  the  Mediterranean  coast  are  produced  wheat,  barley,  millet, 
sugar  cane,  olives,  dates  and  cotton;  along  the  Nile,  cotton,  corn, 
sugar  cane,  barley  and  rice;  along  the  eastern  coast,  coffee,  spices, 
India  rubber  tree;  the  fruits  and  grains  of  temperate  regions  in 
southern  part;  along  the  western  coast,  the  oil  palm,  date  palm, 
cocoa,  rice,  coffee,  spices,  figs,  pineapples,  bananas  and  other 
tropical  fruits. 

198.  Africa  is  a  vast  menagerie,  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hip- 
popotamus, giraffe,  chimpanzee,  gorilla,  zebra,  lion,  leopard,  ostrich, 
crocodile,  antelope,  buffalo,  many  species  of  parrots,  monkeys  and 
reptiles,  and  many  smaller  quadrupeds  and  birds,  and  beautiful, 
strange  and  poisonous  insects. 

199.  The  minerals  of  Africa  are  valuable.  Gold  is  found  on 
the  Atlantic  coast,  diamonds  in  the  southern  part,  and  iron,  lead, 
copper  and  salt  in  various  parts. 

200.  The  people  of  the  northern  and  northeastern  parts  are 
mostly  of  the  Caucasian  race,  and  embrace  the  Mohammedan 
religion.  The  remainder  of  the  continent  is  inhabited  mostly  by 
negroes,  very  low  and  uncivilized,  Fetichism  their  religion. 

POLITICAL      DIVISIONS. 

201.  The  Barbary  States,  composed  of  the  following  States 
lying  along  the  Mediterranean  :  "  Morocco,  an  independent  absolute 
monarchy,  under  a  sultan;  Algeria,  a  French  colony,  containing 
many  European  residents;  Tunis,  an  absolute  monarchy  nominally 
dependent  on  Turkey  though  it  has  ceased  to  pay  tribute,  ruled  by 
a  bey  f  Tripoli,  dependent  on  Turkey. 

202.  Egypt.  The  most  civilized  country  of  Africa,  is  an  abso- 
lute monarchy  paying  tribute  to  Turkey.  The  ruler  is  called  the 
Khedive.  Egypt  was  once  the  most  important  country  of  the 
world.     The  pyramids   and  ruins  of  ancient  cities  with   their  hiero- 


GEOGRAPHT.  69 

glyphics,  point  to  its  former  civilization.  The  Nile  R.  annually 
overflows  its  banks  leaving  the  country  enriched  by  the  deposits  of 
mud  brought  down  from  the  interior  of  the  continent.  Cairo  the 
capital,  is  the  largest  and  most  important  city  of  Africa.  Alexandria 
is  an  important  seaport.     (See  General   History,  sees.  20-42.) 

203.  Abyssinia. — In  the  eastern  part  of  Africa.  The  people 
carry  on  a  trade  in  coffee  and  gums  with  the  Arabs.  The  govern- 
ment is  an  absolute  monarchy  and  the  people  are  barbarous  and 
warlike. 

204.  Cape  Colony. — The  extreme  southern  part  of  Africa, 
belongs  to  Great  Britain.  It  is  in  the  temperate  zone  and  is  adapted 
to  sheep  and  cattle  raising.  It  exports  diamonds,  copper  ore  and 
ostrich  feathers  and  wool;  ostrich  farming  or  the  raising  of  ostriches 
for  the  feathers  is  quite  a  business.  About  one-third  the  population 
is  European,  the  remainder  native.     Cape  Town  is  the  capital. 

205.  Natal  and  Transvaal  are  also  colonies  of  Great  Britain. 
Caffraria  and  Zululand  are  native  States.  The  Orange  River  Free 
State  is  a  republic  peopled  mostly  by  Boers,  farmers  of  Dutch 
descent.  These  countries  are  adapted  to  agriculture  and  grazing, 
and  contain  rich  minerals. 

206.  The  eastern  coast  of  Africa  is  divided  among  different 
native  tribes.  Traders  visit  it  and  obtain  ivory,  tortoise  shell,  gums 
and  spices. 

207.  The  republic  of  Liberia,  originally  established  for  freed 
negroes  from  the  U.  S.,  is  on  the  western  coast.  The  capital  is 
Monrovia.  Guinea  is  the  name  of  that  country  along  the  shores 
of  the  gulf  of  Guinea.  Senegambia  on  the  coast  and  Soudan  lies 
to  the  east  of  it.  All  of  these  countries  are  inhabited  by  native 
Africans,  some  of  whom  possess  a  rude  system  of  agriculture, 
but  most  of  them  live  on  hunting  and  the  products  of  herds,  and 
trade  with  Europeans,  giving  ivory,  palm  oil,  gums  and  gold  dust 
for  fire-arms,  liquors,  etc.  A  few  settlements  of  the  British,  Portu- 
guese and  French  are  on  the  coast,  but  in  many  places  the  climate 
is  deadly  to  Europeans. 

208.  The  region  lying  under  and  south  of  the  equator  is 
inhabited  by  savages,  many  of  whom  arc  cannibals.  It  was  the 
scene  of  the  explorations  of  the  famous  Dr.  Livingstone  and  his 
discoverer,  Stanley. 

ocean  rr  A. 

209.  Oceanica,  or  Oceana,  comprises  a  great  many  islands 
which  have  been  grouped  as  Malaysia,  Australasia,  including 
Australia  which  is  called  a  continent,  and  Polynesia.  Some  of  the 
islands  are  of  coral    formation,  many  are  volcanic.      (See    Physical 

Geography.) 

210.  The  people  belong  mainly  to  the  Malay  race  (25).  Some 
have   been    converted    to   Christianity,   but   the   majority    are   Mo- 


70  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

hammedans    or    Pagans    (28).       Many    Europeans    mx-   found    in 

Australia. 

211.  Malaysia. —  Called  also  Hast  Indian  Archipelago  includes 
the  large  islands  of  Borneo,  Sumatra,  Celebes  and  Java,  the  three 
first  lying  on  the  equator,  the  latter  south  of  it,  and  a  group  called 
the  Phillippine  Islands,  with  many  adjacent  small  i^laml^.  They 
-ecm  t<>  form  a  kind  of  connecting  link  between  the  large  mass  of 
Australia  and  the  main  land  of  Asia.  The  climate  is  generally  hot 
and  the  vegetation  luxuriant.  They  produce  rice,  the  chief  grain; 
sugar  cane,  coffee,  indigo,  sago, caoutchouc,  gutta  percha,  camphor, 
dye-stuffs,  cocoa  nuts,  valuable  -woods;  it  "  is  the  great  spice  region 
of  the  world."  Gold,  copper,  iron,  tin  and  diamonds  are  found.  The 
Phillippine  Islands  belong  to  Spain,  part  of  Borneo  belongs  to 
Great  Britain,  hut  most  of  the  Islands  belong  to  Holland. 

212.  Australasia. — Includes  the  large  island  (or  small  continent) 
of  Australia,  New  Guinea,  or  Papua,  New  Zealand  and  adjacent 
islands. 

Australia  i--  about  the  size  of  the  U.  S.,  not  including  Alaska. 
A  very  regular  coast  line  of  S,ooo  miles;  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria 
indents  it  on  the  north.  The  interior  is  a  vast  plateau,  not  yet  fully 
explored;  the  eastern  coast  is  mountainous.  The  Murray  is  the 
only  important  river.  The  climate  is  hot  in  the  northern  part,  in 
the  interior  dry,  in  the  southern  part  extremes  of  wet  and  dry. 
The  vegetation  and  animals  are  peculiar.  Few  of  the  native  plants. 
supply  food  for  man.  The  trees  are  mostly  evergreen  and  some 
shed  their  hark  instead  of  their  leaves.  The  peculiar  wild  animals 
are  the  kangaroo  of  which  there  are  many  species,  the  ornitho- 
rhynchus,  which  seems  to  be  a  connecting  link  between  birds  and 
mammals,  the  lyre  bird,  the  bower  bird,  the  emu  and  the  apteryx, 
(See  Physical  Geog.  and  Zoology). 

The  country  is  adapted  to  sheep  raising  and  great  numbers  arc 
raised  for  their  wool.  In  the  value  of  its  gold  mines  it  is  second 
only  to  the  U.  S. ;  copper,  iron,  coal,  tin,  lead  and  silver  are  also 
abundant.  The  country  is  under  control  of  Great  Britain  and  is 
divided  into  several  colonies,  the  Europeans  occupying  principally 
the  southern  coast  and  engaged  in  sheep  raising  and  gold  mining. 
The  natives  are  of  a  very  low  type  of  humanity. 

Tasmania  and  New  Zealand  are  British  colonies.  New  Guinea 
is  inhabited  mainly  by  savages. 

213.  Polynesia. — Includes  all  the  islands  lying  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean  not  included  in  the  other  divisions  of  (  Kcanica  except  those 
lying  close  to  the  shores  of  the  other  grand  divisions. 

The  Sandwich  Islands  lie  near  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  about 
2,000  miles  from  San  Francisco.  They  constitute  the  Kingdom  ot 
Hawaii.  The  people  are  partially  civilized  and  Christianized.  The 
productions  are  similar  to  semi-tropical  climates.    Sugar  is  the  prin- 

I  export.      The  Feejee  and  the  Society  Islands  are  groups  lying 


GEOGRAPHY  71 

near    the    Tropic    of  Capricorn.     The    former    belongs    to    Great 
Britain,  and  the  latter  arc  mainly  under  French  protection. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 

214.  Geography  is  in  itself  a  very  interesting  study  and  when 
not  made  repulsive  by  a  rote  method  of  teaching,  is  perhaps  the 
most  interesting  of  all  studies. 

The  first  step  with  a  class  of  beginners  should  be  to 
develop  the  idea  of  direction.  See  that  the  pupils  have  a  clear 
idea  of  East,  West,  North  and  South  and  the  intermediate  or 
semi-cardinal  points.  A  few  minutes'  questioning  and  concert  drill 
will  determine  this.  Next  proceed  to  explain  how  you  could 
show  to  a  person  at  a  distance  just  how  objects  are  arranged  in  your 
schoolroom  by  drawing  a  map  of  it. 

Proceed  somewhat  as  follows:  Drawing  a  horizontal  line  on 
the  blackboard,  you  tell  the  pupils  that  you  wish  to  represent  by 
it  the  north  side  of  the  schoolroom.  Then  drawing  another  line 
parallel  and  some  distance  below  it,  the  pupils  will  tell  yon  perhaps 
that  it  will  represent  the  south  side;  then  connecting  the  two  lines 
to  form  a  rectangular  figure  you  can  easily  show  how  it  represents 
the  form  of  the  schoolroom,  and  by  comparing  it  with  a  map  in 
the  books  show  that  the  top  of  a  map  is  always  north,  the  bottom 
south,  the  right  side  east  and  the  left  west.  Then  you  may  pro- 
ceed to  make  marks  designating  the  position  of  the  stove  and  other 
objects  in  the  schoolroom.  The  pupils  may  be  allowed  to  mark 
the  positions  of  the  objects  in  the  room.  Now  for  the  next  lesson, 
you  may  ask  the  class  to  bring  a  map  of  the  schoolroom  drawn 
on  their  slates  and  in  addition  write  on  the  blackboard  for  them  to 
copy  on  the  slates  a  topic  list  for  their  investigation.  The  topics 
may  be  "  How  to  Find  the  Directions,"  "  A  Map,"  "  Shape  of  the 
Earth,"  "  Definition  of  Geography."  At  the  next  recitation  draw 
in  a  similar  manner  a  map  of  the  school  yard  locating  the  buildings 
and  other  objects  and  explain  how  you  might  proceed  from  this  to 
a  farm  and  from  a  farm  to  a  Township,  County,  Slate,  etc. 

215.  The  Natural  Divisions  of  land  and  water  may  come 
next,  the  teacher  writing  the  terms  to  be  discussed  on  the  board,  re- 
quiring the  pupil  to  copy  them.  The  proofs  of  the  earth's  rotundity, 
the  size,  movements  and  circles  may  he  deferred  until  the  pupil  has 
studied  the  form  and  size  of  the  grand  divisions  and  descriptions  of 
some  of  the  countries.  The  pupils  may  he  required  to  write  on  the 
slates  a  certain  number  of  rivers,  cities,  mountains,  etc.,  or  the  prod- 
ucts <>f  a  country  as  corn,  wheat,  coal,  iron,  etc.  Frequent  map 
drills  from  wall  maps  are  of  course  necessary  in  fixing  location  and 
form   of  countries. 

216.  With  advanced  classes  the  topic  method  may  he  full) 
carried  out.  The  outline  at  the  head  of  the  subject  in  this  book 
may  be  divided  up  into  topic  lists.      For  the   special    study   of  coun- 


72  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS   I.IHRARV. 

tries  we  have  given  topic  lists  on  the  pages  following.  The  general 
heads  of  the  outline  may  be  given,  and  pupils  be  required  to  fill 
them  out  as  review  exercises. 

217.  A    judicious  system   of  questioning    is  necessary     as    in 

teaching  any  subject.  Ideal  journeys  may  be  assigned,  that  is, 
say  starting  with  a  certain  point  and  traveling  by  rail  or  steam  to 
some  distant  point,  require  pupils  to  point  out  all  the  places  of 
interest  and  importance  on  the  route.  It  is  not  best  to  teach  too 
much  of  the  details  of  the  subject;  for  example,  if  pupils  can  tell 
as  many  facts  in  regard  to  a  State  as  we  have  given  in  the  text,  they 
will  have  made  a  good  recitation.  It  is  necessary,  of  course,  in 
text-books,  to  give  more  information,  but  it  is  only  that  the  main 
points  may  be  made  more  clear,  and  in  Geography  much  is  given 
that  is  of  value  merely  for  occasional  reference. 

218.  A  great  deal  of  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  study  of 
local,  or  home  geography.  The  pupil's  own  State  should  be  more 
thoroughlv  studied  than  any  other. 

219.  A  system  of  map  drawing  is  now  given  in  all  text-books. 
No  teacher  should  pretend  to  teach  Geography  and  not  use  some 
system  of  map  drawing.  The  system  of  thawing  by  using  the 
lines  of  latitude  and  longitude  is  the  best  because  the  simplest,  and 
because  it  teaches  latitude  and  longitude  at  the  same  time. 

220.  This  system  may  be  described  briefly  as  follows:  The 
map  should  never  be  drawn  t lie  same  size  as  that  in  the  book.  It 
may  be  drawn  one  and  a  half,  two,  or  three  times  as  large.  The 
border  lines  are  first  drawn  b\  measuring  the  border  lines  of  the 
one  in  the  book  and  then  reproducing  them,  making  due  allowance 
for  increase   of  size. 

Next  draw  the  parallels  and  meridians  in  the  following  man- 
ner: Measure  on  the  top  border  line  the  distance  to  the  first  merid- 
ian, multiply  this  distance  by  your  multiple  i  % ,  2  or  3  as  the  case 
may  be  and  make  a  mark  at  the  proper  place  on  your  copy.  Ascer- 
tain the  beginnings  of  each  meridian  in  the  same  manner.  Ascer- 
tain their  endings  on  the  lower  border  line  in  the  same  manner. 
Now  draw  the  meridians  by  merely  connecting  these  points  with  a 
line  drawn  by  a  flexible  ruler.  Determine  where  the  parallels  cut 
the  border  lines  on  the  side  in  the  same  manner  and  connect  the 
points  with  the  flexible  ruler.  Having  thus  reproduced  the  lines  of 
latitude  and  longitude  in  the  proper  proportion  it  is  easy  to  draw 
the  boundary  lines  of  the  countries  and  locate  the  points  bv  refer- 
ring to  these  construction  lines. 

221.  Map  drawing  should  not  occupy  too  much  of  the  pupil's 

time.  It  is  better  that  a  little  w  ork  be  done  each  day  and  the  pupil 
take  a  week  or  more  for  the  construction  of  one  map,  than  that  he 
should  finish  one  at  a  sitting.  Maps  should  be  drawn  first  OH  cheap 
Wrapping  paper  with  a  lead  pencil.  When  the  pupil  has  acquired 
some  degree  of  skill  he  may  copy  one  or  more  of  his  maps  on  good 


GEOGRAPHT.  IS 

flat  cap  or  card  board  paper,  making  light  lines  with  a  hard  pencil 
and  going  over  them  again  with  pen  and  ink,  thus  making  a  map 
which  he  can  keep. 

222.      Topic  List  for  the  Study  of  any  State  in  the  U.  S. 

i.     position,    j  Latitude  and  Longitude. 

I  Boundaries. 

2.       FORM . 

■,      S,7P        I  Absolute. 

7.       SIZE.         \    ,-,     .     .. 

°  |  Relative. 

!  Mountains,  Plateaus,  etc. 
Rivers  and  Lakes. 
Slope. 

{Length. 
Indentations. 
Projections. 
I  As  to  Temperature. 
As  to  Moisture. 
As  to  Winds. 

f  i  Animal. 


\  Natural.      -j  Vegetable. 
(  Mineral. 


PRODUCTIONS. 

[anufactured  articles. 


[m 


8.  INDUSTRIES. 

9.  CAPITAL. 

10.  largest  city,  and  other  cities  and  places  of  interest- 

11.  history,      i  Settlement. 

I  Admission. 

12.  MISCELLANEOUS. 

Explanation. — In  giving  latitude  and  longitude  it  is  only  necessary  to  give  the  parallels 
and  meridians  between  which  the  State  lies  to  the  nearest  whole  number.  When  studying 
the  pupil's  own  State  the  absolute  size  should  be  given.  Other  States  should  be  compared 
with  it  in  size  or  with  some  other  State  whose  absolute  size  has  been  memorized.  Natural 
curiosities  as  caves  and  waterfalls,  places  of  resort,  interesting  items  in  regard  to  relative  im- 
portance in  wealth,  productions,  etc.,  may  be  brought  in  under  the  topic,  miscellaneous. 

223.  For  the  study  of  the  political  divisions  of  Europe  and 
Asia  the  topic  list  given  above  may  he  used  by  making  some  ad- 
ditions. The  following  topics  may  be  added:  Government,  Rc- 
ligion,  Races,  La?iguage,  Name  of  Present  Ruler,  Works  of  Art, 
Noted  Buildings,  etc.  The  United  States  as  a  whole,  also  the 
other  political  divisions  of  North  America  and  the  States  of  South 
America,  may  be  studied  by  this  amended  topic  list.  For  reviews 
and  the  more  special  study  of  Lakes,  Rivers,  Mountains,  Islands, 
The  Ocean,  Volcanoes,  Distribution  of  Animals  and  Plants,  Min- 
erals, Climate,  etc.,  See  topic  lists  given  under  Physical  Geography 
in  this  volume. 

224.  Every  schoolroom  should  have  a  globe  and  outline  maps. 
If  boards  of  education  have  not  provided  such  and  the  teacher  can- 
not prevail  upon  them  to  do  so,  and  is  not  able  to  purchase  them 
himself,  he  may  draw  outline  maps  on  the  blackboard  for  tempo- 
rary purposes,  or  on  the  white  wall  with  colored  chalk,  or  on  large 
sheets  of  cheap  wrapping  paper  with  crayon  or  prepared  charcoal, 
and  make  use  of  an  apple  or  ball  as  a  substitute  for  ;i  globe.     Globes 


74  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS' LIBRARY. 

which  will  answer  the  purpose  very  well  can  now  he  bought,  how- 
ever, for  ten  cents  and  much  larger  ones  for  25  and  50  cents,  so  that 
no  one  need  he  without  this  useful  piece  of  apparatus. 

225.  The  latitude  and  longitude  of  noted  places  may  be  readily 
learned  by  frequent  drills  like  the  following:  The  teacher  with 
globe  in  hand  selects  some  parallel  as,  say  400  N.  and  says  "I  find 
on  this  parallel  or  very  near  it,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Columbus,  O., 
Denver,  Col.,  Cape  Mendocino,  Madrid,  Spain,  Strait  of  Qtranto, 
Pekin,  China."  Then  taking  the  parallel  of  30  N.  he  says,  »  I  find 
on  or  near  this  parallel,  New  Orleans,  La.,  St.  Augustine,  Fla., 
Cairo,  Egypt,  the  head  of  Persian  Gulf.  What  is  the  lat.  of 
Madrid,  of  New  Orleans,  of  Cairo,  of  Columbus,  O.,  etc.?  "  Then 
taking  another  parallel  he  adds  a  few  more  places,  and  again 
questions  promiscuously  and  so  on  until  he  has  given  all  the  im- 
portant points  on  the  globe.  Such  drills  occasionally  are  very 
interesting,  and  tend  to  make  the  study  an  amusement  for  the  pupils. 

226.  In  this  line  of  Geographical  recreations  the  popular 
names  of  States,  cities,  etc.,  may  be  made  the  subject  of  occasional 
question  drills.  (See  Index  and  Glossary  of  this  book  for  such  in- 
teresting information).  The  population  of  large  cities  may  be 
learned  in  a  similar  manner.  The  teacher  may  write  on  the  hoard 
in  round  numbers  the  pop.  of  a  dozen  or  more  large  cities  and  after 
telling  the  class  the  names  of  the  cities,  point  to  the  numbers  promis- 
cuously, requiring  the  class  to  name  the  respective  cities  the 
numbers  represent.  Other  recreations  of  a  similar  character  will 
suggest  themselves  to  thoughtful  teachers. 

227.  Blackboards  and  slates  may  be  used  to  great  advantage 
in  teaching  Geography.  Have  pupils  write  names  of  countries, 
cities,  productions,  etc.  Criticise  their  spelling,  capitalization,  etc., 
and  require  each  pupil  to  sign  his  name  to  his  work,  and  when 
placed  on  the  blackboard  do  not  allow  it  to  be  erased  until  the 
board  is  needed  for  other  work.     This  insures  good  -work. 

QUESTIONS    ON    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  number*  refer  to' sections  of  the  text.  Many  of  the  questions  consist  of  one  word. 
The  teacher  should  write  out  or  express  the  question  in  full,  [tis  hoped  the  questions  will 
be  sutfEcstive  of  many  more  which  may  be  asked  by  the  teacher.  Some  are  suyr^esUvc  ol  the 
answcr"and  may  be  occasionally  used  lor  primary  pupils. 

..1  mkai.   GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Define  Geography ;  Mathematical  Geography  ;  Physical  Geography ;  Po- 
litical Geography.  2.  Name  the  proofs  that  the  earth  is  round.  3.  Diameter, 
circumference,  and  area  of  surface? 

4.  What  is  the  Horizon?  Cardinal  Points?  The  Compass?  5.  Motions 
of  the  earth?  Orbit?  What  causes  day  and  night?  How  often  does  the  earth 
turn  011  its  axis  while  it  is  going  around  the  sun?  Explain  the  change  of  sea- 
sons'    Poles? 

6.  How  is  position  on  the  earth  represented?  Define  Equator,  Meridian 
Circles,  Parallels.  Latitude  and  Longitude.  7.  Wh.it  place  on  the  earth  has 
no  Latitude?      How  many   degrees  of  Latitude  can    there  he?       How  many  of 


GEOGRAPHY.  75 

Longitude?     What   direction   is   Iceland   from    the   North    Pole?      What  is  a 
degree  ? 

8-  What  are  the  Tropics  and  Polar  Circles?  9.  Zones?  10.  Define  Hem- 
isphere. 11.  Define  Continent,  Island,  Archipelago.  12.  Peninsula?  Cape? 
Isthmus?  13.  How  is  land  divided  as  to  Relief?  14.  Define  Ocean;  Gulf; 
Bay ;  Strait. 

15.  Lakes?  Rivers?  Ocean  Currents?  16.  Climate?  What  is  a  general 
law  of  climate?  17.  General  character  of  Frigid  Zones?  iS.  Of  the  Torrid 
Zone?     19.    Of  the  Temperate  Zones? 

20 — 25.  Name  and  describe  the  Races  of  Men?  26.  States  of  Society? 
27 — 29.  Religions?  30 — 31.  Forms  of  Government?  32 — 33.  Occupations? 
34.  What  advantages  has  a  mountainous  country  over  the  low  lands?  What 
are  the  occupations  of  people  of  a  mountainous  country  likely  to  be?  35. , 
Name  the  principal  useful  metals;  building  material;  precious  metals;  precious 
stones;  other  minerals  of  value. 

NORTH    AMERICA. 

36,  r64_  Which  is  the  larger,  North  America  or  Asia?  37.  Name  the 
principal  indentations  of  the  coast  of  N.  A.  3S.  The  large  Peninsulas  of  N.  A. 
The  Important  Capes?  39.  Give  a  general  description  of  the  Surface  of  N.  A. 
40.  Name  the  great  Rivers  of  N.  A.  41.  What  are  the  Great  Lakes?  What 
other  lakes  in  N.  A.? 

42.  Describe  the  climate  of  N.  A.  43.  Name  the  Political  Divisions  of 
N.  A. 

THE    UNITED    STATES. 

44.  What  is  the  extent  of  Lat.  and  Lon.  of  the  U.  S.?  How  many  States 
at  present?  Size  of  U.  S.?  45.  Where  is  the  center  of  pop.?  The  Geograph- 
ical center?  46.  Name  the  advantages  of  the  U.  S.  47.  What  are  the  causes 
of  the  great  prosperity  and  rapid  growth  of  the  U.  S.  ? 

48.  What  kind  of  a  Government  has  the  U.  S.?  49.  Leading  Industries; 
Productions?     50—52.  Other  Industries. 

THE    STATES    AND    TERRITORIES. 

55.  Tell  all  you  know  about  Alabama.  56.  What  place  of  resort  in  Arkan- 
sas? 57.  What  State  produces  most  gold,  quicksilver,  wine,  wool  and  barlev? 
Name  some  peculiar  features  of  California.  5S.  Where  is  Leadville?  59. 
Where  is  Yale  College?     What  State  is  smaller  than  Connecticut? 

Co.  Tell  all  you  know  about  Delaware.  61.  What  State  is  a  peninsula? 
What  and  where  is  the  oldest  city  in  the  U.S.?  What  and  where  are  the 
"  Everglades?"  62.  What  State  is"  the  most  flourishing  of  the  Southern  States? 
63.  Tell  all  you  know  about  Chicago.  What  State  has  most  railroads?  64. 
What  is  the  largest  city  in  the  U.  S.  not  on  navigable  waters?  Where  is  Wy- 
andotte Cave?     65.    What  is  the  Capital  and  Largest  City  of  Iowa? 

66.  Describe  Kansas.  67.  What  State  is  noted  for  the  production  of  hemp, 
flax,  tobacco  and  thorough  bred  horses,  mules  and  cattle?  Where  is  the  Mam- 
moth Cave?  68.  What  is  the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  South?  What  is 
the  greatest  cotton  market  of  the  world?  What  is  the  greatest  sugar  market  in 
the  U.  S.?  69.  Where  is  Mt.  Katahdin?  What  State  is  noted  for  its  many  har- 
bors? What  State  has  one-tenth  of  its  surface  covered  with  lakes?  70.  What 
city  is  noted  as  a  market  for  canned  fruits  and  oysters?  Where  is  the  Chesa- 
peake Bay?     What  Capes  at  its  entrance? 

71.  What  city  is  noted  as  a  literary  center?  Where  is  Harvard  Univer- 
sity? What  State  is  the  most  thickly  settled?  7:.  What  Stale  is  made  up  of 
two  Peninsulas?  73.  In  what  State  does  the  "  Father  of  Waters"  rise?  In 
what  respect  do  Minnesota  and  Maine  resemble? 

74.  What  State  takes  the  lead  in  cotton  production?  Where  is  Vicks- 
burg  and  for  what  is  it  noted?  75.  What  city  is  first  in  the  manufacture  of 
flour?  76.  Where  is  Omaha?  77.  What  are  the  peculiar  features  of  Nevada? 
Where  are  the  Humboldt  Mis.? 


76  TEACHERS1  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART 

Jf8.  When.-  18  Mt  Washington  and  what  is  its  height?  What  river  moves 
more  machinery  than  any  other  in  the  world?  79.  What  State  furnishes  a 
great  part  of  the  fruits  and  vegetables  consumed  by  New  York  and  Philadel- 
phia?    What  city  produces  more  crockery  than  any  other  city  in  America? 

So.  What  State  is  ahead  in  hay,  potatoes,  buckwheat  and  dairy  products? 
What  is  the  largest  city  in  the  L'.  5.?  Tell  all  you  know  about  it?  Where  are 
the  Niagara  Falls?  St.  What  State  is  noted  for  the  production  of  tar,  pitch, 
turpentine  and  rosin?  What  city  is  the  greatest  market  in  the  world  for  naval 
stores? 

S2.  Tell  all  you  know  about  Ohio.  S3.  What  river  is  noted  for  salmon  ? 
84.  What  is  the  second  city  in  size  in  the  U.  S.?  What  State  produces  most 
coal  andiron?  What  city  is  the  greatest  petroleum  market  in  the  world?  85. 
What  is  the  smallest  State?  What  State  has  two  capitals?  86.  What  State 
produces  most  rice?     What  important  cotton  port  on  the  Atlantic? 

87.  What  are  the  principal  productions  of  Tennessee?  Its  Capital  and 
Largest  City?  SS.  What  is  the  largest  State?  How  many  times  larger  than 
the  smallest  State?  What  State  produces  most  cattle?  What  river  between 
U.  S.  and  Mexico? 

S9.  What  lake  between  Vermont  and  New  York?  Where  are  the  Green 
Mts.?  90.  Describe  Virginia.  91.  What  is  the  Capital  of  West  Virginia?  92. 
What  city  in  Wisconsin  is  noted  as  a  wheat  market?  93.  For  what  is  Arizona 
noted  ? 

94.  What  benefit  is  Alaska  to  the  U.  S.?  95,  Where  are  the  Black  Hills 
and  for  what  noted?  96.  Where  is  Idaho  and  for  what  noted?  97.  What  Ter- 
ritory belongs  to  the  Indians?  98.  What  minerals  found  in  Montana?  99. 
What  is  the  second  oldest  city  in  the  U.  S.?  It  is  the  capital  of  what  Ter.?  100. 
What  is  the  capital  of  Washington  Ter.? 

101.  Where  and  what  is  the  "  National  Park?"  102.  What  peculiar  peo- 
ple have  settled  in  Utah?  103.  What  is  the  capital  of  the  U.  S.?  Describe  it. 
How  is  the  District  of  Columbia  governed? 

DOMINION    OF   CANADA    AND    NEW    KOLNDLAND. 

104.  What  does  it  comprise?  Its  size?  105.  Its  government?  106.  Its 
capital?  107.  Its  climate?  10S.  Where  is  Toronto?  109.  Quebec?  Montreal? 
no.  What  Province  of  Canada  borders  on  Maine? 

in.  What  Peninsula  and  Island  together  form  a  province  of  Canada?  112. 
What  Province  of  Canada  is  the  most  thickly  settled  and  the  smallest?  113. 
What  is  the  largest  Province?  Where  is  Vancouver's  Island?  114.  Where  is 
Manitoba?     115.  What  and  where  is  Keevvatin? 

116.  Where  are  the  best  fishing  grounds  in  the  world?  To  what  does  Lab- 
rador belong  ? 

MEXICO. 

117.  Describe  the  surface  of  Mexico.  What  and  where  is  Popocatapetl? 
11S.  Climate  and  Productions  of  Mexico?  119.  The  People?  The  Govern- 
ment? The  Religion?    The  Capital? 

CENTRAL    AMERICA. 

120.  What  does  it  comprise?  121.  Productions?  122.  People  and  their 
Religion? 

THE    WEST    INDIES. 

123.  What  do  they  comprise?  124.  Describe  Cuba?  125.  Hayti?  126. 
Porto  Rico? 

DANISH    AMERICA. 

127.    Describe  Greenland.     128.    Iceland. 

SOUTH    AMERICA. 

129.  Which  is  the  larger,  North  America  or  South  America?  Which  has 
the  most  regular  coast  line?      What  Capes  at  the  extremities?       130.  Describe 


GEOGRAPHY.  77 

the  surface  of  S.  A.  131.  The  Climate,  Peculiar  Animals.  132.  The  People. 
133.  The  Political  Divisions. 

134.  Tell  all  you  know  about  the  Argentine  Republic.  135.  Where  are 
the  most  noted  silver  mines  in  the  world?  What  is  the  cinchona  tree,  and 
where  does  it  grow?  136.  What  is  the  largest  of  the  S.  A.  States?  What  are 
its  productions?  What  is  the  only  monarchy  in  the  New  World?  What  is  the 
largest  city  of  8.  A.?     What  precious  stones  and  metals  found  in  Brazil? 

137.  What  one  of  the  S.  A.  States  is  the  most  progressive?  What  is  the 
second  leading  commercial  city  on  the  Pacific  Coast?  13S.  What  is  peculiar 
about  Quito?     139.  To  what  does  Guiana  belong? 

140.  What  State  of  S.  A.  has  no  sea  coast?  141.  For  what  is  Peru  noted? 
142.  What  is  the  smallest  of  the  S.  A.  States?  143.  To  what  does  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  belong?     144.     Why  was  Venezuela  so  named? 

KUROPE. 

145.  What  is  the  size  of  Europe  compared  with  the  U.  S?  Name  the 
capes  at  its  extremities.  146.  Which  grand  division  has  comparatively  the 
greatest  coast  line?  What  is  the  significance  of  this  fact?  Name  the  penin- 
sulas of  Europe.     147.  Name  the  large  bodies  of  water  bordering  on  Europe. 

148.  Describe  the  surface.  Name  the  mountains.  149.  Rivers?  150.  Clim- 
ate?    151.  Population?     Religion?     People?     152.  Political   Divisions? 

GREAT    BRITAIN   AND  IRELAND. 

153.  What  is  the  extent  of  the  British  Empire?  In  what  respect  does  it 
surpass  other  nations?  154.  Describe  the  government.  155.  What  is  the  size 
of  England?  What  is  the  largest  city  in  the  world?  Tell  all  you  can  about  it. 
What  city  leads  all  others  in  cotton  factories? 

156.  Scotland?  157.  Wales?  158.  Ireland?  159.  What  is  the  second  city  of 
the  world  in  size  and  wealth,  and  for  what  else  is  it  noted?  What  city  is  noted 
for  its  silk  manufactures?  Describe  the  government  of  France.  What  depen- 
dencies has  France? 

160.  Name  the  rivers  of  Germany.  How  does  Germany  rank  in  an  edu- 
cational sense7  Describe  its  government.  161.  Describe  the  Austrian  Empire. 
What  is  the  third  city  in  Europe?  162.  What  Mts.  between  Spain  and  France? 
What  of  the  climate  and  productions  of  Spain?  Why  is  Spain  a  second-rate 
power? 

163.  What  country  is  in  the  shape  of  a  boot?  What  island  at  the  toe  of  tin 
boot?  For  what  is  Rome  noted?  To  what  does  Sardinia  belong?  164.  Tell 
all  you  know  about  Switzerland. 

165.  What  is  the  most  populous  country  of  the  world?  City  noted  for  car- 
pets and  laces?  166.  What  country  below  the  level  of  the  sea?  Where  do  the 
Dutch  come  from?  167.  Describe  Denmark.  Where  and  what  are  the  Skager 
Rack  and  the  Cattegat? 

168.  Climate  and  productions  of  Sweden  and  Norway?  What  is  the 
"  Northern  Venice?  "  169.  What  is  the  largest  empire  in  the  world?  Describe 
it.  170.  What  does  the  Ottoman  Empire  comprise?  How  does  the  civilization 
of  Turkey  compare  with  other  countries  of  Europe?  Race  and  Religion  of  the 
people? 

171.  Tell  all  you  know  about  Greece.  172.  Servia?  Roumania?  Monte- 
negro? Bulgaria?  173.  What  is  the  smallest  and  oldest  republic  in  the  world? 
174.   Andorra? 

\SIA. 

175.  What  is  the  largest  grand  division?  176.  Surface?  The  highest  Mts. 
in  the  world?  177.  Name  the  principal  rivers  of  Asia.  What  bodies  of  water 
lie  below  the  level  of  the  ocean?  17S.  Name  the  important  projections  and  in- 
dentations of  the  coast  line.  What  part  of  the  world  has  the  greatest  rain  fall? 
179.  Climate?     180.  Vegetation,  animals  and  minerals? 


78  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  Bit  ART. 

POLITICAL    DIVISIONS. 

i8i.  Describe  Siberia.  What  is  fossil  ivory?  182.  Where  are  the  hand- 
somest people?  183.  What  and  where  is  Russian  Turkestan?  184.  What  does 
Turkev  in  Asia  include?  1S5.  Who  are  the  Bedouins,  and  where  found?  186. 
Describe  Persia. 

1S7.  Beloochistan  and  Afghanistan?  188.  Tell  all  you  know  about  India. 
1S9.  What  does  Farther  India  include?  190.  How  large  is  the  Chinese  Em- 
pire? Population?  The  staple  products?  Peculiarities  of  the  Chinese?  191. 
What  about  the  civilization  of  Japan?     What  is  a  Mikado? 

AFRICA. 

192.  Is  Africa  a  peninsula  or  an  island? 

193.  Size  of  Africa  compared  with  Europe?  What  is  its  extent  of  coast 
line?  Why  is  it  behind  the  rest  of  the  world  in  civilization?  Where  is  Mada- 
gascar?    Name  the  capes  at  the  extremities  of  Africa. 

194.  Surface  of  Africa?  What  is  the  highest  mountain  in  Africa?  Desert 
of  Sahara?  Oases?  195.  Rivers  of  Africa?  Lakes?  What  is  the  source  of 
the  Nile?  196.  Climate?  Where  is  the  hottest  part  of  Africa?  What  parts 
are  rainless? 

197.  Describe  the  vegetation  of  Africa.  198.  The  animals?  199.  Minerals? 
200.  People?     Religion? 

POLITICAL    DIVISIONS. 

201.  Barbary  States?  What  country  is  ruled  by  a  Bey?  202.  What  is  the 
most  civilized  country  of  Africa?  What  is  a  Khedive?  What  is  the  largest 
city  of  Africa?  What  is  peculiar  about  Egypt?  203.  Abyssinia?  In  what 
country  is  ostrich  farming  carried  on?     To  what  does  Cape  Colony  belong? 

205.  Who  are  the  Boers?     Natal?     Transvaal?     CattVaria?    Zululand? 

206.  Describe  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa.  What  republic  in  Western  Af- 
rica? What  is  its  capital,  and  for  whom  named?  (see  Index).  Where  is  Guinea? 
Soudan?  208.  What  can  be  said  of  Central  Africa?  Who  was  Dr.  Living- 
stone?    Stanley?  (see  Index). 

OCEANICA. 

209.  What  does  Oceanica  comprise?  210.  The  people?  211.  What  three 
large  islands  lie  on  the  equator?  Where  are  the  Phillipine  Islands?  What  is 
the  East  Indian  Archipelago!  Where  is  the  greatest  spice  region  of  the  world? 
What  are  the  productions  of  Malaysia? 

212.  Australasia?  How  large  is  Australia?  Describe  its  surface.  Climate? 
What  is  peculiar  about  the  vegetation  and  animals?  To  what  does  Australia 
belong?  213.  What  does  Polynesia  include?  Where  are  the  Sandwich  Islands? 
The  Feejee  Islands?     The  Society  Islands? 

METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

214.  What  is  the  first  step  in  teaching  geography  to  beginners?  How 
would  vou  conduct  the  first  recitation?  217.  Would  you  have  pupils  learn  all 
the  details  of  geography  given  in  the  text-book?  218.  What  are  the  advan- 
tages of  stud ving  home'  geography?  219.  What  arc  the  advantages  of  map- 
drawing?  What  system" do  you  prefer?  220.  Describe  the  system  of  drawing 
by  parallels  and  meridians.  221,  Would  you  have  pupilsspend  the  whole  time 
of  the  preparation  for  a  recitation  in  drawing  a  map? 

221.  Would  you  require  pupils  to  give  the  absolute  sizes  of  States  in  recit- 
ing? 224.  What  would  you  do  if  the  school  board  had  not  provided  outline 
maps  or  a  globe?  225.  What  is  a  good  method  of  drill  in  latitude  and  longi- 
tude?    226.  What  plans  do  you  use  to  make  recitations  interesting? 


GRAMMAR. 


Instead  of  presenting  this  with  an  outline  as  most  other  subjects,  it  has  been  thought  best  to 
treat  the  entire  subiect  in  the  form  of  separate  outlines.  For  explanation  of  index  figures  used 
see  "Systems  of  Outlining  "     Note,  however,  that  it  makes  complete  sense  without  the  figures. 

1.  Grammar  in  its  widest  sense  is  the  systematic  study  of 
language.  The  divisions  of  English  Grammar  commonly  made 
are:  (i)  Orthography,  which  treats  of  letters,  syllahles,  separate 
words,  and  spelling;  (2)  Etymology,  which  treats  of  the  different 
parts  of  speech,  with  their  classes  and  modifications;  (3)  Syntax, 
which  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  government  and  arrange- 
ment of  words  in  sentences;  (4)  Prosody,  which  treats  of  punctu- 
ation, utterance,  figures,  and  versification.  Authors  differ  in  their 
definitions  of  these  terms.  The  above  are  those  given  by  Goold 
Brown. 

2.  Language  is  the  expression  of  thought.  When  thought  is 
expressed  by  articulate  sounds,  it  is  called  spoken  language,  when 
by  written  characters,  written  language.  Spoken  or  written  language 
consists  of  words  arranged  in  sentences.  Words  are  significant 
sounds,  or  combinations  of  sounds,  articulated  or  represented  by 
characters  called  letters.  A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  which 
taken  together  express  one  or  more  thoughts. 

3.  Every  sentence  must  contain  two  parts:  (1)  the  subject,  that 
about  which  something  is  asserted;  (2)  the  predicate,  that  which 
expresses  what  we  say  about  the  subject.  The  subject  may  be 
understood,  then  we  may  have  a  sentence  of  one  word,  as  «  Go" 
meaning,  "  Ton  go"  On  the  other  hand,  a  sentence  may  consist 
of  many  words,  as,  "  The  thick,  heavy  tvool  of  the  sheep  keeps  it 
warm  iii  winter."  Here  the  first  seven  words  are  the  subject  and 
the  last  five  the  predicate  (15). 

4.  English  Grammar  as  usually  taught  in  our  schools,  consists 
of  a  discussion  of  the  parts  of  speech  and  their  relations  to  each 
other  in  sentences.  I  present  a  discussion  of  the  parts  of  speech 
and  of  the  English  sentence  in  the  form   of  outlines. 

5.  The  Noun. 

i1  Definition.— A  noun  is  the  name  of  anything,  a  word   which   standing 
alone  or  in  connection  with  other  words,  can  be  the  subject  of  a  sentence. 

Remarks.  'All  words,  signs,  phrases  and  sentences  taken  technically,  that  is,  independent 
of  their  meaning,  and  merely  as  things  spoken  of,  are  nouns;  or,  rather,  are  things  read  and 
construed  as  nouns;  because  in  such  a  use,  they  temporarily  assume  the  syntax  of  nouns.  — 
Goold  Brown.  , 

For  the  sake  of  brevity  the  subject  and  verb  are  omitted  in  these  definitions.  T  he  teacher, 
however,  should  always  word  his  questions  so  as  to  require  a  a'statement  for  the  anssver.  Thus, 
define  a  proper  noun?'    A  proper  noun  is  a  special  or  individual  name. 


80  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

21   Kinds.     (Classes.) 
i-  Proper — "  A  special   or   individual   name."  -Svtrinton.      Ex. — Henry, 
Chicago. 

i3  Two  or  more  words  taken  together  to  form  oik-  name  are  considered 
as  one  noun.     Ex. — Gen.  Grant,  Queen  Victoria,  John  Tyndall,  F.  R.  S. 

23  Proper  nouns  are  not  considered  as  having  meaning,  hut  simply  as 
names  of  particular  individuals  or  places. 

33  They  may  become  common  nouns  by  assuming  a  meaning  which 
can  be  applied  to  each  one  of  a  class.  Ex. — Alexanders  and  Hannibals  do  not 
exist  in  our  day. 

43  Proper  nouns  in  English  always  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 
22  Common. — "  A  name  common  to  all  of  the  same  kind  or  class." — Kcrl. 
i3  Kinds.     (Sub-classes.) 

i4  Class. — "A  name  which  can  be  applied  to  one  of  a  class  or  group 
of  objects." — Harvey.     Ex. — Boy,  desk,  chair. 

24  Collective. — A  name  singular  in  form,  denoting  plurality.     Ex. — 
Herd,  flock,  arm  v. 

3*  Verbal. — "  A  form  of  a  verb  used  as  a  noun." — Wells.     Ex. — Sing- 
ing, procedure. 

44  Abstract. — "The  name  of  some  quality  considered  apart  from  the 
object  to  which  it  belongs."     Ex.— Brightness,  sweetness,  virtue. 

23  Common  nouns  may  become  proper  nouns  when  used  to  point  out 
some  particular  thing.  Ex. — We  went  from  Chicago  to  New  York  by  way  of 
the  Lakes. 

33  Common  nouns  in  English  do  not  begin  with  a  capital  letter  unless 
thev  begin  a  sentence,  or  are  of  particular  importance. 
31   Properties.  (Modifications.) 

i2  Person. — " That  property  of  a  noun   or  pronoun   which  distinguishes 
the  speaker,  the  person  or  thing  addressed  and  the  person  or  thing  spoken   of." 

—  Wells. 

i3  First    Person— Denotes     the     speaker.      Ex.— /,     Rutherford   B. 

Haves,  make  this  proclamation. 

23  Second  Person  —Denotes  the  person  or  thing  addressed.  Ex. — 
Henry,  come  this  way ;  Come,  gentle  Spring. 

38  Third  Person— Denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of.  Ex.— 
Bryant  was  a  great  poet. 

22  Gender. — A    property  of  nouns   and  pronouns    which  distinguishes 

BC  X. 

Remark-  — "  Some  nouns  mark  the  thing  signified  by  them  as  male  or  female.  Such  nouns 
an  .ailed  render-nouns.  All  other  nouns— those  which  are  not  gender-nouns,  or  have  nothing 
to  do  with'denning  sex— are  often  called  neuter  nouns  or  nouns  of  the  neuter  gender.  Thev 
either  belong  to  objects  that  have  no  sex  or  they  are  given  indifferently  to  beings  of  both  sexes. 

—  Whitney. 

1     Masculine.— Names  of  male  beings. 

i3  Feminine.  — Names  of  female  beings. 

33  Common— Names  applied  in  common  to  male  and  female  beings. 

43  Neuter— Names  which  denote  objects  without  sex. 

5*  The  masculine  and  feminine  genders  are  distinguished  by  :— 

l*  The  use  of  different  words.     Ex.— King,  queen;  boy,  girl;  youth, 
maiden;  uncle,  aunt. 

2*  The  use   of  different  terminations.     Ex.— Host,   hostess;  prince, 

princes-. 

3*  The  use   of  prefixes   and    sulhxes.       Ex. --Man-servant,  maid-ser- 
vant, land-lord,  land-lady. 

3-  Number  — "  A  grammatical  form  expressing  one  or  more  than  one  ot 
the  objects  named  bv  the   noun." — SttfintOH. 
i     Singular— Denotes  but  one. 

i<    Proper  nouns  and  some  common  nouns  are  commonly  found  only 
in  th-   sii  jrular.     Ex.— Mifslc,  poetry. 


GRAMMAR.  81 

23  Plural' — Denotes  more  than  one. 
i*  Formation. 

i*  Regularly. — By  terminations. 

i6  Nouns  whose  final  sound  will  unite  with  5  add  s  only  to  the 
singular.     Ex. — Boy, boys:  cat,  cats. 

z'  Nouns  whose  final  sound  will  not  unite  with  s  add  es  to  the 
singular.     Ex. — Church,  churches;  box,  boxes. 

36  Nouns  ending  in  v  preceded  by  a  consonant  change  y  into  ies. 
Ex. — Glorv,  glories;  fly,  fiics. 

46  Nounsending  in  /  or  /«  generally  change  these  endings  to  ves. 
Ex. — Beef,  beeves;  wife,  wives. 

56  Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  generally  add 
es,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  5  only.     Ex. — Cargo,  cargoes;  folio, /olios. 

zb  Irregularly.— "By  use  of  another  form  of  the  word.     Ex. — Man, 
men;  tooth,  tetth. 

3"  Remarks. 

i«  In  compound  words,  the  part  which  is  described  by  the  other 
is  usually  pluralized.     Ex. — Mothers-in-law,  wagon  loads. 

2°  Compound  terms,  consisting  of  a  name  and  a  title,  pluralize 
either  name  or  title,  but  not  both.  Ex.— The  Miss  Coopers  or  the  Misses 
Cooper. 

36  Letters,  marks,  figures  and  signs  expressed  in  the  plural  by 
adding \s.     Ex. — Cross  your   fs  and  dot  your  is;  casting   out  the  9's,  the  *'s, 

the  3's.  . 

46  Many  nouns  from  foreign  languages  retain  their  original  plu- 
rals.    Ex. —  Stratum,  strata; genus,  genera. 

156  Some  nouns  have  no  singular  forms.  Ex. — Ashes,  oats,  scis- 
sors, tongs.  "News  and  molasses  have  the  plural  form,  but  are  regarded  as 
singular." — Harvey. 

42  Case. — "  That  modification  of  nouns  and  pronouns  which,  by  means 
of  form  or  position,  indicates  their  relation  to  other  words ;  or  their  independent 
use." — Holbrook. 

i3  Nominative. — That  form    or    position  of  the    noun    [or  pronoun] 
which  is  used  to  indicate  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb,  in  the  predicate  of  a  finite 
verb,  or  in  independent  positions. 
i4  Dependent. 

11  Subject  of  a  finite  verb.     Ex — Magnesium  burns. 

21  Predicate  of  a  finite  verb.     Ex. — Ruskin  is  a  fine  -writer. 

35  Predicate  of    an    infinitive.     Ex.—"  He   desires  to   be   a    good 
fainter." 

4&  In  apposition. 

i«  With  a  noun.     Ex. — "Johnson,  the  tailor,  was  present." 
26  With  a  pronoun.     Ex.—"  I,  Richard  Roe,  do  solemnly  swear." 
3«  With  a  sentence.     Ex. — "  /  resolved  to  practice  temperance — a 
resolution  I  have  ever  kept." 

4«<  With  a  phrase.     Ex.—"  His  finding  me  there,  a  providence  I 
can  never  forget,  saved  me  from  utter  ruin." 
2*  Independent  or  Absolute. 

i5  Bv  direct  address.     Ex.— Men,  should  we  suffer  such, disgrace.' 
25  Bv  exclamation.     Ex.—"  Conscience,  how  it  rains!  " 

36  By  pleonasm.     Ex. — "The stars,  they  shall  shine  forever." 

45  Bv  inscription.     Ex. — "  Hope  deferred  maketh  the  soul  sick." — 

Solomon. 

55  With  a  participle.     Ex. — "The  ground  being  covered  with  snow, 

we  went  in  a  sleigh." 

23  Possessive. — That  form  of  the  noun  [or  pronoun]  which  is  used  to 
limit  a  noun  of  a  different  signification. 

i4  Limiting  a  noun.     Ex.—"  The  boy's  slate." 

2*  In  apposition.     Ex. — u  We  stopped   at  Gossage's,   the   merchant." 


82  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

3*  Formation. 

i&  The  possessive  of  nouns  in  the  singular  is  formed  by  adding  's 
to  the  nominative;  in  the  plural  when  the  nominative  ends  in  5  by  adding  the 
apostrophe  only.  Ex. — The  boy's  book,  the  boys'  book.  The  apostrophe  only 
is  added  frequently  when  an  additional  s  would  cause  several  sounds  of  s  to 
come  together.     Ex. —  For  conscience'  sake. 

25  The  's  is  an  abbreviation  of  the  old  English  inflectional  ending 
es  or  is. 

33  Objective. —  That  form  or  position  of  the  noun  [or  pronoun]    which 
is  used  to  indicate  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  of  a  preposition. 

i4  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice.     Ex. — "  The 
boy  broke  the  slate." 

24  The   object  of  a  preposition.       Ex. — "  The   site   of  Danri'lle  is 
pleasant." 

34  In  apposition.     Ex. — "  I  saw  Johnson  the  tailoi ." 

4*  The  subject  of  an   infinitive.     Ex. — "  We  desire    jfames  to  study 


law." 
lawyer .' 


5*  The  predicate  of  an   infinitive.     Ex. — "  We   desire  him    to  be   a 


64  By  enallage. 

i5  For  the  nominative. 

i6  Subject  of  a  finite  verb.     Ex. — "  ./1/pthinks  I  see   beyond    the 
skies  the  glories  of  a  paradise." 

26  Predicate  of  a  participle.     Ex. — "  I  never  thought  of  its  being 

himr 

25  For  the  possessive. 

iB  Limiting  a  participle.     Ex. — "I  never  thought  of  him  coming." 
6    The  Pronoun. 
i1  Definitions. 
I*  "  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  name  or  instead  of  a  noun." — Swinton. 
22  "  A  pronoun  is  a  kind  of  substitute  for  a  noun." — Whitney. 
21  The  Antecedent. — That  word,  phrase  or  sentence  for  which  the  pro- 
noun stands. 

I2  The  antecedent  may  be  omitted.     Ex. — "  Who  steals  my  purse   steals 

trash." 

22  The  antecedent  generally  precedes  the  pronoun  in  position. 
i3  Exceptions. 

1*  In  interrogative  sentences  it  appears  in  the  answer  following,  and 
called  by  some  authors  the  subsequent. 

2*  In  sentences  where  "  it  "  is  introductory.     Ex. — "  It  is  they.*' 
34  In  hvperbaton.      Ex. — "■His  books,  the  boy  took  great  interest  in." 
31  Kinds.  (Classes.) 

i2  Personal.— One  that  always  indicates  by  its   form  the  grammatical 

person. 

i3  Kinds.  (Sub-classes.') 
i4  As  to  structure. 

I5  Simple:   /,  thon  or  you,  be,  she,  it  and  their  plurals    tve,  ye,  they. 
2&  Compound.  —Formed  by  annexing  self  to  the  possessive  or  ob- 
jective singular,  and  selves  to  the  plural.'     Ex  —Myself,  ourselves,  themselves. 
22  Relative.  -One  which  joins  to  its  antecedent  a  limiting  clause. 
13  Kinds.  (Sul... -lasses.) 
i4  As  to  structure. 
i6  Simple. 

i6  Used  f>r  persons  and  things  personified  :  -who. 
28  Used  for  things:   uhicJi,  that  and  as. 
25  Compound. — Formed  by  annexing   ever  or  soever  to  wlu>  and 
which. 

2*  As  'o  u6e. 

i6  Single  :    Who,  which,  that  and  as. 


GRAMMAR.  83 

25   Double  :    What=thal  which  or  the  thing  which—    Whatcvcr=t\\e 
thing  -whichever . 

32  Interrogative. —  Who,  which  and  what  when  used  in  asking  questions. 
41  Properties.   (Modifications.) 
i-  Person,     i 

22  Gender.     -  Agree  with  their  antecedents  in 
32  Number.  ) 
42  Case. 
7.  The  Adjective.— A  word  which,  without  denoting  possession  or  apposi- 
tion, limits  a  noun  or  pronoun. 
i1  Kinds.    (Classes.) 

i-'  Descriptive.— One  which  limits  the  meaning  of  a  noun  by  denoting 
some  quality.     Ex. —  A.  bad  boy;  a  sweet  apple. 
i3  Kinds.    (Sub-classes.) 

i4  Common. — Ordinary  epithets,  not  derived  from  proper  nouns,  or 
if  so,  have  ceased  to  suggest  the  noun  from  which  derived.  Ex.— Sweet,  bitter, 
quixotic.     Not  usually  written  with  a  capital  unless  they  begin  a  sentence. 

24  Proper.— Derived  from  proper  nouns.  Ex. — American,  English, 
Grecian.     Always  written  with  a  capital  letter. 

34  Verbal  or  Participial. — "  A  participle  placed  before  the  noun  it 
describes." — Harvey. 

22  Definitive.—"  Limits  or  defines  the  meaning  of  a  noun  without  ex- 
pressing any  of  its  qualities." — Harvey. 
i3  Kinds.  (Sub-classes.) 
1*  Articles. 

i5  Definite:  the. 
25  Indefinite. 

i6  A,  before  consonant  sounds.     Ex. — A  book;  ahorse. 
26  An,  before  vowel  sounds.     Ex. — An  apple;  an  egg. 
24  Pronominals. — "  Definitives,  most  of  which  may,  without  an  ar- 
ticle prefixed,  represent  a    noun    understood." — Harvey.      Ex. — All  men;   each 
boy ;  this  book. 

i5  Demonstratives. — "Point  out  objects  definitely."      Ex. — This; 
that;  former. 

25  Distributives. — "  Represent  objects  as  taken  separately."  There 
are  four :  each,  every,  either  and  neither. 

35  Indefinites. — "  Refer  to  objects  in  a  general  way."     Ex. — All; 
any;  certain. 

34  Numerals. — "Express  number  and  order  definitely." 

i5  Cardinal. — "  Denote  simply  the  number  of  objects."     Ex. — One; 
two;  three. 

25  Ordinal. — "  Mark  the  position  of  an  object  in  a  series."     Ex. — 
First ;  second ;  third. 

35  Multiplicative. — "Denote    how   many    fold."       Ex. —  Twofold; 
fourfold. 

21  Comparison. 
i2  Degrees. 
i3  Positive. 
23  Comparative. 
33  Superlative. 
22  Kinds  as  to: 
i3  Form. 

1*  Regular.—  Formed  (1st)  by  annexing  to  the  positive  of  monosylla- 
bles, r  or  cr  for  the  comparative  and  5  or  st  for  the  superlative.  Ex. —  Wise, 
wiser,  wisest;  sweet,  sweeter,  sweetest.  (2nd.)  By  prefixing  to  the  positive  of 
polysyllables,  more  for  the  comparative  and  most  for  the  superlative.  Ex. — 
Beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most  beautiful. 

2*  Irregular. — Formed  by  the  U6e  of  different  words.  Ex — Good, 
better,  best. 


84  TEACHERS"  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

28  Direction. 

i4  Ascending. — Formed  regularly. 

24  Descending. — Formed  by  prefixing  less  for  the  comparative  and 
least  for  the  superlative.     Ex. — Wise,  less  wise,  least  wise. 

8.     The  Verb. — "A  word  used  to  assert  or  assume  action  ;  also,  being  or 
state  of  being.'' — Holbrook. 
i1  Kinds.     (Classes.) 
I2  As  to  Form. 

i3  Regular. — (weak  conjugation) — One  which  forms  its  past  tense 
and  past  participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present,  according  to  the  rules  of  spell- 
ing, the  final  c  being  dropped  when  the  additional  syllable  begins  with  a  vowel. 
Ex. — Love,  loved,  loved.  Note. — "It  would  be  more  accurate  to  consider  d, 
rather  than  ed,  as  the  inflection  of  the  past  tense,  since  either  d  alone  is  added 
to  the  root  (as  in  love-d,  save-d),  or  when  ed  is  u&ed  the  e  is  a  mere  connecting 
vowel  of  euphony." — Swinton. 

23  Irregular. — (Strong    conjugation) — One  which   doe6   not  form   its 
pa6t  tense  and  past   participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present.      Ex. — Go,  went, 
gone;  hear,  heard,  heard. 
22  As  to  inflection. 

I3  Complete. — One  which  is  found  in  all  the  modes  and  tenses. 
23  Defective. — One    which  is   deficient   in    some   of    the    modes    and 
tenses.     Ex. — Quoth,  ought. 

33  Redundant. — One  which  has  more  than  one  form  in  the  past  tense  or 
pa6t  participle.  Ex. — Awake,  past  part.,  awaked  or  atuokc;  burn,  past  part. 
burned  or  burnt. 

32  As  to  use  in  the  sentence. 

i3  Transitive. — One  which  requires  an  object  to  complete  its  mean- 
ing or  upon  which  the  action  is  exerted.  Ex. — Newton  discovered  the  law  of 
gravitation. 

23  Intransitive. — One  which  does  not  require  an  object  to  complete 
its  meaning. 

Remark. — Many  veibs  are  freely  used,  both  transitively  and  intransitively.     Ex. — "  WaHt 

your  horse  round  the  lot,"  "  1^-t  us  walk  home; I'he    boy  flies  the  kite,"    "The   kite  flies;" 

"The  farmer  burns  wood,"  "  I'he  wood  burns  in  the  stove." 

42  As  to  predication. 

I3  Copulative. — Used  to  assert  the  attribute  of  the  subject.      Truth  is 

mighty. 

23  Attributive. — Contains  the  asserting  element  and  the  thing  asserted. 
Ex. — Stars  twinkle. 

52  As  to  limitation 

i3  Finite. — Asserts  action,  being,  or  state  of  being.  Ex. — Children 
should  obey  their  parents. 

23  Infinite. — Assumes  action,  being,  or  state  of  being.  Ex. — It  is  best 
for  children  to  obey  their  parents. 

6s  As  to  use  in  conjugation. 

i3  Principal. — Expresses  by  itself  the  action,  being  or  state  of  being. 

23  Auxiliary. — Used  to  help  other  verbs  in  expressing  action,  being  or 
state  of  being — be,  do,  have,  will,  shall,  may,  can  and  must. 

Remark. —The  first  four  arc  frequently  used  as  principal  verbs,  the  others  are  always  auxil- 
iary. 

21  Properties.     (Modifications.) 

i2  Voice. -—Shows  the  relation  between  the  verb  and  its  subject. 

Ia  Active. — Shows  that  the  subject  of  the  verb  acts.  Ex. — "The 
Merrimac  "  destroyed  "  the  Cumberland"  and  "  the  Congress." 

23  Passive. — Shows  that  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  acted  upon.  Ex. — 
"The  Cumberland''  and  "  the  Congress"  were  destroyed  by  "  the  Merrimac." 

Remark.— All  verbs  have  voice.  Intransitive  v.rbs  usually  have  only  the  active  voice,  the 
only  exception  being  in  cases  of  ennlla^'e  where  the  passive  voice  is  used  for  the  active. 
Thus  is  gone  is  used  for  has  gone,  are  come  for  have  come,  etc. 


GRAMMAR.  85 

3a  Mode. — Manner  of  asserting  or  assuming  action. 

I3  Finite. — Those  which  are  limited  by  person  and  number. 
i4  Indicative. — Declares  or  asks  a  question. 

24  Potential. — implies  possibility,  power,  liberty  or  necessity. 
Signs. — May, can,  must ;  might,  could,  would,  should. 

34  Subjunctive. — Indicates  doubt,  or  contingency.  Signs. — Gener- 
ally known  by  the  prepositions,  if,  though,  lest,  unless.  The  order  of  the  words 
is  sometimes  changed  and  then  the  preposition  is  omitted.  Ex. — Had  I  gone 
instead  of  //'  /  had  gone. 

44  Imperative. — Indicates  a  command,  an  exhortation,  an  entreaty, 
or  permission.  The  subject  is  usually  omitted.  It  is  rarely  used  in  the  third 
person. 

23  Infinite. — Those  which  are  not  limited  by  person  and  number, 
i*  Infinitive. 
i5  Present.     Sign,  to. 
25  Perfect.     Sign,  to  have. 
2*  Participial  (called  Participles  (14)  ). 
I5  Of  transitive  verbs. 
i6  Active. 
57  Present. — Sign,  "ing." 

21  Past. — Used   only   with   an   auxiliary  to  form   the  perfect 
tenses  of  the  finite  modes  in  the  active  voice. 
37  Perfect.     Sign,  "having." 
26  Passive. 

i7  Present. — Sign,  "being." 

27  Past. — Used  to  form  the  perfect   tenses  of  the  finite  modes 
in  the  passive  voice. 

37  Perfect — Sign,  "  having  been." 
25  Of  intransitive  verbs. 
i6  Present. 
26  Past. 
3b  Perfect. 
32  Tense. — Expresses  the  time  ot  an  action. 
i3  Simple. 
1*  Present. — Expresses  present  lime. — Sign,  ("wow.") 
24  Past. — (imperfect) — Expresses  past  time. — Sign,  ("yesterday") 
3*  Future. — Expresses  future  time. — Sign,  shall  or  will. 
23  Compound.    (Perfect.) 
i4  Present  Perfect. — (Perfect) — Expresses   a  past  time  completed  in 
the  present,  or  in  a  given  period  not  yet  past. — Sign,  have,  hast,  has  or  hath. 

24  Past    Perfect. — (Pluperfect.) — Expresses   a   definite   past    time. — 
Sign,  had  or  hadst. 

34  Future  Perfect. — Expresses   a   definite    future    time. — Sign,   shall 
have  or  will  have. 

42  Person  and  Number. — Those  properties  of  finite  verbs  in   which  they 
agree  with  their  subjects. 

3.1  Principal  Parts. — So  called  because   all    other  forms  of  the  verb  are 
made  from  them. 

1-  Present  Indicative  active      Go. 
22  Past  Indicative  Active.      Went. 
3-  Past  Participle.     Gone. 
41  Conjugation. — '•  The  act  of  distributing  the  several  inflections  or  vari- 
ations ot"  a  verb  in  their  different  voices,  modes,  tenses,  persons  and  numbers." 
—  Webster. 

9.     The  Adverb. — A  word  used  to  modify  a  verb,  adjective  or  other  adverb. 
i1  Kinds.     (Classes.) 
I2  As  to  signification. 

i3  Adverbs   of  Time. — Answer  the    questions,    When?     How   long? 
How  soon?  or  How  often?  including  those  used  in  asking. 


$6  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS*  LIBRARY. 

I4  Denoting  present  time.     Ex. —  Now,  to-day,  jet. 
2*  Denoting  past  time.     Ex. —  Yesterday,  recently,  ago. 
3*  Denoting  future  time.      Ex. — To-morrow,  bv-and-by. 
4*  Denoting  relative  time.     Ex. —  When,  before,  after. 
54  Denoting  absolute  time.     Ex. — Always,  never,  aye. 
6*  Denoting  repeated  time.     Ex. —  Often,  again,  seldom. 
74  Denoting  order  of  time.     Ex. — Firstly,  secondly. 
23  Adverbs    of  Place. — Answer    the    questions,     Where?     Whither? 
When?  or  Whereabout,  including  those  used  in  asking. 

i4  Denoting  place  in  which.     Ex. — Where,  here,  yonder. 
24  Denoting  place  to  which.     Ex. —  Whither,  hither,  up. 
34  Denoting  place  from  which.     Ex. — Hence,  whence,  out. 
44  Denoting  order  of  place.     Ex. — First,  secondly,  thirdly. 
33  Adverbs   of  Degree. —  Answer  the   question,   I  low    much?      How 
little? 

i4  Denoting  excess  or  abundance.     Ex. — Much,  very. 
2*  Denoting  equality  or  sufficiency.     Kx. — Enough,  so,  even. 
34  Denoting  deficiency  or  abatement.     Ex. — Little,  hardly. 
44  Denoting  quantity  in  the  abstract.     Ex. —  However,  nothing. 
43  Adverbs  of  Manner. — Answer  the  question,  How? 
i4  Denoting  manner  from  quality.     Ex. — Well,  ill. 
24  Denoting  affirmation  or  assent.     Ex. — Yes,  aye. 
34  Denoting  negation.     Ex. — No,  not 
44  Denoting  doubt. — Ex. — Perhaps,  possibly,  perchance. 
54   Denoting  mode  or  way.     Ex. — Thus,  like,  else. 
6*  Denoting  cause.     Ex. — Why,  wherefore,  therefore. 
2*  As  to  use. 

I3  Modifying. — Modifies  words  and  phrases  without  having  connect- 
ing power.     Ex. — Beautifully. 

23  Conjunctive. —  Modifies    words  and    introduces   a    subordinate   sen- 
tence.    Ex. — They  feared,  -when  they  heard  that  they  were  Romans. 
32  As  to  formation. 

I3  Primitive. —  Not  derived  from  other  words.     Ex. — Enough,  where. 
23  Derivative. 

i4  By  annexing  ly  to  adjectives.     Ex. —  Brightly,  suspiciously. 
24  By  compounding    words,  generally    a    noun    and    a    preposition. 
Ex. — Aboard,  anew,  meaning  "of  new." 

21  Comparison. — A  few  adverbs  are  compared  after  the  manner  of  adjectives. 
Ex. — Soon,  sooner,  soonest;  gladly,  more  gladly,  most  gladly. 

10.  The  Preposition. — "  A  word  used  to  express  some  relation   of  diner- 
ent  things  or  thoughts  to  each  other." — Goold  Brown. 

I1  Kinds.     (Classes.) 
i2  As  to  use. 

i3  Prepositions  of  Place.     Ex. — In,  besides. 

23  Prepositions  of  Time.     Ex. — Before,  after. 

33  Unclassified. 
2a  As  to  formation. 

i3  Simple. — Consisting  of  a  single  word. 

23  Compound — Consisting  of  two  words.     Ex. — Out  of,  from  off. 

33  Complex. — Composed  of  a  preposition  and  some  other  part  of 
speech.     Ex. — On  account  of,  to  the  extent  of. 

11.  The  Conjunction. — A  word  used  to  connect  words  and  sentences. 
i1  Kinds.     (Classes.) 

i2  As  to  use. 

i3  Co-ordinate. — Used  to  connect  sentences  or  elements  of  equal  rank. 
Ex. — Victor  Hugo  is  a  poet  and  a  novelist. 

23  Subordinate. — Used  to  connect  elements  of  unequal  rank.  Ex.-I 
will  come  if  possible. 


GRAMMAR.  87 

33  Correlative. — Used  in  pairs  Ex.— John  came  ndUier  eating  not 
drinking. 

2J  As  to  signification. 

i3  Copulative. — Connects  the  meaning  of  words,  phrases  and  sentences, 
Ex.— Shelley  and  Keats  were  contemporaneous  English  poets. 

23  Disjunctive. — Connects  words,  phrases  and  sentences  and  at  the 
same  time  indicates  contrary,  alternative,  or  antithetic  meaning.  Ex. — To  be  or 
not  to  be,  that  is  the  question. 

21  Remark. — Conjunctions  are  frequently  used  to  introduce  sentences.  Ex 
— "And  it  came  to  pass,  etc  " 

12.  The  Interjection. —  A  word  having  no  connection  with  other  words 
in  the  sentence,  but  simply  uttered  to  express  emotion. 

13.  Comparatively  few  interjections  are  introduced  into  books.  Any 
word  may  become  an  interjection  when  uttered  with  emotion  and  not  connected 
with  other  words  in  the  sentence. 

14.  Infinitives  and  Participles.     (7.) 
l1   Constructions. 

ia  Of  a  noun. 
i3  Dependent. 
14  Subject  of  a.  finite  verb. 
i5  To  live  in  hearts  we  leave  behind  is  not  to  die." 

25  Talking  too  much  is  the  fault  of  some  teachers." 
2*  Subject  of  an  infinitive.     (Rule  8.) 

i5  "  He  thought  it  [to  be]  wrong  to  steal." 

26  "  He  thought  talking  to  be  teaching." 
34  Predicate  of  a.  finite  verb. 

1 5  "To  die  *'.<;  to  sleep." 

26  "  Accumulating  wealth  is  not  violating  God's  law." 
4*  Predicate  of  an  infinitive. 

j5  11  We  thought  to  resign  to  be  to  surrender." 
25  "I  consider  gambling  to  be  stealing.'1'' 
5*  Object  of  finite  verb. 

j5  "  We  want  to  go  to  school." 
25  "  She  confessed  having  stolen  the  goods." 
6*  Object  of  infinitive. 

15  "  He  wants  to  learn  to  teach." 
25  "  He  desires  to  teach  writing  rapidly." 
7*  Object  of  a  participle. 

i5  "  Learning  to  write  was  a  difficult  task  for  him." 
2B  "  Having  resumed  xvorking  on  a  farm,  his  health  improved." 
84  Predicate  of  a  participle. 

i6  "  To  flee   being  to  surrender  every   prospect,  they   resolved    to 
stand  ground." 

o*  Object  of  a  preposition. 

j5  n  We  were  about  to  return" 
25  <i  We  did  not  think  of  being  defeated." 
10*  In  apposition. 
I5  With  a  word. 

16  "  The  task  to  sweep  the  floor  was  imposed." 
26  11  The    greatest    commandment,  loving  our   neighbor   as   our- 
selves, he  has  neglected." 

2s  With  a  phrase. 

i6  "7<7  shuffle  of  this  mortal  coil,  to  cease,  is  not  so  pleasant" 
26  "  Playing  tricks  upon  new  students,  hazing,  is  a  custom  here 
unknown.'' 

2*  Independent. 
l*  By  exclamation. 

IB  "  To  die!  I  cannot  think  of  it." 

25  "Assassinating  the  President!     Terrible  thought!" 


88  TEACHERS'  AND   STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

2*  By  pleonasm. 

il  "  To  be  or  not  to  be,  that  is  the  question." 
2&  "  Succeeding  or  failing,  this  occupies  his  mind." 
3*  With  a  participle. 

i5  "■To  whisper  having  been  forbidden,  the  room  was  quiet" 
25  "  Duelling,  being  unlawful,  they  were  arrested." 
44  In  apposition. 

i5  "  Delightful  task!  to  rear  the  tender  thought." 
25  "  Lazy  man!  sleeping  all  day." 
22  Of  an  adjective. 

i3  Limiting  the  subject  noun. 

I4  "  The  time  to  f  hint  corn   has  arrived." 
2*  "That  man  standing  on  the  corner  is  a  policeman." 
23  Limiting  the  predicate  noun, 
i*  This  is  the  time  to  mourn. 
2*  "That  was  the  man  standing  on  the  street." 
3*  Limiting  the  object  noun. 
I4  "  I  have  orders  to  go." 
2*     "  I  know  that  lady  walking  up  the  street. 
43  Limiting  a  pronoun. 

i4  "  She  is  to  come  at  six  o'clock." 

2*  "/A?  came  late  having  been  delayed  by  necessity." 
33  Of  an  adverb. 
I3  Modifying  a  verb. 

i*  "  He  ran  to  help  the  boy." 

24  "He  came   rushing  into    the    room."      "  Four  and  twenty   happy 
boys  came  bounding  out  of  school." — Flood. 
23  Modifying  an  adjective. 

i*  "  The  young  man  was  anxious  to  enlist  In  the  army 

2*    * 

33  Modifying  an  adverb. 

i4  "  He  labored  enough  to  succeed." 
24  * 
15.  The  Sentence. 
i1  Kinds.  (Classy.; 
i2  As  to  structure. 

i3  Simple. — One  that  contains  but  one  proposition,  having  but  one 
verb  and  one  subject.     Ex. — "The  boy  runs." 

i4  Complete. — One  whose  verb  is  finite.     Ex.—  "  He  went  home." 
24  Abridged. — One  whose  verb  is  infinite.     Ex. — "  I  expected   her  to 
return." 

23  Complex. — One  that  contains  a  subordinate  sentence.     Ex. — "Fools 
rush  in  where  angels  fear  to  tread." 

i4  Principal. — The  entire  complex  sentence  with  its  subordinates. 
2*  Subordinate. — One  which  modifies  some  part  of  another  sentence. 
33  Compound. — One  that  contains  two  or  more   simple  or  complex 
sentences  of  equal  rank.     Ex. — "  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered;"  "Every  man  de- 
sires to  live  long,  but  no  man  would  be  old." 

i4   Leading— The  first  sentence  contained  in  a  compound    sentence. 
24  Co-ordinate. —  Any  other  sentence  of  equal  rank  with  the  first  in  a 
compound  sentence. 

43  Partial  Compound. —  One  in  which  either  or  both  of  the  principal 
elements  are  compound.     Ex.  —Time  and  &&  wait  for  no  man.     They    ran   and 
they  shouted.     The  boys  and  girls  read  and  write. 
22   As  to  nature  of  the  prop  isition. 

i3  Declarative.      One  that  declares  or    makes   an    assertion.      Ex. — Il- 
linois is  a  great  State. 

2s  Imperative. — One  that  expresses  1  command  or  an  entreaty. 

i4   With  the  verb  in  the  Imperative  mode       Kv  —Go  and  do  as   I   bid 
you. 


GRAMMAR.  89 

2*  With  the  verb  in  the  potential  mode.      Ex.— May  the  truth  prevail. 
33  Interrogative.  — One  that  asks  a  question.     It  may  be  a  subordinate 
sentence     in    a   declarative  or   comparative  sentence.     Ex. — Do  you   like  ap- 
ples?    I  know  who  told  vou  that. 

43  Exclamatory.  — One  so  uttered  as  to  express  passion  or  emotion. 
Ex.— How  strange  it  is!     Oh!  that  this  too,  too  solid  rlesh  would  melt. 
21  Elements. — The  component  parts  of  a  sentence. 
i-  Kinds.  (Classes.) 
i3  As  to  rank. 

i*  Principal,  or  Essential.— Tbose  that  are  essential  to  the  sentence. 
i5  Subject.— (3.)   It  may  be  a  word,  phrase  or  sentence  used  as  a 

i6  Simple,  or  grammatical.— When  taken  apart  from  its  modifiers. 
26  Complex,  or  logical.— When  taken  together  with  its  modifiers. 
25  Predicate.  (3). 
i6  Parts. 

i'  Attribute. — "  That  property,  quality,   characteristic,  name 
or  circumstance  asserted  or  assumed  of  the  subject  by  the  verb."     Ex.—  Henry 

is  good.  ..  .,  ,. 

2;  Copula.— "  That  which  joins  the  attnoute  to    the   subject 

and  makes  the  assertion."    It  is  generally  some  part  of  the  verb  be.    Ex.— Henry 
is  good. 

Remark.— The  attribute  and  copula   are   often  combined  in  the  same   word.     Ex.— John 
runs.— John  is  running. 

2*  Subordinate  or  accidental. — Those  which  are  not  essential  to  the 
existence  of  the  sentence. 

i3  Adjective. — Those  which  modify  nouns  or  pronouns  in  the  sen- 
tence. 

25  Adverbial.— Those  which  modify  verbs,  adjectives  or  adverbs 

in  the  sentence.  .  . 

3s  Objective. — Those  which  are  the  objects  ot  transitive  verbs  in 

the  active  voice. 

45  Independent. — Those  which  have  no  syntactical  relation  with 

other  parts  of  the  sentence. 

55  Connective. — Those  which  join  words  or  parts  ot  the  sentence 

together.  ...  ,-  ,        »i 

16  Co-ordinate. — Those  which  join  elements  of  equal  rank.     Al- 
ways conjunctions. 

26  Subordinate. — Those  which  join  elements  ot  unequal   rank. 
They  may  be  conjunctions,  relative  pronouns  or  conjunctive  adverbs. 
23  As  to  structure. 

1*  Simple.—  Elements  when  taken  alone  without  their  modifiers. 
2*  Complex.— Elements  taken  with  their  modifiers. 
3*  Compound.— Those  composed  of  two  or  more  simple  or  complex 
elements  of  equal  rank  connected  by  co-ordinate  conjunctions  expressed  or  un- 
derstood. 

33  As  to  base. 

1*  First  Class. — Those  which  have  for  the  principal  word  or  base  a 

single  word. 

2*  Second  Class. — Those  which  have  for  a  base  a  preposition  and  its 

objector  an  infinitive. 

3*  Third  Class. — Those  which  have  for  a  base  a  subordinate   sen- 
tence. 

SYSTEMS    OK    DIAGRAMMED    ANALYSIS. 

16.     Many  plans  for  arranging  the  analysis  of  sentences  in  dia. 
gram  have  been  proposed. 


90  TEACHERS'  A. YD  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

Lee  &  Hadlcy's  Grammar,  published  in  1873,  presents  the  fol- 
lowing: 

I.     My  good  friend  Anna  tound  her  way  easily. 
Placed  in  diagram  thus: 

I  ™y 

friend  |  good 
!  Annie 


found 


way  I  her 
easily 


2.    James  D.  Dana,  of  Yale  College,  who  is  Professor  of  Natural  History, 
wrote  many  volumes  after  he  returned  from  his  voyage  around  the  world. 

Placed  in  diagram  thus: 

of  Yale  College 


James  D.  Dana 


who 

is 

Professor  j  of  Natural  History 


wrote 


volumes  |  many 
after 


(  he 
J 


(  returned  |  from  voyage 


his 

round  world  |  the 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  subject  and  predicate  are  connected 
with  a  brace,  modifiers  follow,  separated  by  a  vertical  line,  and 
connective  elements  are  underscored. 

17.  Butler's  Grammar,  published  in  1874,  presents  the  fol- 
lowing: 

1.     A  peaceful  death  closed  a  stormy  life. 

Placed  in  diagram  thus: 

a 


Death 


peaceful 


closed      life 


a 
stormy 


2.  This  is  the  malt  that  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack  built. 
Placed  in  diagram  thus: 

[Malt]  I  this 

is     malt     the 
that 

lay  I  in  house     the 

\  Jack 

\  built  I  that 

3.  A  dog  lay  in  a  manger  and  prevented  by  his  snarling  and  snapping  the 
oxen  from  eating  the  hay  that  had  been  put  there  for  them. 


GRAMMAR. 


91 


Placed  in  diagram  thus: 
Dog  I  a 

in  manger 


lay 


and 
prevented 


by  ■ 


snarling  \ 
and        j.  his 

snapping  j 
oxen  |  the 
from  eating 


hay  |  the 
t  that 

I  had  been  put 


there 
for  them. 


In  this  system  the  subject  and  predicate  are  indicated  by 
lines  drawn  under  them.  When  there  is  but  one  proposition,  one 
line  marks  the  subject  and  predicate.  When  there  is  a  subordinate 
proposition,  the  subject  and  predicate  of  the  principal  proposition 
have  two  lines  and  the  subordinate  one.  If  the  subordinate  propo- 
sition contains  a  modifying  proposition,  then  the  principal  has  three 
lines,  the  subordinate  two,  and  the  one  modifying  it  one.  Braces 
preceding  words  are  used  to  connect  parts  which  perform  the  same 
office,  as  two  subjects,  two  predicates,  or  to  show  that  all  that 
follows  is  taken  as  one  modifier.  A  brace  following  words  shows 
that  the  modifier  or  modifiers  belong  to  all  that  is  enclosed  in  the 
brace. 

18.  Clark' 's  Normal  Grammar  contains  a  system  which  was 
first  copyrighted  in  1847,  anc*  's  perhaps  the  first  system  ever  in- 
vented.    It  cannot  be  set  up  with  ordinary  type. 

19.  Holbrook' 's  Grammar,  published  in  1873,  presents  the  fol- 
lowing: 

1.     He  threw  the  stone  almost  over  the  river. 

Placed  in  diagram  thus: 

(He 

[threw   {  stone  I  the 


/  over  river  |  the 

(almost. 


2.     The  joys  that  cheer  us  most  in  life  spring  from  worthy  act*  and  good 
deeds  which  we  have  performed. 


Placed  in  diagram  thus: 


joys 


I  spring 


us 

most 
in  life 

from  acts         ) 
and  [■ 

[from]  deeds  ) 


wo 


we 


rthy     [w( 
good        |have  performed.  |  which 


Explanation. — A  bar   |   is  used  to  subordinate  a  single  element.     A  brace —*— is  used  to 
subordinate  two  or  more  elements.     A  tie  (   or  I    is  used  to  connect  the  subject  and  predicate  of 

a  principal  or  subordinate  sentence.     A  vinculum  with  a  half  brace         (     is  used   to   direct  to  a 
particular  part  of  an  element,  or  to  combine  two  or  more  words  ordinarily  modified  separately. 


92 


TEACHERS'  A.V/>  STL'DENTS'   LIBJRART 


A  word  which  performs  two  offices  is  underscored.  Conjunctions  :md  independent  elements  are 
enclosed  in  parentheses.  Use  the  capitals  as  they  are  in  the  sentence  without  regard  to  the 
position  in  the  diagram. 

20.     Ria7 path's     Grammar,    published     in     1880,  presents    the 
following: 

The  bark  that  held  the  prince  went  down. 


Placed  in  diagram  thus: 


BARK 


WENT  DOWN. 


.The 


THAT 


~s  held- 

I 


prince 

[the 


Explanation.—"  Essential  elements  are  set  in  capitals.  Accidental  elements  are  .set  in 
Roman  type.  The  logical  subject  is  divided  from  the  logical  predicate  by  the  heavy  vertical  bar. 
Subordinate  elements  are  placed  in  subordinate  relations.  Connective  elements  are  set  in  links 
between  the  connected  parts.  Grammatical  government  is  indicated  by  the  wavy  line.  Gram- 
matical modification  or  limitation  is  indicated  by  the  plain  line,  the  modifying  part  being  sub- 
ordinate to  the  part  modified.  The  complementary  relation  where  it  exists  is  denoted  by  a 
dotted  line.  The  unity  of  the  adjunct  element  is  indicated  by  the  brace.  The  dependence  of  the 
subordinate  clause  or  clauses  indicated  by  the  double  vertical  line.  The  logical  subject  and  the 
logical  predicate  of  the  subordinate  clause  or  clauses  separated  by  the  broken  vertical  bar." 

21.  We  have  not  fully  tested  the  following  system,  but  present 
it  to  the  consideration  of  teachers.  It  will  be  observed  that  we  have- 
simply  used  the  exponential  system  of  outlining  with  the  addition 
of  braces  to  connect  the  principal  parts  of  a  subordinate  sentence, 
or  the  members  of  a  compound  sentence.  The  bracket  is  used  to 
enclose  words  supplied.  Connectives  are  placed  between  their 
elements  without  marking.  Independent  elements  are  enclosed  in 
parentheses. 

1.  The  seed  which  was  planted  in  the  garden  has  become  a  large  tree. 
Placed  thus: 

i1  seed 
i»  The 

ti8  which 
23  was  planted 
i*  in  garden 
15  the 
21  has  become 
l2  tree 
P  a 
23  large 

2.  The  children  came  with  laugh  and  shout,  and  filled  the  halls  with  glee. 
Placed  thus: 

'  i1  children 
I"  The 

1  came 
i*  with  laugh 


GRAMAfAIi. 


98 


and 


and 


22  [with]  shout 


(  t! 


i1  [They] 


\  2>  filled 
i2  halls 
i3  the 
22  with  glee 
3.    It  is  reported  by  speculators  that  diamonds  have   been  discovered  in 
Arljona.     Placed  thus: 

[that] 

!i2  diamonds 
• 
22  have  been  discovered 

23  in  Arizona 

[It] 
21  is  reported 

i3  by  speculators. 


22. 


PROGRAMME     FOR   ANALYSIS. 


I. 
3. 


3- 
4- 

5- 


Read  the  sentence. 
Describe  the  sentence. 
A  6  to  structure. 

1.  Simple. 

2.  Complex. 

3.  Compound. 
As  to  proposition : 

1.  Declarative. 

2.  Imperative. 

3.  Exclamatory. 

4.  Interrogative. 
Name  the  complex  subject 
Name  the  simple  subject 
Point  out  its  modifiers. 
Describe  them. 

As  to  structure: 


/• 
8. 

9- 
10. 

11. 

12. 

i3- 


1.  Simple. 

2.  Complex. 

3.  Compound. 
As  to  relation : 

1.  Adjective. 

2.  Adverbial. 

3.  Objective. 

4.  Subjective. 

Name  the  base  of  modifier. 
Describe  its  modifiers  as  in  6. 
Name  the  complex  predicate. 
Name  the  simple  predicate. 
Point  out  its  modifiers. 
Describe  them  as  in  6. 
Continue  as  in  7  and  8  of  the 
ject. 


sub- 


23.,       MODELS  OF  DIAGRAMMED  AND  VERBAL  ANALYSIS. 

The  diagramming  is  after  the  system  used  in  HolbTOok's  Grammar. 

The  people  all  praise  him  highly. 

(The 
'  people 


1 


praise 


all 


(  him 


highly. 


This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence,  of  which  "  the  fcoflc  all" 
is  the  complex  suhject,  of  which  "  people'"  is  the  simple  subject, 
modified  by  "the"  and  "all,"  simple  adjective  elements  of  the  first 
class. 

Of  this  sentence  •■'■praise  him  highly'"  is  the  complex  predicate 
of  which  "praise'"  is  the  simple  predicate,  modified  by  "him?  as 


y4  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

a  simple  objective  element  of  the  first  class,  and  by  "  highly,"  a 
simple  adverbial  element  of  the  first  class. 

i.     Hypocrisy  is  a  sort  of  homage  that  vice  pays  to   virtue. 
'  Hypocrisy 

f* 

of  homage 

is  sort  -J        (  vice 

<  t  to  virtue. 

I      (  pays     ] 

(  that 

This  is  a  comprex  declarative  sentence,  of  which  "  hypocrisy'''  is 
the  simp,  subj.,  unmod.,  and  "  is  a  sort  of  ho?nage  that  vice  pays  to 
virtue11  is  the  compl.  pred.,  of  which  "is  sort"1''  is  the  simp,  pred., 
of  which  "  is  "  is  the  copula,  and  "sort "  is  the  attribute,  modified 
by  "a"  a  simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  first  class;  by  "of  homage"  a  simp, 
adj.  el.  of  second  class;  and  by  "that  vice  pays  to  virtue"  a  simp. 
adj.  el.  of  the  third  class,  also  a  simp.  decl.  subordinate  sentence,  of 
which  "  vice  "  is  the  simp,  subject,  unmod.,  and  "  that  pays  to  virtue" 
is  the  compl.  pred.,  of  which  "pays"  is  the  simp,  pred.,  mod.  by 
"  to  virtue"  a  simp.  adv.  el.  of  the  sec.  cl.,  and  by  "that"  a  simp, 
obj.  el.  of  the  first  class,  also  the  connective  of  the  subordinate  sen- 
tence. 

3.     The  boy  seeing  his  father,  hastened  home. 

(The 
fboy  \ 

\  seeing  |  father  |  his 


31 


hastened  |    [to]  home. 


This  is  a  simp.  decl.  sent.,  of  wdiich  "  the  boy  seeing  his  father" 
is  the  compl.  subj.,  of  which  "  boy"  the  simp.  subj.  is  mod.  by  "the" 
a  simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  first  cl.,  also,  by  "seeing  his  father"  a  compl. 
adj.  el.  of  the  first  cl.,  of  which  "  seeing"  the  base,  is  mod.  by  "  his 
father"  a  compl.  obj.  el.  of  the  first  cl.,  of  which  "father"  the  base, 
is  mod.  by  "his"  a  simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  first  cl. 

Of  this  sent.  "  hastened  home"  is  the  compl.  pred.,  of  which 
"  hastened  "  is  the  simp,  pred.,  mod.  by  "\to~\  home"  a  simp.  adv.  el. 
of  the  sec.  cl. 

4.     His  life  devoted  to  the  highest  interests  of  humanity,  affords  us  an  excel- 
lent example  of  usefulness. 

(His  (the 

life        \  \  highest 

(  devoted  |  to  interests  (  of  humanity 
4-  1  [to]  us      (  an 

I  affords-)  -j  excellent 

'v  (example  (  of  usefulness. 

This  is  a   simp.  decl.  sent.,   of  which   "his  life  devoted  to  the 
highest  interests  of  humanity  "  is  the  compl.  subj.,  of  which  "life" 


GRAM  AI  Alt. 


95 


is  the  simp,  subj.,  mod.  by  "  /it's,'"  a  simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  first  cl.,  and 
by  "  devoted  to  the  highest  interests  of  humanity"  a  compl.  adj.  el. 
of  the  first  cl.,  of  which  «  devoted"  the  base,  is  mod.  by  "to  the 
highest  interests  of  humanity"  a  compl.  adv.  el.  of  the  sec.  cl.,  of 
which  "  to  interests''''  is  the  base,  of  which  "  interests,"  the  noun 
of  the  base  is  mod.  by  "  the  "  and  "  highest,"  two  simp.  adj.  el.  of 
the  first  cl.,  and  by  "  of  humanity?  a  simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  sec.  cl. 
Of  this  sentence  "  affords  us  a?i  excellent  example  of  usefulness'''' 
is  the  compl.  pred.,  of  which  "  affords  "  is  the  simp,  pred.,  mod.  by 
«  \to~\  us"  a  simp.  adv.  el.  of  the  sec.  cl.,  and  by  "  an  excellent  ex- 
ample of  usefulness"  a  compl.  obj.  el.  of  the  first  cl.  of  which 
«  example  "  is  the  base,  mod.  by  "an"  and  «  excellent"  two  simp, 
adj.  el.  of  the  first  cl.,  and  by  "  of  ?isefulness"  a  simp.  adj.  el.  of 
the  sec.  cl. 


When  Freedom  from  her  mountain  height 
Unfurled  her  standard  to  the  air 

She  tore  the  azure  robe  of  night 
And  set  the  stars  of  glory  there. 

She 

I  the  azure 
robe  )  of  night 


tore 


And 


set 


there 
stars 


j  the 
jof 


glory 


Freedom 


c  from  height 

standard  |  her 
I  to  air  !  the 


Unfurled 


(  her 

(  mountain 


When 


This  is  a  partially  comp.  compl.  dccl.  sent,  of  which  "  she  "  is  the 
simp,  subj.,  unmod.,  and  the  remainder  of  the  sent,  is  the  compound 
compl.  pred.,  of  which  "tore  and  set"  is  the  compound  pred.,  of 
which  "  tore,"  the  first  member,  is  mod.  by  "  the  azure  robe  of 
night"  a  compl.  obj.  el.  of  the  first  cl.,  of  which  "  robe"  the  base,  is 
mod.  by  "  the"  and  "  azure"  two  simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  first  cl.,  and 
by  "  of  night"  a  simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  sec.  cl. 

"  Set"  the  second  member  of  the  comp.  pred.,  is  mod.  by 
"  there"  a  simp.  adv.  el.  of  the  first  cl.  and  by  "  the  stars  of glory "  a 
compl.  obj.  el.  of  the  first  cl.,  of  which  "stars"  the  base,  is  mod.  bi 
"the"  and  "  of  glory"  two  simp.  adj.  el.  of  respectively  the  firsi 
and  second  classes. 

Both  "  tore  "  and  "  set "  are  mod.  by  "  When  Freedom  from  her 
mountain  height 

Unfurled  her  standard  to  the  air,"  a  simp.  adv.  el.  of  third  class; 
also,  a  simp.  decl.  subord.  sent.,  of  which  Freedom  is  the  simp, 
subj.,  unmod.,  and  the  remainder  is  the  compl.  pred.,  of  which 
"unfurled"  is  the  simp,  pred.,  mod.  by  "from  her  mountain 
height"  a  compl.  adv.  el.  of  the  sec.  cl.,  of  which  "from  height " 
is  the  base,  of  which  "  height"  the  noun  of  the  base,  is  mod.  by 
"  her"  and  "mountain"  two  simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  sec.  cl.  "Un- 
furled" is  also  mod.  by  "  her  standard"   a   compl.    obj.   el.   of  the 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

first  cl.,  of  which  "standard"  the  base  is  mod.  by  "her"  a  simp, 
adj.  el.  of  the  first  cl.  "  Unfurled'1''  is  further  mod.  by  "  to  the  air" 
a  compl.  adv.  el.  of  the  sec.  cl.,  of  which  M  to  air"  is  the  base,  of 
which  "air,"  the  noun  of  the  base,  is  mod.  by  "the"  a  simp, 
adj.  el.  of  the  first  cl.  Lastly  "  Unfurled''''  is  mod.  by  "when*''' 
a  simp.  adv.  el.  of  the  first  cl.,  also,  the  connective  of  the  subord. 
sent. 

6.     There  is  a  point  at  which  fbrhearance  ceases  to  be  a  virtue. 
'There   i  a 
point    -j        i  forbearance 

/       -|  ceases  \  to  be  virtue  |  a 
is  (  }  at  -which 

24.     The  following  are  sample  pages,  taken  without  correction  or  addition 
from  the  outlines  prepared  by  members  of  the  class: 

T  a  esl  \  The 

LP  s     J    ^  following 


are  pages  -J 


sample 


taken  f  without  correction 
or 
[without]  addition 
i  the 
from  outlines  -J 

(  prepared  j  by  members  |  of  class.  |  the 

This  is  a  simp.  decl.  sent.,  of  which  "  the  following  \pages~\ 
is  the  compl.  subj.,  of  which  "  \_p<*gcs~\  "  is  the  simp,  subj.,  mod.  bv 
"the''' and  "following,"  two  .simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  1st  cl.  Of  this 
sent.  "arc  sample  pages"  etc.  is  the  compl.  pied.,  of  which  uart 
pages"'  is  the  simp,  pivd.,  of  which  "  pages"  the  attribute,  is  mod. 
by  "sample"  a  simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  1 -t  cl.;  also  by  "  taken  without 
correction  or  addition  from  the  outlines  prepared  by  members  of 
the  class"  a  compl.  adj.  el.  of  the  1st  cl.,  of  which  "  taken"  the 
base,  is  mod.  hv  "without  correction  or  I  wit kouf\  addition"  a 
compound  adv.  el.  of  the  second  cl.;  also  by  "from  the  outlines 
prepared  by  members  of  the  class"  a  compl.  adv.  el.  of  the  2d  cl., 
of  which  "from  outlines"  is  the  base,  of  which  "outlines"  tin- 
noun  of  tiie  base,  is  mod.  by  "lhe"n  simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  1st  cl. 
and  by  "  prepared  by  members  of  the  class"  a  compl.  adj.  el.  of  the 
i^-t  cl.,  of  which  "prepared"  is  the  base,  mod.  by  "by  members  of 
the  class"  a  compl.  adv.  el.  of  the  2d  cl.,  of  which  "  members" 
the  noun   of  the  base,  is  mod.  bv  "  of  the  class"  a  compl.  adj.  el.  of 


*  I'kmahks — It  is  i  mistake  to  suppose  thai  1  conjunctive  adverb  modifies  1  verb  in  both 
the  principal  and  subordinate  lent.  The  whole  subordinate  sentence  modifies  some  part  of  tin 
principal  sentence,  but  the  conjunctive  adverb  modifies  tin-  verb  in  the  subordinate  sen- 
tin<i .  I  or  example,  take  the  sentence  "  I  will  iro  when  he  come  ."  Tin  sentence  "when  he 
comei  "  modifies  "will go  '  and  "  when " modifies  " comes." 

rb.  suhordinati  sentence  introduced  by  the  conjunctive  adverb,  usually  modifies  the  verb 
in  the  principal  B  intence,  but  not  alw:ivs.  In  such  sentences  as  "  This  is  the  house  where  I  live" 
the  subordinate  entem  em  1  liii  a  i  noun.    Some  grammarians  call  the  connective  in  such  case* 

:i  relative  COMfUHCtiv*  adverb. 


GRAMMAR.  97 

the   2d  cl.,  of  "class"   the   noun  of  the  base,  is  mod.  by  "the,"  a 
simp.  adj.  of  the  ist  cl. 

Encouraged  by  this  magnificent  invitation,  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe  con- 
sidered labor  as  their  only  friend. 

I  the 

inhabitants  ■  of  globe  |  the  .    .  . 

/  Encouraged  I  by  invitation  ■}  .- . 

v  si.'  |  magnificent 


i 


1  labor 
(  their 
as  friend  -| 

(  only 

The  recording  angel  as  he  wrote  it  down  dropped  a  tear  on  the  word  and 
blotted  it  out  forever, 
the 


angel  ■] 

dropped 

and 
blotted 


recording 


J  tear  |  a 


on  word  |  the 


Che 
wrote 


-  out 

(  forever. 


This  is  a  partially  compound  decl.  sentence,  of  which  "  the  re- 
cording angel"  is  the  compl.  subj.,  of  which  "  angeln  is  the  simp, 
subj.,  mod.  by  "the"  and  "recording"  two  simp.  adj.  el.  of  the  ist 
cl.  The  remainder  of  the  sent,  is  the  comp.  compl.  pred.,  of  which 
"dropped"'''  and  "blotted"  is  the  comp.  pred.,  of  which  "  dropped" 
the  first  member,  is  mod.  by  ua  tear"  a  compl.  obj.  cl.  of  the  ist 
cl.,  of  which  "tear"  the  base,  is  mod.  by  "a"  a  simp.  adj.  el.  of 
the  ist  cl.  "Blotted"  the  second  member  of  the  comp.  pred.  is 
mod.  by  "  it"  a  simp.  obj.  el.  of  the  ist  cl.,  and  by  "out"  and 
"forever"  two  simp.  adv.  el.  of  ist  cl. 

"Dropped"  and  "blotted"  are  both  mod.  by  " as  he  wrote  it 
down"  simp.  adv.  el.  of  the  3d  cl.,  also  a  simp.  decl.  sub.  sent,  of 
which  "he"  is  the  simp,  subj.,  unmod.,  and  "as  wrote  it  down  "  is 
the  compl.  pred.  of  which  "wrote"  is  the  simp,  pred.,  mod.  by 
"as"  and  "down"  two  simp.  adv.  el.  of  1st  cl.,  also  by  "it"  a 
simp.  obj.  el.  of  the  ist  cl.  "As"  is,  also,  the  connective  of  the 
sub.  sent. 


'  Virtue  will  be  rewarded,  but  vice  will  be  punished." 
te 
be  rewarded 


I    {  virtue 
I    J  will  " 


li 


(but) 

vice 

will  be  punished. 


This  is  a  compound  decl.  sent.  "  Virtue  will  be  rewarded"  is 
the  first  member,  a  simp.  decl.  sent.,  of  which  "virtue"  is  the  simp, 
subj.  unmod.,  and    "  will  be  rewarded"  is  the  simp,  pred.,  unmod. 


fi*  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

Of  this  compound  sentence  "vice  will  be  punished'1''  is  the  second 
member,  a  simp.  decl.  co-ordinate  sent.,  of  which  "  vice"  is  simp, 
subj.,  unmod.,  and  "will  be  punished"  is  the  simp,  pied.,  unmod. 
"But"  is  the  connective  of  the  members  of  the  compound  sentence. 

RULES. 

i.  A  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb  (or 
a  complete  proposition)  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

2.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  predicate  of  an  intransitive  or 
passive  verb  is  in  the  same  case  that  the  subject  is. 

REMARK. — When  ail  intransitive  or  passive  participle  having-  the  construction  of  a  noun 
and  limited  by  a  possessive  is  followed  by  a  predicate  noun  or  pronoun,  the  latter  is  always  in 
the  nominative  case. 

3.  A  noun  or  pronoun  which  limits  the  meaning  of  a  noun  de- 
noting a  different  person  or  thing,  is  in  the  possessive  case. — Har- 
vey. 

4.  A  noun  or  personal  pronoun  which  limits  the  meaning  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing  is  in  the  same 
case  (by   apposition). 

5.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  independently  is  in  the  nominative 
case  (absolute). — Harvey. 

6.  A  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb 
in  the  active  voice  is  in  the  objective  case. 

7.  A  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  the  object  of  a  preposition  is 
in  the  objective  case. 

8.  A  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  an  infinitive,  if 
it  is  not  the  same  as  the  subject  of  the  finite  verb  on  which  the  in- 
finitive depends,  is  in  the  objective  case. 

9.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedents  in  person,  number 
and  gender. 

10.  A  pronoun  having  two  or  more  antecedents  in  the  singu- 
lar connected  by  or  or  nor  must  be  singular. 

11.  A  pronoun  having  two  or  more  antecedents  in  the  singu- 
lar connected  by  and  must  be  plural. 

12.  When  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unity  is  the 
antecedent  of  a  pronoun,  the  pronoun  must  lie  singular. 

13.  When  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality  is 
the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun,  the  pronoun   must  be  plural. 

14.  A  finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number. 

15.  A  finite  verb  having  two  <>r  more  subiects  in  the  singular 
connected  by  or  or  nor  must  be  singular. 

16.  A  finite  verb  having  two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular 
connected  by  and  must  be  plural. 

17.  When  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  plurality  is 
the  subject  of  a  verb,  the  verb  is  plural. 

18.  When  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unity  is  the 
subject  of  a  finite  verb,  the  verb  is  singular. 


GRAM  M  Ah'. 


99 


19. 
20. 
21. 

22 


Adjectives  limit  nouns  and  pronouns. 
Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives  and  other  adverbs. 
Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases  and  sentences. 
Co-ordinate   conjunctions  join   elements  of  equal    rank. — 
Holbrook. 

23.  Subordinate  connectives  join  elements  of  unequal    rank. — 
Holbrook. 

24.  A  preposition  shows  the  relation    of  its  object  to  the  word 
upon  which  the  latter  depends. — Harvey. 

25.  Infinitives  and  Participles  have  the  construction   of  nouns, 
adjectives  and  adverbs. 

26.  Expletives  introduce  sentences  and  infinitives  with  their  ob- 
jective subjects. 

27.  Interjections  have  no  grammatical  relations. 


PROGRAMMES    FOR     PARSING. 

26.    These  should   be  written  on  the  board  by  the  teacher  as   needed,  and  copied  by  the 
pupils. 


3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 

11 


The  Noun. 

Species. 

Class. 

Sub-class. 

Person. 

Number. 

Gender. 

Case. 

Construction. 

Rule. 

The  Verb. 

Species. 
Class. 

1.  As  to  form. 

2.  As  to  use. 
(Sub-class.) 
Principal  Parts. 
Voice. 
Mood. 
Tense. 
Person . 
Number. 
Agreement. 
Rule. 


The  Pronoun. 

1.  Species. 

2.  Class. 

1.  As  to  use. 

2.  As  to  structure. 

3.  Sub-class. 
Antecedent. 
Agreement. 
Person. 
Number. 
Gender. 


4- 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
11 

12 


Rule  for  agreement. 

Case. 

Construction. 

Rule  for  construction. 

The  Adverb. 

Species. 
Class. 

1.  As  to  Signification. 

2.  As  to  use. 
Construction. 
Rule. 

The  Preposition. 

1.  Species. 

2.  Class. 


3- 
4- 


1.  As  to  use. 

2.  As  to  Formation. 

3,  Construction. 

4.  Rule. 

The  Adjective. 

1.  Species. 

2.  Class. 

3.  Sub-class. 

4.  Comparison. 
j.  Construction. 
6.  Rule. 

The  Conjunction. 

1.  Species. 

2.  Class. 

1 .  As  to  use. 

2.  As  to  signification. 

3.  Construction. 

4.  Rule. 

The  Interjection. 

1.  Species. 

2.  Construction. 

3.  Rule. 


MODELS    FOR    PARSING. 

Some  of  the  words  here  disposed   of  are  what  may  be   considered  difficult  constructions, 
rhey  may  be  taken  as  keys  to  aid  the  teacher  in  similar  constructions. 

27.     Nouns. 

1.     The   horse   runs.     "Horse"    is   a   noun,  com.,    class    3d, 
sing,  masc,  nom.,  subj.  of  "runs."     R.  1. 


100  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

2.  Virtue  will  be  rewarded.  "Virtue"  is  a  noun,  com., 
abs.,  3d,  sing.,  neut.,  nom.,  subj.  of  "  will  be  rewarded."      R.  1. 

3.  He  finds  the  walking  to  be  disagreeable.  "  Walking"  is 
a  noun,  com.,  verbal,  3d,  sing.,  neut.,  obj.,  subj.  of  the  inf.  "  to  be." 

R.  8. 

4.  He  served  in  the  late  war.  "  War"  is  a  noun,  com.,  3d, 
sing.,  neut.,  obj.,  object  of  prep.  "  in."      R.  7. 

4.  She  is  a  queen.  "Queen"  is  a  noun,  com.,  3d,  sing.,  fern., 
nom.,  in  pred.  with  "  is.'     R.  2. 

5.  My  friends,  where  are  they?  "Friends"  is  a  noun, 
com.,  3d,  plu.,  com.,  nom.,  absolute  by  pleonasm.     R.  5. 

6.  He  bought  it  at  Crimes,  the  grocer.  "  Crim's"  is  a  noun, 
prop.  3d,  sing.,  masc,  poss.,  limits   ["  store"].      R.  3. 

7.  "Grocer"  is  a  noun,  com.,  3d,  sing.,  masc,  poss.,  in 
apposition  with  "  Crim's."     R.  4. 

8.  There  are  too  many  ifs  in  that  sentence.  "  Ifs  "  is  a  noun, 
com.,  3d,  plu.,  neut.,  nom.,  subj.  of  "are."     R.  1. 

9.  Tell  the  printer  to  put  some  *'s  there.  "  *'s  "  is  a  noun, 
com.,  3d,  plu.,  neut.,  obj.,  object  of  "put."     R.  6. 

10.  A  verb  is  a  word.  "  Verb  "  is  a  noun,  com.,  3d,  sing., 
neut.,  nom.,  subject  of  "is."     R.  1. 

28.  Pronouns. 

1.  May  his  name  pass  into  oblivion.  "  His  "  is  a  pronoun, 
pers.,  simp.,  its  antcc.  is  the  name  of  the  person  spoken  of,  with 
which  it  agrees  in  3d,   sing.,  masc,  R.  9;  poss.,  limits  "  name."   R.  3. 

2.  "He  that  hath  eyes  to  see  let  him  see."  "He"  is  a  pro- 
noun, pers.,  simp.,  its  antec.  is  the  name  of  the  pers.  spoken  of, 
with  which  it  agrees  in  3d,  sing.,  masc,  R.  9;  nom.,  absolute  by 
pleonasm,  R.  5. 

3.  "  Him  "  is  a  pronoun,  pers.,  simp.,  antec.  name  of  the  pers. 
spoken  of,  with  which  it  agrees  in  2d,  sing.,  masc,  R.9;  obj.,  subj. 
of  the  infinitive  "  [to~]  see"     R.  8. 

4.  Whatever  he  does  suits  the  people.  "  Whatever  "  is  a 
pron.,  rel.,  comp.,  double,  equivalent  to  "  the  thing  whichever.'1'' 
"  Thing  "  the  antec  part.,  is  a  noun,  com.,  3d,  sing.,  neut.,  nom.,  subj. 
of"  suits."  R.  1.  "  Whichever"  the  rel.  part,  is  a  pron.,  rel.,  comp. ; 
its  antcc.  is  "thing"  with  which  it  agrees  in  3d,  sing.,  neut.,  R.  9; 
obj.,  obj.  of  "does."   R.  6. 

29.  Adjectives. 

1 .  A  good  conscience  fears  nothing.  "  Good  "  is  an  adjective, 
descriptive,  positive,  (compared  good,  better,  best);  limits  "con- 
science."    R.  19. 

2.  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephcsians.  "  Great  "  is  an  adjective, 
descrip.,  positive,  (compared  great,  greater,  greatest);  limits 
"  Diana."      R.  19. 

3.  An  English  man-of-war  lay  in  the  harbor.  "English"  is 
an  adj.,  descrip.,  prop.,  incomparable,  limits  "  man-of-war."    R.  19^ 


GRAMMAR.  101    , 

30.  Finite  Verbs. 

1.  Grammarians  differ.  "Differ"  is  a  verb,  reg.,  intrans., 
act.,  indie, pres.,  3d,  plu.,  agreeing  with  its  subject,  "  grammarians." 
R.  14. 

2.  Socrates  was  poisoned.  "  Was  poisoned"  is  a  verb,  reg., 
trans.,  pass.,  ind.,  past,  3d,  sing.,  agreeing  with  its  subject  "Socrates." 
R.  14. 

3.  Walk  your  horse  around  the  lot.  "  Walk  "  is  a  verb,  re^., 
trans.,  act.,  imp.,  pres.,  2d,  sing.,  agreeing  with  its  subject  "you," 
understood.     R.  14. 

4.  Our  breakfast  -was  hurriedly  disposed  of.  "  Was  disposed 
of"  is  a  verb.,  reg.,  trans.,  compound,  pass.,  ind.,  past,  3d,  sing., 
agreeing  with  its  subj.  "  breakfast."     R.    14. 

5.  /  might  have  gone  home.  "  Might  have  gone  "  is  a  verb, 
irreg.,  intrans.,  (p.p.  go,  went,  gone.)  act.,  pot.,  past  perf.,  istsing., 
agreeing  with  its  subj.  "  I."     R.  14. 

31.  Infinitives  and  Participles. 

1.  lie  tried  to  run.  "  To  run  "  is  a  verb,  irreg.,  intrans.,  (p. 
p.,  run,  ran,  run),  act.,  infinitive,  pres.,  having  the  construction  of 
a  noun,  R.  25,  object  of  "tried." 

2.  To  die  is  to  sleep'.  "  To  die  "  is  a  verb,  reg.,  intrans.,  act., 
infinitive,  pres.,  having  the  construction  of  a  noun,  R.  25,  subj.  of 
"is." 

3.  "  To  sleep  "  is  a  verb,  irreg.,  intrans.,  (p.  p.  sleep,  slept, 
slept),  act.,  infinitive,  pres.,  having  the  construction  of  a  noun,  R. 
25;  in  predicate  with  "  is." 

4.  He  came  to  express  his  gratitude.  "  To  express"  is  a  verb, 
reg.,  trans.,  act.,  infinitive,  pres.,  having  the  construction  of  an  ad- 
verb, R.  25,  limits  "came." 

5.  He  knows  better  than  to  trust  you.  2d  reading:  He 
knows  better  than  to  trust  you  [would  be  safe].  "  To  trust "  is  a 
verb,  reg.,  trans.,  act.,  infinitive,  pres.,  having  the  construction  of  a 
noun,  R.  25,  subject  of  the  verb  "[would  be]." 

6.  He  was  so  much  affected  as  to  weep.  2d  reading:  He  was 
so  much  affected  as  [he  would  be  affected]  to  -weep.  "  To  weep" 
is  a  veil),  irreg.,  intrans.,  (p.  p.  weep,  wept,  wept),  act.,  infin.,  pres., 
having  the  cor.struetion  of  an  adverb,  R.  25,  modifying  the  verb 
[would  be  affected], 

7.  It  is  oh!  to  be  a  slave  along  with  the  barbarous  Turk, 
Where   woman    has    never    a    soul    to  save.       If   this    is 

Christian  work. 
2d    reading:    It  is  oh  [I    long]  to  6c,  etc.     "  To  be  "  is  a  verb, 
irreg.,  intrans.,  (p.  p.  be,  was,  been),  act., infinitive,  pies.,  having  the 
construction  of  a  noun,  R.  25,  the  ohject  of  the  verb  [long  ]. 

8.  "To  s;ive  "  is  a  verb,  reg.,  trans.,  act.,  infin.,  pres.,  having 
the  construe,  of  an  adjective,  R.  25,  limiting  the  noun  "soul." 

9.  His  forgetting  the  books  delayed  us.      "Forgetting"  is  a 


102  TllACllllRs'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

verb,   irreg.,    (p.    p.    forget,    forgot,   forgotten),   Iran--.,   act.,   parti- 
cipial, pres.,    having   the    construction   of"   a    noun,    R.   25,  subj.   of 

"delayed.'" 

10.  I  consider  preaching  to  be  teaching.     ••  Preaching"  is  a 

verb,  reg.,  intrans.,  act.,  participial,  pres.,  having  the  construction  of 
a  noun,  R.  25,  subject  of  the  infinitive  "to  be." 

11.  "Teaching"  is  a  verb,  irreg.,  intrans.,  (p.  p.  teach, 
taught,  taught),  act.,  participial,  pres.,  having  the  construe,  of  a 
noun,    R.  25,  predicate  of  the  infinitive  "  to  be." 

12.  lie  was  late,  having  been  delayed.  "  Having1  been  de- 
layed  "  is  a  verb,  reg.,  trans.,  passive,  participial,  perfect,  having  the 
construction  of  an  adjective,  R.  25,  limiting  the  pron. "  He." 

32.  Adverbs. 

1.  The  man  worked  diligently.  "  Diligently"  is  an  adverb 
of  manner,  modifies  "  worked."     R.   20. 

2.  Come  to  the  table  when  the  bell  rings.  "  When"  is  an 
adverb  of  time,  conjunctive,  modifies  "  rings,"  R.  20,  and  connects 
the  subordinate  sentence  "come."     R.  23. 

3.  He  was  a  very  tall  man.  "  Very"  is  an  adverb  of  degree, 
modifies  "  tall."     R.  20. 

33.  Prepositions. 

1.  The  boy  threw  the  ball  through  the  window.  "  Through" 
is  a  preposition,  simple,  shows  the  relation  of  "  window"  to 
"  threw."      R.  24. 

2.  lie  ran  out  of  the  house.  "Out  of"  is  a  preposition, 
compound,  shows  the  relation  of  "  house"  to  "  ran."     R.  24. 

3.  lleowes/o  the  extent  of  a  thousand  dollars.  "To  the 
extent  of"  is  a  preposition  complex,  shows  the  relation  of"  dollars" 
to  "owes."     R.  24. 

34.  Conjunctions. 

1.  He  spoke  slowly  but  earnestly.  "  Hut"  is  a  conjunction, 
co-ordinate,  disjunctive,  and  connects  the  adverbs  "  slowly"  and 
"earnestly."     R.  22. 

2.  We  went  to  the  city  and  visited  our  friends.  "  And"  is  a 
conjunction,  co-ordinate,  copulative  and  connects  the  sentences, 
"We  went  to  the  city,"  and  "we  visited  our  friends."     R.  22. 

3.  I  will  be  there  //"possible.  "  If"  is  a  conjunction,  subor- 
dinate, connects  "  possible"  with  "  I  will  be  there."      R.  22. 

35.  Interjections. 

1.  Alas!  my  noble  boy  that  thou  shouldst  die.  "Alas"  is 
an  interjection,  has  no  grammatical  relation.      R.  27. 

36.  Miscellaneous  Constructions. 

I.     They  elected  him  President.     Expanded  thus:  They  elect- 
ed him  [for-  him    to  be]   President*. 

1.  "  Him"  i^  a  pron.,  objective,  obj.  of  "  elected."     R.  9. 

2.  "  For8"  is  an  expletive  used  to  introduce  the  infinitive  "to 
be"  with  its  objective  subject  "him." 


GRAMMAR.  103 

3.  "  Him2"  is  a  pron.,  objective,  subject  of  the  infinitive  "to 
be".     R.  S. 

4.  "  President4 "  is  a  noun,  objective,  predicate  of  the  infinitive 
"to  be,"  referring  to  its  subject  "  him2"      R.  2. 

II.  She  desired  the  young  man  to  leave. 

1.     "  Man"  is  a  noun,  objective,  subject  of  the  infinitive  "to 
leave."     R.  S. 

III.  For  me  to  resist  would  be  death. 

1.  "  For"  is   an  introductory  preposition,  introducing  the  in- 
finitive "to  resist"  and  its  subject  "  me." 

2.  "  Me"  is  a  pronoun,  objective,  subject  of  the  infinitive  "  to 
resist."      R.  8. 

IV.  He  taught  the  boys  grammar. 

This  may  be  read,  "He  taught  the  boys  [in]  grammar,"  or  "He 
taught  [to]  the  boys  grammar."  According  to  the  first  reading 
"  boys"  is  the  object  of  "  taught,"  and  "  grammar"  is  the  object  of 
"[in]."  According  to  the  second  reading,  "  boys"  is  the  object  of 
"[to]"  and  "  grammar"  is  the  object  of  "taught."  These  two 
views  may  be  sustained  by  placing  the  verb  in  the  passive  voice ; 
thus:  Grammar  was  taught  to  the  boys,  or  the  boys  were  taught  in 
grammar. 

METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GRAMMAR. 

37.  As  Grammar  is  frequently  taught  in  our  schools  it  is  a 
dull,  dry,  hard  study.  On  the  contrary  when  properly  taught  by 
an  enthusiastic  teacher  it  becomes  one  of  the  most  delightful  of 
studies  and  a  class  in  grammar  may  be  made  one  of  the  liveliest  in 
the  school. 

38.  Do  not  dwell  too  long  upon  the  technicalities  of  gram- 
mar with  a  class  of  very  3-oung  pupils.  Make  the  lessons  more  of 
the  nature  of  language  lessons.  It  is  true  that  every  lesson  in 
school  in  whatever  branch  should  be  a  language  lesson,  but  in  con- 
nection with  the  technicalities  of  grammar  pay  especial  attention  to 
the  expressions  both  written  and  vocal  of  your  pupils.  Insist 
rigidly  upon  correct  capitalizing,  punctuation  and  spelling.  En- 
courage criticism  among  the  class  on  these   points. 

39.  But  while  avoiding  too  much  technicality  do  not  fall  into 
the  habit  of  substituting  supposed  simpler  names  for  the  regular 
terms  of  grammar,  such  as  "name  words"  for  nouns,  "quality 
words"  foi  adjectives,  etc.  The  technical  terms  of  grammar  must 
he  learned  some  time  and  they  may  as  well  learn  them  at  once. 
But  what  we  mean  is  this,  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  all  the 
details  and  difficulties  of  construction  a--  you  would  in  an  advanced 
cla^s  but  give  plenty  of  exercises  in  the  simpler  constructions  so  as 
to  keep  your  pupils  employed  and  to  cultivate  accuracy  and  readi- 
ness of  expression. 

40.  The  tendency  to  make  mistakes  in  writing  is  so  great  that 


104  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

too  much  written  exercise  can  scarcely  he  given.  All  the  parts  of 
speech  may  he  studied  thus  somewhat  superficially,  giving  only  the 
simpler  constructions  and  also  the  analysis  of  easy  sentences,  in  one 
three  months'  term  by  a  class  of  beginners.  The  second  time  they 
go  over  the  subject  they  may  go  more  into  details  and  handle  the 
more  difficult  constructions. 

41.  I  would  then  urge  the  importance,  nay,  the  necessity  of 
written  exercises  in  all  grammatical  teaching.  The  advantages  of 
written  work  may  he  enumerated  as  follows:  I.  The  pupils  will 
have  more  employment.  This  is  a  desideratum,  especially  with 
primary  pupils.  _*.  They  will  he  more  likely  to  prepare  all  the 
work  assigned.  3.  The  teacher  will  he  better  able  to  judge  as  to 
whether  the  pupil  has  studied  his  lesson.  In  large  classes  this  will 
be  necessary  as  it  will  he  impossible  to  get  an  oral  recitation  from 
every  pupil  each  day.  It  is  true  the  pupil  may  copy  the  work  of 
another,  hut  the  teacher  who  is  on  the  alert  will  soon  detect  this. 
4.  Pupils  will  work  with  greater  care.  5.  They  will  accustom 
themselves  to  deliniteness  of  thought  and  accuracy  of  expression. 
6.  They  will  make  more  rapid  progress  in  reading,  penmanship, 
spelling,  punctuation,  use  of  capitals,  and  will  acquire  general  busi- 
ness habits.  7.  They  will  he  better  prepared  for  composition 
writing. 

42.  With  beginners  slates  may  he  used,  with  an  occasional 
lesson  assigned  to  he  written  on  paper  with  pen  and  ink.  With 
advanced  classes  pen  and  ink  should  he  used  in  all  cases.  At  the 
recitation  part  of  the  work  may  he  placed  on  the  blackboard  to  be 
criticised  by  pupils  ami  teacher.  Slates  <>r  papers  maybe  exchanged 
for  criticism,  or  each  pupil  may  read  his  own  work. 

43.  The  wide-awake  teacher  will  contrive  many  ways  to 
maintain  an  interest  and  avoid  monotony.  The  written  exercises 
may  consist  of  sentence  making,  word  analysis,  parsing,  sentence 
analysis,  diagramming,  outlines,  short  essays,  etc.  (See  Composition 
and  /,ctters). 

44.  The  first  exercise  for  a  beginning  class  should  he  to  de- 
velop the  idea  of  a  sentence.  The  teacher  writes  on  the  hoard 
several  words  having  no  obvious  connection,  also  a  number  of 
words  connected  in  a  sentence  and  asks  the  pupils  to  point  out  the 
difference  b<  tween  the  two  groups  of  words.  The  definition  of  a 
sentence  will  naturally  follow  and  he  comprehended  by  the  pupils. 
Define  and  illustrate  the  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  and  -iveprac- 
tice  in  analysis  by  simply  Stating  subject  and  predicate,  and  giving 
reasons  whv.  Exercises  in  writing  subjects  lor  a  given  number  of 
predicates  and  Vice  vers,/  may  next  follow. 

45.  The  outlines  we  have  given  may  be  divided  and  parts  of  the 
headings  written  on  the  hoard,  and  assigned  as  topic  lists  for  study, 
the  pupils  using  different  text-books  if  they  wish  in  preparing  their 
lessons.      To  primary  classes  only  the  more  general  points   may    be 


GRAMMAR.  105 

given.  With  advanced  learners  the  general  points  of  the  outline 
may  be  drawn  from  the  class  by  appropriate  questions,  written  on 
the  board  by  the  teacher  and  assigned  as  a  next  lesson  requiring  as 
a  preparation  the  pupils  to  fill  out  the  outline  as  best  they  can. 
The  recitation  then  will  consist  in  a  discussion  of  the  outline  as  ar- 
ranged by  the  pupils  and  the  definition  of  terms  used.  A  recitation 
may  be  made  interesting  and  lively  in  this  way  and  pupils  who  had 
detested  grammar  will  declare  it  to  be  their  most  delightful  study. 
Such  has  been  our  experience. 

46.  The  reading  of  the  written  work  of  the  pupils  cither  from 
slates,  papers  or  blackboard  can  be  made  very  interesting  and  profi- 
table by  a  proper  system  of  mutual  criticisms.  As  an  illustration, 
suppose  a  pupil  has  written  the  following  sentence  with  the  parsing 
of  the  italicised  words  on  the  board  thus: 

"  this  is  the  house  that  jack  built  House  is  a  n  com,  3rd 
sing.  ncut.  nom  subj.  of  the  verb  built." 

Treacher. — Any  criticism  on  this  parsing?  (several  hands  go  up.) 
John. — The  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter.  Mary. — 
The  word  Jack  should  begin  with  a  capital  and  the  sentence  should 
end  with  a  period.  Teacher. — Right.  Any  further  criticisms? 
Henry. — There  should  be  a  period  after  n.  Teacher. — Why! 
Henry. — Because  it  is  an  abbreviation.  Alice. — There  should  also 
be  a  comma  after  n.  'Teacher.— Why  do  you  want  a  comma  and 
period  both?  Alice. — The  period  is  for  the  abbreviation  and  the 
comma  to  show  that  a  word  is  omitted. 

47.  Thus  the  criticism  would  proceed  until  all  the  mistakes 
are  corrected.  This  may  seem  an  extreme  case,  but  the  teacher 
who  will  practice  requiring  pupils  to  write  out  their  lessons  will  find 
no  small  number,  even  of  those  who  are  considered  smart  pupils, 
who  will  at  first  make  as  many  mistakes  as  are  here  shown.  Even 
after  long  drill  in  this  way  pupils  will  make  some  mistakes  in  punc- 
tuation, capitalization  and  spelling. 

48.  If  anything  will  make  pupils  more  careful  in  their  writing 
it  is  this  constantly  being  subject  to  criticism  by  their  fellows.  Be- 
sides it  adds  life  and  enthusiasm  to  a  recitation,  each  one  eager  to 
point  out  some  error,  for  even  the  dullest  in  the  class  can  sometimes 
find  errors  in  the  work  of  the  brightest  pupils. 

49.  In  parsing  or  analysis  the  teacher  should  adopt  some  defi- 
nite system  and  require  all  pupils  to  follow  the  models  given.  The 
models  for  parsing  and  analysis  given  in  the  preceding  pages  are 
such  as  have  stood  the  test  of  years  of  experience  and  we  can  com- 
mend them  to  the  teacher. 

50.  Teach  Grammar  in  connection  with  all  other  subjects, 
that  is,  let  no  ungrammatical  language  either  spoken  or  written  go 
uncorrected  in  any  of  your  classe-.  But  always  remember  to  make 
criticisms  courteously  and  kindly,  lest  you  ofFend  or  embarrass  the 
pupil. 


10(3  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRAItr. 

51.  The  teacher  should  feel  that  it  is  the  constant  use  <>f 
language  that  gives  skill.     The  correct  use  of  language  can    never 

be  taught  in  a  grammar  class  alone.  Pupils  in  all  classes  should 
State  facts  in  their  own  language  and  not  in  the  language  of  the 
text-books.  If  the  teacher  finds  that  pupils  are  repeating  some- 
thing they  have  committed  to  memory,  he  should  by  asking  them 
questions,  it"  possible,  compel  them  to  state  the  facts  in  their  own 
language. 

52.  Below  are  given  a  list  of  very  common  errors  of  speech. 
By  calling  attention  to  them  it  is  hoped  the  teacher  will  be  on  his 
guard  against  them. 

"  I  seen  him,"  for  1  saw  him.  "  I  have  saw,"  for  I  have  seen. 
"Gim'  me  that  there  hook."  "I  come  to  school  yesterday."  Two 
negatives,  as,  k-  I  don't  know  nothing  about  it."  Incorrect  use  of 
will  and  shall,  as  "  I  will  drown  ami  nobody  shall  help  me."  This 
is  a  difficult  and  puzzling  case  even  for  the  teachers.  "  Drownded," 
for  drowned.  "  I  guess,"  "  I  reckon,"  etc.  -It  is  them."  "It  is 
me."  »  Who  did  you  seer"  "  His-self,"  " Theirselves."  ••  His'n." 
"Her'n."  "Git."  "Ought,"  for  naught.  "Jography."  Drop- 
ping final   g^  as  " spellin,"  runnin,"  etc. 

QUES  I  CONS    ON    '  IRAMMAR. 

Manyof  the  questions  consist  of  a  single  word.  The  teacher  should  write  or  express  them 
in  full.  The  numbers  refer  to  sections  an<f sub-sections  of  the  text  The  most  important  ques- 
tions arc  asked.  It  is  hoped  they  will  prove  Suggestive  of  man]  Others  Which  may  be  asked  by 
the  teacher. 

i.  Define  Grammar.  How  is  it  usually  divided?  Define  each  division.  2. 
What  is  language?  A  sentence?  3.  What  must  every  sentence  contain?  4. 
Name  the  parts  of  speech.  5.  What  is  a  noun?  What  may  be  construed  as 
nouns?     s.  (21)  Name  and  define  the  kinds,  or  classes  of  nouns ;  the  sub-classes. 

5.  (31)  Name  the  properties  of  nouns.  What  is  person?  Gender?  How 
distinguish  the  genders?  Number?  How  is  the  plural  of  nouns  formed? 
Case:  Nominative?  Give  examples  of  sentences  containing  nouns  in  every 
form  of  the  nominative.     Possessive?     How  formed?     Objective: 

6.  What  is  a  pronoun?  What  is  the  antecedent?  f>.  |V|  Kinds  of  pro- 
nouns? Personal?  Relative?  Interrogative?  What  is  a  double  relative ?  6. 
[41]    What  are  the  properties  of  pionouns? 

7.  What  is    an    adjective?      Kinds?       Descriptive?       Proper:       Articles? 
Pronominals?      Numeral  adjectives?      Cardinal?       Ordinal:      How    are     adjec 
tives  compared? 

S.  What  is  a  verb?  Kinds  as  to  form?  Regular?  Irregular:  Kinds  as 
to  inflection?  What  is  a  defective  verb?  A.  redundant  verb?  >s- |.VJ|  Kindsas 
to  use  in  the  sentence?  Transitive?  Intransitive?  8.  \y\  Kinds  as  to  predi- 
cation? What  is  a  copulative  verb?  8.  [s8]  Kinds  as  to  limitation?  What  is 
a  finite  verb?      8.  [6s]  Kinds  as  to  use  in  conjugation?     What  is  an  auxiliary 

verb? 

S.  |:'|  Name  the  properties  of  verbs.     What  is  voice:     Give  an  example 

of  a  sent'  nee  containing  a  verb  in  the  active  voice;  in  the  passive  voice. 
What  is  mode?  Name  and  define  the  modes.  What  i-  an  infinitive?  What 
is  a  participle?      What  is  tense?      Name    and  define  the   tenses:-     S.    |V|    What 

are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb? 

<,.  What  is  an  adverb f  Name  the  kinds.  Mention  some  adverbs  that  may 
be  compared;  10.  What  is  a  preposition?  Name  the  kinds.  11.  What  is  a 
conjunction?     Kind-?      1  J.    What  is  an   interjection? 


GRAMMAR.  107 

14.  Pa>  s<  the  italicized -words  in  Hie  following  sentences:  [The  numbers  in 
brackets  refer  to  constructions  given  under  sec.  14.]  [i4j  To  steal  is  sinful. 
Teaching  children  was  his  delight.  [2*]  I  think  it  [to  be]  wicked  to  talk  in  that 
manner.  I  supposed  ^reaching  to  be  teaching.  Vy\  To  obey  is  to  enjoy.  Coun- 
terfeiting coins  is  defrauding  the  government,  [t;4]  Do  3011  love  to  teach!'  The 
pupil  confessed  having  copi,  rfthe  essay.  [</]  He  was  about  to  fall  overboard. 
They  did  not  think  of  being  captured.  [2-')  All  have  a  mission  to  fulfill.  A 
Cause  based  upon  justice  cannot  fail.  He  had  leave  to  go.  He  seemed  well  ed- 
ucated. [3-]  I  come  to  bury  Caesar,  not  to  praise  him.  The  iron  horse  came 
rushing  through  the  tunnel.     The  child  is  old  enough  to  go  to  school. 

15.  What  is  a  simple  sentence?  An  abridged  sentence?  A  complex  sen- 
tence ?  A  subordinate  sentence?  A  compound  sentence?  A  declarative  sen- 
tence? An  interrogative  sentence?  15.  [21]  What  are  the  principal  elements 
of  a  sentence?  What  is  the  copula?  Name  the  kinds  of  modifiers.  What 
is  an  element  of  the  first  class?     Of  the  second  class?     Of  the  third  class? 

16.  Diagram  the  following  sentence:  Cohesion  is  the  force  which  holds  to- 
gether the  same  kind  of  molecules.  19.  Diagram  the  following:  Pure  atmos- 
pheric air  is  composed  of  two  gaseous  substances,  nitrogen  and  oxvgen.  21. 
Diagram  the  following:  All  the  tissues  and  organs  of  the  body  originate  from 
a  minute  form  called  a  cell.  23.  Give  a  verbal  analysis  of  the  above  sentences. 
25.  How  should  pupils  learn  the  rules  of  syntax?  Ans.—  Bv  constant  use  of 
them  in  parsing.  The  rule  should  be  quoted  every  time  a  word  is  parsed  orally, 
and  beginners  should  write  out  the  rules  in  written  parsing. 

27 — 36.  Write  out  the  parsing  of  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  sen- 
tences: Ammonia  fc  a  colorless,  irrespirable^w  and  has  a  pungent  odor.  HzO 
is  the  chemical  symbol  for  -water.}  Potatoes  -were  first  found  in  Peru  and  Chili. 
When  Paris  was  besieged  by  the  German  army  in  i8yo,  a  great  many  letters  were 
carried  to  and  fro  by  carrier  pigeons. 

38.  Do  you  teach  all  the  technicalities  of  grammar  to  beginners?  39. 
What  do  you  think  of  using  such  terms  as  "  name  words,"  "  quality  words," 
etc.,  for  nouns,  adjectives,  etc.  ?  41.  What  are  the  advantages  in  writing  pars- 
ing lessons?  42.  How  do  you  conduct  a  recitation  in  Grammar?  44.  What 
should  be  the  nature  of  the  first  exercises  for  a  beginning  class? 

45.  Would  you  insist  on  pupils  all  having  the  same  text-book?  46.  Do 
you  encourage  your  pupils  to  criticise  each  other  s  work  ?  4S.  What  plans  do 
you  take  to  avoid  monotony  in  your  Grammar  recitation  ?  49.  Do  you  have 
your  pupils  follow  any  definite  system  in  parsing  and  analysis? 

50.  Do  you  correct  the  language  of  your  pupils  in  all  classes?  51.  Would 
you  require  pupils  to  state  facts  in  the  language  of  the  text-book  or  in  their  own 
language?  52.  Are  you  guilty  of  committing  any  of  the  errors  enumerated  in 
6ec.  52  ? 


COMPOSITION  AND  LETTERS. 


1.  There  was  a  time  when  pupils  were  eompelled  to  write 
compositions  without  being  taught  how.  They  chose  their  own 
subjects,  and  these  subjects  were  generally  such  as  would  require 
an  Irving  or  a  Lowell  to  treat,  being  such  as  "  Spring,"  '-Virtue," 
"  Time,"  etc.,  and  their  productions  were  remarkable  from  the  fact 
that  they  contained  as  many  platitudes  as  there  were  sentences,  a 
great  deal  of  had  spelling,  faulty  rhetoric,  and  grammar  that  would 
have  driven  Lindley  Murray  insane,  and  as  for  punctuation  marks 
and  capital  letters  they  were  distributed  pretty  much  as  they  would 
be  if  shaken  from  a  pepper  box. 

2.  Could  we  take  a  peep  into  the  letters  that  daily  pass 
through  the  hands  of  the  postmaster,  we  would  be  astonished  at 
the  errors  in  spelling,  punctuation,  capitalization  and  grammar. 
The  waste  basket  of  any  man  doing  business  through  the  mails 
could  furnish  ample  evidence  of  the  want  of  culture  in  this  line.  Of 
late  years  efforts  are  being  made  by  our  teachers  to  better  this  state 
of  affairs.  Pupils  are  taught  in  many  of  our  schools  to  write  letters 
and  compositions  in  a  systematic  manner.  The  teacher  who  does 
not  make    this  a  part  of  his    work  falls    far  short   of  his   duty  as  a 

teacher. 

3.  If  in  grammar  classes  the  teacher  has  paid  proper  attention 
to  exercises  in  writing  sentences,  has  required  pupils  to  write  out 
their  lessons  in  parsing  and  analysis,  criticising  their  work  carefully 
in  spelling,  punctuation,  use  of  capitals  and  abbreviations,  and 
in  spelling  and  reading  classes  has  also  observed  these  points,  the 
Step  to  letter  writing  and  composition  is  a  very  easv  one.  (Sec 
Grammar  2  and  jf.) 

4.  The  rules  for  use  of  capital  letters  have  been  given  under 
Spelling:  The  rules  tor  punctuation  arc  given  in  all  grammars. 
Ever)  one  ought  to  know  that  the  period  should  end  each  sen- 
tence and  follow  each  abbreviation.  This  much  may  be  taught  to 
very  young  pupils.  The  principal  use  of  the  comma,  to  separate 
the"  parts  of  a  series  when  the  connective  is  omitted,  or  in 
general  when  any  word  is  omitted,  and  U>  set  oil  independent 
words  or  phrases,  will  soon  be  learned.  The  semicolon  and  colon 
are  iiol  so  much  used  as  formerly.  The  interrogation  and  excla- 
mation points,  especially  the  former,  should  he  taught  to  very 
young  pupils.  The  use  of  the  hyphen  to  separate  parts  of  a  com- 
pound word  or  syllables  at  the  end  of  a  line,  should  be  taught  at 


COMPOSITION  AND  LETTERS.  109 

an  early  stage.       For  convenience  of  reference  the   principal   rules 
for  punctuation  are  given  below. 

RULES     FOR     PUNCTUATION. 

5.     The  Period  (.). 

1.  At  the  end  of  every  sentence  not  requiring  an  interroga- 
tion or  exclamation  point. 

2.  After  every  abbreviated  word,  unless  the  word  is.  abbre- 
viated by  omitting  letters  from  the  middle  of  it  and  their  place  sup- 
plied by  an  apostrophe,  as  confd  for  continued.  These  cases,  how- 
ever, are  more  appropriately  called  contractions.  None  is  used 
where  the  word  is  contracted  by  using  a  numeral,  as,  jd,  2d, 
for  third,  second. 

3.  After  every  heading  or  sub-heading,  whether  in  a  separate 
line  or  beginning  a  paragraph  and  after  the  address  and  signature 
of  a  letter  or  printed  document. 

4.  After  Roman  and  Arabic  numerals  when  used  to  num- 
ber paragraphs  or  lists  of  items  or  subjects  in  the  same  paragraph, 
but  it  should  not  follow  these  numerals  when  used  to  number 
pages  of  books  or  when  used  for  reference  marks. 

5.  For  leaders  in  tables  of  contents  or  indexes  where  the 
space  is  great. 

6.  To  separate  decimal  numbers  from  whole  numbers  and 
before  figures  to  show  that  they  are  decimals.  The  separation  of 
dollars  and  cents  comes  under  this  rule.  It  is  not  correct  to  write 
.25  cts.  when  meaning  twenty-five  cents.  The  above  expression 
means  "-rWof  a  cent"  if  it  means  anything,  but  it  is  wrong  to 
place  the  plural  after  a  decimal  as  any  decimal  is  less  than  the  num- 
ber one  and  cannot  be  plural. 

7.  Sometimes  used  in  place  of*  *  *  to  show  the  omission 
of  part  of  a  quotation;  as,  Huxley  says,  ;t  Size  is  not  grandeur, 
forty  millions  at  your  first  centenary  .?" 

8.  The  Comma  (,). — The  use  of  the  comma  is  in  some  cases 
a  matter  of  taste  and  in  others  a  matter  of  judgment,  and  few  abso- 
lute rules  can  be  laid  down. 

1.  Whenever  the  connectives  are  omitted  in  a  series  of 
words,  phrases  or  clauses,  and  sometimes  where  connectives  are  used 
between  clauses  which  are  long;  as  coal,  iron  and  lead  are  mined  in 
Missouri,  and  in  low  a  lend  and  coal  arc  found. 

2.  In  a  sentence  so  long  that  it  might  be  difficult  to  separate 
the  subject  from  the  predicate,  the  principal  parts  should  be  sepa- 
rated by  a  comma. 

3.  Independent  or  explanatory  words,  phrases  or  <  lauscs, 
also  adverbs  and  short  phrases  which  come  between  the  closely 
related  parts  of  a  sentence,  should  be  set  off  with  commas.  Ex. — 
There  is,  however,  a  limit  to  forbearance.  Greeley,  the  great 
journalist,  is  dead. 


110  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

4.  A  term  connected  to  another  by  or  and  having  the  same 
meaning,  should  be  separated  by  a  comma;  as,  the  Island  of  Papua, 
or  New  Guinea. 

5.  A  relative  pronoun  should  be  separated  by  a  comma 
from  its  antecedent  when  its  clause  is  explanatory,  parenthetical,  or 
expresses  another  idea;  as,  cherish  patriotism,  which  has  its  root  in 
benevolence. 

6.  Direct  quotations,  maxims,  mottoes,  etc.,  should  be  sepa- 
rated bv  commas  when  they  consist  of  one  sentence;  when  of  more 
than  one,  a  colon  is  better. 

7.  In  the  heading,  address,  conclusion  and  superscription  of 
a  letter,  the  items  should  be  set  off  by  commas;  as: — 

Troy,  Miami  Co.,  Ohio, 
December  17,  1SS1. 
Mr.  James  Smith,  Jr., 
Maysville,  Ky. 

Respectfully, 

John  Brown. 

7.  The  Semicolon  (;). — This  mark  is  rarely  used  except  in 
long  sentences. 

1.  To  separate  clauses  which  are  themselves  subdivided  by 
commas,  and  might  not  readily  be  distinguished  otherwise. 

2.  To  separate  members  of  a  series  which  have  a  common 
dependence  upon  or  relation  with,  words  or  expressions  at  the  begin- 
ning or  end  of  a  sentence.  As  an  example  see  the  Declaration  of 
Independence. 

3.  Before  as,  viz.,  c.  g.,  i.  e.,  and  similar  expressions  where 
examples,  or  a  specification  of  particulars  follow,  except  where  such 
examples  are  parenthetical  in  a  sentence;  as,  "A  noun  is  a  name; 
as,  John,  book,  virtue." 

8.  The  Colon  (:). — Generally  used  to  introduce  a  speech  or 
quotation  containing  more  than  one  sentence,  or  a  series  of  state- 
ments, when  introduced  by  thus,  as  follows,  etc.  When  the  mat- 
ter following  a  colon  begins  a  new  paragraph  a  dash  should  be 
used  after  the  colon.  The  colon  is  properly  used  on  the  title  pages 
of  books  between  the  name  of  the  place  of  publication  and  that  of 
the  publisher;  as,  Chicago:  S.  C.  Griggs  &  Co. 

9.  The  Interrogation  Point  (  ?). — It  should  follow  every  direct 
question,  but  not  indirect  questions.  A  question  should  never  be 
divided  by  any  other  mark  except  a  comma  or  dash. 

10.  The  Exclamation  Point  (!).--It  is  used  alter  interjections, 
exclamatory  sentences,  words  and  phrases.  If  an  exclamatory  sen- 
tence contains  an  interjection,  the  point  need  not  follow  the  inter- 
jection, only  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  O  never  has  the 
exclamation  point  immediately  after  it. 

11.  The  Dash  (— ). 

1.     Is  used  to  precede  and  follow  parenthetical  clauses  which 


COMPOSITION  AND  LETTERS.  Ill 

are  too  closelv  connected   with  the  sentence  to  require  parenthesis 

marks. 

2.  Where  the  sense  is  suddenly  changed  or  suspended,  and 
where  a  speech  is  interrupted  by  another  person  speaking. 

3.  To  follow  a  heading  at  the  commencementof  a  paragraph. 

4.  To  precede  the   name  of  the  authority   of  a  quotation; 
as,  Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit. — Shakespeare. 

5.  To  show  omission  of  a  part  of  a  word;  as,  Mr.  C- n 

was  present. 

6.  Between  two  numbers  to  show  that  they  are  a  series  in- 
cluding all  between;  as,  2 — 5. 

12.  Parentheses  (  ). — Used  to  enclose  matter  not  belonging 
to  the  sentence,  as  explanations,  definitions,  references,  translations, 
authorities,  etc.  When  used  where  a  comma,  semicolon  or  period 
is  required,  if  the  matter  enclosed  relates  to  a  single  word  or  short 
clause,  these  marks  should  follow  the  last  parenthesis.  If  it  is  mat- 
ter relating  to  the  whole  sentence,  a  comma  should  also  precede 
each  parenthesis. 

13.  Brackets  [  ]. — These  marks  are  used  for  nearly  the  same 
purpose  ;is  parentheses,  being  more  especially  reserved  for  correc- 
tions, interpolated  matter,  notes,  remarks  made  by  the  editor  of 
another  man's  works,  or  the  author's  explanation  in  the  quotation 
from  another. 

14.  The  Hyphen  (-). — The  principal  use  is  to  separate  the 
parts  of  compound  words.  Many  words  which  were  formerly 
compound  and  spelled  with  a  hyphen  are  now  spelled  as  one  word. 
The  dictionary  represents  usage  and  should  be  consulted  in  cases  of 
doubt.  It  is  also  used  to  show  that  a  word  is  divided  at  the  end  of 
a  line.  Syllables  should  never  be  divided.  It  is  sometimes  used 
between  syllables  to  aid  in  pronunciation,  and  occasionally  words 
are  connected  by  a  hyphen  to  indicate  that  they  are  to  be  taken  as 
one  qualifying  adjective,  as,  "  It  was  in  that  little  walk-on-a-crack- 
or-be-lost  community." 

15.  Quotation  Marks  ("  "). — Used  to  enclose  matter  taken 
from  another  author  or  said  by  a  character  in  his  own  words.  When 
one  quotation  occurs  within  another,  single  marks  are  used  (''); 
every  new  paragraph,  when  a  lengthy  piece  is  quoted  should  have 
the  beginning  marks  hut  not  the  closing,  except  the  last  paragraph. 
It  is  a  common  practice  to  enclose  words  or  phrases  in  quotation 
marks  which  the  writer  does  not  indorse,  though  he  may  have  in- 
vented them  himself,  or  any  slang  or  unusual  expression,  or  proper 
names  and  titles  of  hooks  which  are  not  well  known.  Such  use  is 
a  matter  <>t   taste  and  judgment. 

16.  The  Apostrophe  ('). 

1.  To  mark  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  letters  in  contracted 
words  or  when  two  words  are  contracted  and  combined;  as  don't 
for  do  not,  I'll  for  I  will,  'mongst  for  amongst. 


112  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

2.  To  denote  the  possessor  case  [See  Grammar,  $}. 

3.  To  denote  the  nlural  of  figures  and  Utters  (See  Gram- 
mar, 5). 

4.  To  denote  the  omission  of  the  figures  or  words  for  the 
century  in  dates;  as,  '76  for  1876;  "[fifty -four  for  eighteen  hundred 
and  fifty- four. 

17.  Reference  Marks,  (*),  (f),  (J),  (|j),  (§),(1f),  (***)>  ^so 
letters  and  figures,  are  used  to  refer  the  reader  to  notes  at  the  bot- 
torn  or  side  of  the  page. 

18.  Words  to  be  printed  in  italics  should  be  underscored  with 
one  line,  in  small  CAPITALS,  two  lines,  in  LARGE  CAPITALS 
three  lines,  in  bold  face  letters,  a  wavy  line. 

Urmakks. — "The  English  has  no  universally  recognized  accentual  or  diacritical  marks, 
except  the  macron  ( — )  and  breve  (--<)  which  are  never  used  in  general  works,  and  the  diaeresis 
(••).  Even  this  last  mark  is  used  in  our  spelling- books  and  dictionaries  for  a  purpose  totally 
different  from  its  proper  use,  which  (as  its  name  signifies)  is  to  show  that  two  vowels  which 
might  constitute  a  diphthong  are  to  be  pronounced  separately  [Ex. -Zoology,  ZoOphyte.]  It  is 
also  correctly  used  in  proper  names  from  the  German.  [Ex.-GOthe,  the  same  as  Goethe, 
GOtttngen,  etc.] .  —  Bigelovu's  //am/  Book  of  Punctuation. 

19.  A  paragraph  is  a  single  sentence  or  a  group  of  sentences 
more  or  less  connected  in  meaning,  and  written  or  printed  by  begin- 
ning the  first  word  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  left  marginal  line. 
The  writer  must  use  his  judgment  about  paragraphing.  A  para- 
graph should  never  extend  over  a  page  of  print  as  it  spoils  the  ap- 
pearance and  affords  no  rest  for  the  eye.  On  the  other  hand,  too 
many  paragraphs  on  a  page  should  he  avoided. 

20.  Correct  spelling,  proper  punctuation,  proper  use  of  capi- 
tals and  abbreviations,  and  correct  grammatical  construction^ 
though  all  indispensable  to  good  composition  and  letter  writing,  are 
not  all  the  requisites.  Some  attention  must  be  paid  to  style,  or 
manner  in  which  the  writer  expresses  his  thoughts. 

21.  One  of  the  lirst  requirements  of  style  is  clearness  and 
in  order  to  secure  this  it  is   necessary: — 

1.  That  the  writer  have  a  dear  understanding  of  what  he 
attempts  to  write.  If  he  does  not  understand  the  subject  himself 
he  cannot  make  it  clear  to  others.  Pupils  should  not  undertake  to 
write  upon  subjects  which  they  do  not  understand. 

2.  That  the  right  words  should  he  chosen  to  express  the 
thought.  If  in  doubt  about  a  word  consult  the  dictionary  and  com- 
pare its  meaning  with  other  words  of  a  similar  meaning,  and  choose 
that  word  which  best  expresses  the  idea.  Use  simple  words  wher- 
ever they  can  he  made  to  express  the  meaning, and  above  all  things 
avoid  foreign  -cords  and  phrases.  Use  as  many  words  as  will  ex- 
press your  ideas  and  no  more. 

3.  Thai  there-  should  be  unity  of  thought  both  in  the  sen- 
tence and  the  discourse.  Ideas  which  have  no  connection  with  each 
other  should  not  be  expressed  in  the  same  sentence,  and  the  sentences 
should  bear  a  relation  to  each  other  in  thought. 


COMPOSITION  AND  LETTERS.  113 

4.  That  the  sentences  be  not  too  long.  It  is  better  to  make 
several  sentences  than  to  attempt  to  express  many  ideas  in  one  sen- 
tence.    It  requires  skill  to  manage  long  sentences. 

5.  A  proper  arrangement  of  the  words.  Though  there 
are  many  ways  of  arranging  words  to  afford  variety  of  expression, 
yet  there  are  certain  points  to  be  observed  or  the  variety  will  be  at 
the  expense  of  clearness.  Do  not  place  a  relative  too  far  from  its 
antecedent.  Place  modifying  terms  near  the  words  they  modify, 
or  in  such  a  position  as  to  leave  no  doubt  as  to  what  they  modify. 

22.  There  are  other  qualities  of  style,  a  discussion  of  which  will 
not  be  profitable  here.  The  reader  should  consult  some  good  work 
on  rhetoric.  For  a  discussion  of  imagery,  or  figures  of  speech,  see 
Prosody. 

23.  The  first  thing  to  do  in  writing  an  essay  is  to  make  an 
outline  of  the  entire  subject,  that  is,  simply  to  arrange  the  points 
you  wish  to  treat,  in  the  order  in  which  you  wish  to  discuss  them. 
This  is,  indeed,  the  principal  part  of  the  work.  It  is  the  frame- 
work or  skeleton  of  thought  which  you  must  clothe  with  living 
words.  Under  the  head  of  Systems  of  Outlining  in  another  part 
of  this  book  are  given  a  number  of  outlines  which  are  for  the  triple 
purpose  of  illustrating  methods  of  outlining,  to  serve  as  skeletons 
of  essays  which  may  be  written  by  the  pupil,  and  as  models  for 
similar  outlines  to  be  made  out  by  the  pupil. 

LETTER     WRITING. 

24.  In  the  discussion  of  the  writing  of  a  letter  the  following 
points  are    usually   considered :     The  Heading,    The  Introduction, 

The  Body,  The  Conclusion,  The  Folding  and     The     Superscrip- 
tion. 

26.  The  heading  consists  of  the  name  of  the  post  office  at 
which  the  writer  receives  his  mail,  or  the  name  of  the  place  at 
which  he  is  stopping,  and  the  date  of  writing.  As  a  general  rule 
the  name  of  the  post  office,  county  and  State  should  be  given.  If 
in  a  large  and  well-known  city  like  New  York,  Chicago  or  Cincin- 
nati, the  name  of  the  county  may  properly  be  omitted.  If  in  a  city 
or  town  where  the  mail  is  carried  to  the  houses,  the  number  of  the 
house  anil  name  of  street  should  be  written.  If  at  a  prominent 
hotel,  or  well-known  public  institution  of  any  kind,  its  name  may 
take  the  place  of  the  number  and  street. 

Necessity  of  Writing  the  County. —  Many  persons  in  small  country 
places  habitually  omit  the  county,  thinking  it  superfluous.  This  is  a  great  mis- 
take. On  postal  cars  (where  all  the  distributing  is  now  done)  the  mail  is  dis- 
tributed entirely  by  counties.  The  clerks  are  often  worked  to  their  utmost 
capacity,  hence  a  letter  to  a  distant  obscure  village  must  have  its  county  traced 
in  the  "  Postal  Guide."  Such  letters  are  liable  to  lie  over  one  mail  and  be  de- 
layed or  missent,  finally  reaching  the  dead-letter  office;  in  this  way  letters  of 
great  importance  often  fail  to  reach  their  destination  in  time. 


114  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

26.  The  heading  should  begin  about  an  inch  or  more  from 
the  top  of  the  page,  or  on  the  first  ruled  line  of  ruled  letter  paper. 
[f  the  letter  is  very  short,  only  a  few  lines,  it  may  begin  Lower 
down.  The  first  line  of  the  heading  should  begin  a  little  to  the 
left  of  the  middle  of  the  page, the  next  line  a  little  further  to  the 
right,. and  the  next  a  little  further  than  the  second.  It  is  Letter  to 
write  out  the  name  of  the  mouth  in  full  and  use  figures  only  for 
the  day  of  the  month.  The  year  may  be  abbreviated  by  omitting 
the  century,  using  an  apostrophe;  as,  December  i  s,  'Si,  (16). 

27.  The  introduction  consists  of  the  address  and  salutation. 
The  address  is  the  name,  title  and  place  of  residence  or  business  of 
the  person  to  whom  the  letter  is  written.  The  salutation  is  a  com- 
plimentary address,  consisting  of  customary  words  of  respect  or 
endearment  suited  to  the  person   addressed. 

28.  In  regard  to  titles  the  following  are  proper:  J//-.,  for  a 
man, before  his  name,  or  Esq.  after  it;  Master,  for  a  hoy;  Messrs., 
for  several  men;  Miss,  for  an  unmarried  lady;  Mrs.,  for  a  married 
lady;  Misses,  for  several  unmarried  ladies;  Mesdanies,  for  several 
married  ladies;  Dr.,  for  a  physician,  surgeon  or  dentist;  Rev.,  for  a 
minister,  or  if  his  given  name  is  not  known,  Rev.  Mr.;  Rev.  Dr., 
for  a  Doctor  of  Divinity,  or  Rev.  before  the  name  and  D.  D.  after 
it;  Hon.,iox  a  Member  of  Congress,  State  Senator,  Judge,  Mayor, 
or  Cabinet  officer;  His  Excellency,  for  the  President,  a  Governor 
or  an  Embassador.  It  is  proper  to  address  a  married  lady  with  the 
name  and  title  of  her  husband,  as,  Mrs.  Dr.  L.  M.  Kennedy,  or 
with  the  name  without  the  title,  as,  Mrs.  John  V.  Hadley.  The 
promiscuous  use  of  Esq.  in  the  case  of  men  of  no  prominence  is 
absurd. 

29.  As  to  the  salutation,  strangers  may  he  addressed  as  Sir 
or  Gentlemen,  Rev.  Sir,  General,  Madam,  etc.,  according  to  their 
station;  acquaintances,  as  Dear  Sir,  etc.;  friends,  as,  My  Dear 
Sir,  Dear  Friend,  Friend  Smith,  etc.;  relatives  and  dear  friends 
as  My  Dear  Child,  My  Dear   Wife,  Dearest  Emma,  etc. 

30.  The  address  should  begin  very  near  the  left  margin  of  the 
page,  and  on  the  next  line  below  the  heading  or  the  next  hut  one.  If 
it  consist  of  more  than  one  line,  the  second  line  should  begin  a  little 
to  the  right,  and  the  third  a  little  further  still.  In  official  documents 
and  in  letters  to  intimate  friends  the  address  is  sometimes  placed  in 
a  corresponding  position  at  the  bottom  of  the  letter,  (43). 

31.  When  the  address  occupies  more  than  one  line  begin  the 
salutation  on  left  marginal  line;  when  the  address  occupies  but  one 
line  begin  the  salutation  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  marginal  line. 
It  should  end  with  a  comma. 

32.  The  body  of  the  letter  should  begin  on  the  line  below  and 
a  little  to  the  right  ot  the  salutation,  unless  the  introduction  consists 
of  four  lines,  when  it  should  begin  on  the  same  line  as  the  saluta- 
tion, in  which  case  a  dash  should  follow  the  comma,  or  a  colon  and 
dash  be  used  instead  of  the  comma. 


COMPOSITION  AND  LETTERS.  115 

33.  If  it  be  a  business  letter,  let  it  be  brief  and  to  the  point. 
Say  what  you  mean  in  the  fewest  words,  yet  omit  nothing  neces- 
sary to  a  full  understanding  of  the  subject.  Write  sums  of  money 
in  both  figures  and  words  to  prevent  mistakes.  In  letters  of  friend- 
ship write  just  as  you  would  talk  to  your  friend  were  he  present. 
Apply  the  golden  rule  here,  and  as  you  like  to  read  newsy,  chatty 
letters  from  a  friend,  give  in  like  measure.  What  interests  you  will 
be  very  likely  to  interest  your  friend. 

34.  The  conclusion  consists  of  the  coinplitnentary  closing  and 

the  signature.       Business  letters  may  be  closed  with  Tours,  Truly 

yours,   Tours  truly,    Tours    respectfully,     Very   respectfully  yours, 

etc.     Letters  of  friendship  by    Tours   affectionately,    Toztr  friend, 

Tours  sincerely. 

35.  The  complimentary  closing  should  begin  a  little  to  the 
right  of  the  middle  of  the  page  below  the  last  line  of  the  body 
and  the  signature  follow  it  on  the  next  line  below,  a  little  to  the 
right.  Sign  your  full  name  if  writing  to  a  stranger,  and  if  a  lady 
write  Miss  or  Mrs.,  as  the  case  may  be.      Write  your  name  plainly. 

36.  If  the  size  of  the  sheet  is  adapted  to  the  envelope,  as  it 
should  be,  place  the  letter  with  the  first  page  uppermost,  and  fold 
by  turning  the  lower  third  up  over  the  middle  third,  and  then  the 
upper  third  down  over  that,  keeping  the  edges  even. 

37.  The  superscription  is  the  name,  title  and  post  office  or 
residence  of  the  person  to  whom  the  letter  is  to  be  sent,  and  is 
written  on  the  back  of  the  envelope.  Observe  the  same  rules  in 
regard  to  post  office,  county,  State,  number  and  street  as  given  un- 
der heading,  (25).  If  the  letter  is  to  be  sent  by  a  friend,  the  name 
and  residence  oidy  of  the  person  need  be  given,  or  the  name  only, 

and  at  the  lower  left  hand  corner  write,  By  kindness  of- -. 

(Insert  here  the  name  of  the  bearer). 

38.  The  superscription  should  begin  on  or  below  the  median 
line  of  the  envelope,  and  near  enough  to  the  left  side  to  get  all  the 
name  and  titles  in  one  line.  The  second  line  should  begin  a  little 
to  the  right  and  contain  the  number  of  the  house  and  street,  or  the 
name  of  the  post  office.  The  third  line  should  begin  a  little  further 
to  the  right  and  contain  the  name  of  the  county  or  State,  or  both. 
It  is  best  to  write  out  the  name  of  the  State  in  full.  Four  lines 
may  be  used  if  necessary,  always  remembering  to  commence  each 
new  line  a  little  to  the  right  of  tiie  preceding  one,  (46). 

39.  Never  draw  lines  with  a  pencil  or  scratch  them  with  a 
pin  on  the  envelope,  but  learn  to  write  straight  without  ruled  lines. 
Make  the  lines  an  equal  distance  apart.  Place  the  stamp  on  the 
upper  right  hand  corner  of  the  envelope.  Remember  that  many 
letters  go  to  the  dead  letter  office  because  not  directed  plainly  and 
fully.  Never  abbreviate  counties,  nor  in  fact  any  word  that  is  not 
generally  understood. 

40.  In  formal  notes  of  invitation  or  acceptance  there  should 


116  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

be  no  headings  introduction,  nor  signature,  the  third  person  being 
vised  instead  of  the  first,  and  the  date  being  written  at  the  bottom 
on  the  left  side  of  the  page. 

EXAMPLES. 

41.  A  Business  Letter.    Order  for  Goods. 

Hamilton,  Marion  Co.,  Iowa, 
January  12,  1882. 
Messrs.  Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co., 
137  Walnut  St.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
Gentlemen, 

Enclosed  you  will  find  Ten  Dollars  {$1 0.00), 
for  which  please  send  the  following  list  of  books  as 
per  your  advertisement  in  The  Practical  Teacher: — 

(Here  give  list). 

Send  books  by  American  Express  to  Hamilton, 
Marion  Co.,  Iowa. 

Yours, 

James  j4.  Martin, 

42.  A  Business  Letter. — Application  for  a  Country  School. 

Shelbyville,  Shelby  Co.,  Indiana, 

June  25,  1881. 
Mr.  T.  S.  Wilson, 

Ray's  Crossing,  Indiana, 

Sir: — /  desire  to  know  if  you  have  employed  a 
teacher  for  your  school  for  the  coming  year.  If  not, 
I  beg  leave  to  offer  myself  as  a  candidate  for  the 
position. 

I  have  attended  the  Central  Xormal  College,  Dan- 
ville, Ind.,  four  terms,  and  I  enclose  a  recommendation 
from  the  Principal  of  that  institution. 

If  you  desire  a  personal  interview  I  shall  be  glad 
to  meet  you  at  such  a  time  and  place  as  you  may 
name. 

In  your  reply  please  state  the  number  of  months 
school  you  expect  to  have  and  the  wages  usually  paid 
teachers. 

Respectfully, 

John  H.  Thomas. 


COMPOSITION  AND  LETTERS.  117 

43.  A  Letter  of  Friendship. 

293  Lake  St.,  Chicago, 

Dec.  21,  1881. 
My  Dear  Sister: 

Your  good,  newsy  letter  of  the  16th  was  read  with 
great  pleasure.  Though  here  in  a  great  city  where 
there  is  so  much  to  see  and  hear,  I  often  think  of  home 
and  of  the  loved  ones  there,  and  though  I  have  been 
away  from  home  a  great  deal,  at  times  a  feeling  of 
homesickness  conies  over  me  and  I  cannot  throw  it  off. 
$Lt  such  times  a  good,  long  letter,  such  as  you  write, 
does  me  a  world  of  good. 

Do,  please,  write  as  soon  as  you  receive  this,  and 
tell  me  all  the  news.  I  expect  to  return  home,  I  can- 
not say  just  zohen,  but  before  mang  weeks.  1  am  suc- 
ceeding well  with  my  work,  and  my  health  is  good. 

Yours  affectionately, 

Henry  Watson. 
Miss  Emma  Watson, 

Huntley,  Henry  Co.,  III. 

44.  Letter   of  Introduction. 

70  Metropolitan  Block,  Chicago, 

Nov.  26,  1881. 
Mr.  J.  H.  McLean, 
Boston,  Mass., 

Dear  Friend: — This  will  introduce  to  you  my 
friend,  Mr.  G.  L.  Spillman.  rtny  kindness  you  may 
show  him  I  shall  esteem  as  a  personal  favor. 

Very  truly, 

Thos.  H.  Brown. 

45.  Formal  Notes. — Invitation,  Accepting,  Declining. 

Mr.  James  P.  Price  presents  compliments  to  Miss 
Elsie  Stewart  and  requests  the  pleasure  of  her  com- 
pany to  the  concert,  Fridag  evening,  Jan.  2. 

2^2  Prairie  tive.,  Dec.  27,1881. 


118  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

Miss  Elsie  Stewart  presents  compliments  to  Mr. 
James  P.  Price  and  is  pleased  to  accept  his  company 
to  the  concert,  Friday  evening. 

24-  Nelson  St.,  Dec.  27,  1881. 

.  \fiss  Elsie  Stewart  presents  compliments  to  Mr. 
James  P.  Price  and  regrets  that  a  previous  engage- 
merit  prevents  her  accepting  his  company  to  the  con- 
cert. Friday  evening. 

24-  Kelson  St.,  Dec.  27,1881. 

Formal  notes  of  this  kind  are  used  only  between  comparative  strangers.  A 
better  acquaintance  will  justify  a  less  formal  manner,  as,  "James  P.  Price  re- 
quests the  pleasure  of  Miss  Elsie  Stewart's  company,"  etc.,  or  formality  may  be 
laid  aside  entirely,  and  you  may  address  the  party  in  the  usual  manner,  saying, 
"  I  desire  the  pleasure  of  your  company,"  etc,  and  sign  your  name  as  in  an 
ordinary  letter. 

46.  An  envelope  when  properly  addressed  will  appear  as 
below : 


#STAMP.& 

Thomas  rf.  Kendall,  Esq., 

Springfield, 

Clark 

Co. 

Ohio. 

HINTS    TO    TEACHERS. 


47.  In  all  grammar  classes  or  in  reading  and  spelling  classes 
or  as  a  general  exercise  for  all  the  school  who  are  old  enough  to 
write  readily,  there  should  be  frequent  exercises  in  sentence  mak- 
ing, which  is  the  first  step  to  regular  composition.  Let  the  teacher 
write  on  the  board  the  word  .**  horse,"  for  example,  and  ask  the 
pupils  to  write  as  mam  sentences  as  possible  in  a  given  time    con- 


COMPOSITION  AND  LETTERS.  119 

taining  this  word,  the  teacher  giving  as  models,  a  few  sentences,  as : 
The  horse  runs.  A  horse  runs.  Horses  run.  I  saw  the  horse. 
Require  that  the  sentences  lie  quite  short  and  criticise  the  work 
carefully,  seeing  that  the  proper  plural  forms  are  used  for  the  verb 
and  that  the  sentences  are  properly  capitalized  and  punctuated. 
Other  nouns  may  he  given  or  verbs,  and  sentences  formed  in  a  simi- 
lar manner.  The  particular  object  here,  being  to  drill  in  the  use  of 
nouns  and  verbs.  A  noun  may  he  given  as  a  subject,  and  pupils 
be  required  to  write  as  many  predicates  as  possible,  and   vice  versa. 

48.  Adjectives  may  be  introduced  next  as  the  particular  objects 
of  drill.  Require  pupils  to  write  sentences  containing  a  given 
noun  with  as  many  different  qualifying  adjectives  as  possible.  Have 
them  form  sentences  from  such  phrases  as  Sweet  apples,  A  sour 
orange,  etc.,  by  placing  the  adjective  in  the  predicate  as,  The  apples 
are  sweet.     The  orange  is  sour,  etc. 

49.  Such  exercises  though  of  frequent  occurrence  should  not 
be  too  lengthy,  and  when  pupils  have  reached  some  degree  of  pro- 
ficiency in  constructing  simple  sentences,  they  should  have  practice 
in  writing  very  short  compositions  on  very  easy  subjects  or  letters 
to  friends,  describing  some  simple  objects  or  narrating  tacts  of  their 
own  observation.  Perhaps  it  will  not  be  best  at  first  to  call  their 
efforts  compositions,  as  there  is  something  in  the  name  that  makes 
it  seem  something  very  difficult.  Better  say,  write  what  you  know 
about  such  a  matter,  and  give  such  assistance  at  first  in  the  way  of 
outlines,  questions,  suggestions,  etc.,  that  the  pupil  will  be  writing 
compositions  before  he  knows  what  he  is  doing. 

50.  To  form  the  outlines  of  the  first  compositions  let  the 
teacher  talk  with  the  pupils  on  some  subject,  and  by  proper  ques- 
tions ami  suggestions  a  number  of  points  may  be  drawn  from  the 
class  which  the  teacher  writes  on  the  board  for  the  pupils  to  copy. 
Pursue  this  plan  until  the  pupils  are  able  to  construct  outlines  for 
themselves. 

51.  The  following  is  an  outline  for  a  composition  on  dogs: — 

i      A  domestic  animal,  (The  word  "domestic"  should  be  explained  if  not 
understood,  and  all  other  words  which  may  be  new  to  the  pupils). 

2.  Are  the  companions  of  men  the  world  over. 

3.  Vary  much  in  size  and  appearance. 

4.  Kim!-. 

1.  Poodle. 

2.  Newfoundland. 

3.  Shepherd,  Spaniel,  etc. 

5.  Uses. 

1.  To  guard  property. 

2.  To  hunt. 

3.  For  pets 

6.  Intelligence. 

1.  Name  some  tricks  they  can  be  taught. 

2.  Stories  about  dogs. 

7.  Love  for  their  masters,  stories  illustrating. 


120  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

52.  The  horse,  cow,  sheep,  cat,  rabbit,  squirrel  and  other  ani- 
mals which  the  pupils  may  be  fafiiliar  with,  may  he  given  as  sub- 
jects to  be  similarly  outlined  and  written  up.  As  examples  of 
subjects  a  little  more  difficult  take   Wheat,  Corn,  Rye,  Flax,  Cotton, 

Wool,  Iron,  Coal,  Lead,  Gold,  Sih>er. 

53.  The  following  is  an  example  of  an  outline  for  a  composi- 
tion on  wheat: — 

i.     The  most  useful  grain. 

2.  Where  grown. 

1.  What  regions  as  to  climate. 

2.  What  countries  produce  most. 

3.  When  sown  or  planted. 

4.  How  sown  or  planted. 

1.  Preparing  the  ground. 

2.  Machines  used. 

5.  When  harvested. 

6.  Machines  used  in  harvesting. 

7.  Threshing. 

8-     How  made  into  flour.     Describe  a  flouring  mill. 

9.     Kinds  of  flour. 
10.     Uses  of  flour. 

u.  What  would  result  if  the  wheat  crop  would  be  a  failure  everywhere  for 
one  year? 

54.  A  good  exercise  is  to  have  pupils  write  a  letter  to  a  friend 
describing  what  they  did  in  one  day.  This  may  seem  difficult,  but 
not  when  you  consider  that  if  all  the  minutiae  be  described  it  will 
make  quite  a  lengthy  essay.  What  is  easier,  perhaps,  as  a  prelim- 
inary to  this,  is  for  the  teacher  to  perform  a  number  of  acts  in  pres- 
ence of  the  pupils,  asking  them  to  watch  him  closely  and  then 
write  down  all  that  he  did.  For  example,  he  may  walk  to  the 
door,  open  it  and  look  out,  then  go  to  the  window,  then  to  the  desk, 
move  some  books,  take  one  in  his  hand,  sit  down  in  the  chair,  etc., 
etc.      This  is  an  excellent  drill. 

55.  The  suggestions  given  above  are  all  i  11  regard  to  teaching 
beginners,  and  the  outlines  have  been  made  very  full  and  plain, 
and  the  subjects  easy.  But  for  all  pupils  except  the  most  advanced 
who  have  had  considerable  practice  in  essay  writing,  outlines 
should  be  drawn  up  by  the  class  with  the  assistance  of  the  teacher, 
but  they  can  be  made  more  logical  and  less  specific,  single  words 
generally  instead  of  phrases  or  sentences  forming  the  headings. 
For  examples  of  outlines  which  may  be  used  as  skeletons  of  es- 
says, sec  Systems  of  Outlining-. 

50.  All  letters  and  essays  should  be  inspected  by  the  teacher 
and  carefully  criticised,  the  mistakes  marked,  and  papers  handed 
hark  to  the  pupils  for  correction.  The  errors  being  pointed  out 
the  pupil  will  be  able  by  the  aid  of  the  dictionary  and  grammar  in 
most  cases  to  correct  them.  At  a  subsequent  recitation  the  criti- 
cisms may  be  discussed,  the  pupils  calling  attention  to  those  parts 
marked  which  they  have  been   unable  to  correct,  and   if  others  in 


COMPOSITION  AND  LETTERS.  121 

the  class  cannot  point  out  the  correction,  the  teacher  should  do  so. 
57.     The  errors  are  to  be   marked  according    to  the    following 
scale  of  criticism : — 

1.  Spelling.  6.  Elegance. 

2.  Capitals.  -.  Strength. 

3.  Punctuation.  8.  Paragraphing. 

4.  Grammar.  9.  Accuracy. 

5.  Clearness.  10.  Miscellaneous. 

Explanation. —The  teacher  marks  the  mistakes  by  the  use  of 
figures  made  with  a  pencil  (a  blue  or  red  one  is  best) ;  thus  1  placed 
over  a  word  denotes  incorrect  spelling;  3,  wrong  punctuation  or  no 
punctuation;  5,  want  of  clearness,  etc.  The  first  four  points  only 
should  be  marked  in  the  essays  of  beginners,  as  it  may  discourage 
them  to  see  so  many  marks  and  it  cannot  be  expected  of  them 
that  they  would  have  very  perfect  productions.  Gross  errors,  how- 
ever, in  clearness  and  accuracy  may  be  pointed  out  by  the  teacher 
after  the  other  mistakes  have  been  corrected.  A  much  more  ex- 
tended scale  embracing  as  many  as  a  hundred  points  in  criticism 
might  be  given  but  for  the  purposes  of  the  common  school  teacher 
these  are  sufficient. 

QUESTIONS    ON    COMPOSITION    AND    LETTERS. 

4.  What  rules  of  punctuation  may  be  taught  very  young  pupils?  5.  What 
are  the  rules  for  using  Periods?  6.  Commas?  7."  Semicolons?  S.  Colons? 
9.  Interrogation  Points?  10.  Exclamation  Points?  11.  The  Dash?  Paren- 
theses? 13.  Brackets?  14.  The  Hyphen?  15.  Quotation  Marks?  if>.  The 
Apostrophe?     17.  Reference  Marks? 

18.  How  indicated  to  the  printer  I  hat  words  shall  be  printed  in  italics? 
Small  Capitals?  Large  Capitals?  Bold-faced  letters?  Remark. — What  are 
the  only  universally  recognized  accentual  marks  in  English?  19.  What  is  a 
paragraph?     What  is  the  rule  for  paragraphing?      20.  What  is  meant  by  style? 

21.  What  are  necessary  to  clearness  of  style?  23.  What  is  the  first  step  in 
writing  an  essay?  25.  What  is  the  heading  of  a  letter?  26.  How  written?  27. 
The  introduction?  28.  Write  suitable  names  for  the  following  titles:  Mr.,  Mrs., 
Dr.,  Rev.,  Rev.  Mr.,  Rev.  Dr.,  Hon.,    His  Excellency. 

29.  What  is  the  salutation?  30 — 31.  How  should  the  address  be  written? 
32.  Where  should  the  body  of  the  letter  begin?  33.  What  is  necessary  in 
writinga  business  letter?  34.  What  is  the  conclusion?  35.  How  written?  36. 
How  fold  a  letter?     37.  What  is  the  superscription?     38.  How  written? 

40.  What  difference  is  made  in  writing  a  formal  note?  41.  Write  a  letter 
ordering  goods?  42.  Write  a  letter  applying  for  a  school?  44.  Write  a  letter 
of  introduction?  47.  What  exercises  should  precede  composition  writing?  49. 
Is  it  best  to  say  to  pupils,  "You  must  write  a  composition !" 

50.  How  would  you  produce  the  outline  for  a  composition?  56.  How 
would  you  conduct  a  recitation  in  composition  writing?  57.  What  are  the  ad- 
vantages of  a  scale  of  criticism? 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT. 


OUTLINE    OF    THE    CONSTITUTION. 

The  figures  in  parentheses  refer  to  paragraphs  quoted  from  the  constitution. 

li  Definition,    i  Time. — 1787. 

21  Formation.  -  Place.— Philadelphia. 

(  Manner.— By  Federal  Convention. 
31  Adoption.—  By  People  of  the  States  in  convention. 
41  Provisions. 

12  As  to  Legislative  Department,  or  Congress.  (2). 
i3  Houses.  (2). 
1*  Senate.  (11). 
i5  Members. 

i°  Number. — Two  from  each  State.  (11). 

2''  Term. — Six  years.  (11). 

36  Election.— By  State  Legislatures.    (11). 

1  Age  30  yrs.  (12).     Citizenship  9  yrs.  (12). 
4fi  Qualifications.    ■]  Resident  of  State.  (12).      Loyalty.  (6). 

(  Official  Disencumbrance.  (5). 
56  Privileges.— Arrest,  Questions.  (23). 
G>  Compensation.  (23). 
76  Oath.  (S6). 
25  Presiding  Officer.— Vice-President  of  U.  S.  or    (13)  President 


pro  tempore. 


bcrs.  C19). 


Powers  and  Duties. 
16  Legislative. 
26  Judicial. — In  trying  impeachments.  (15). 

17  Number  nece'ssary  to  convict — two-thirds  present.  (15) 

27  Judgment  in  impeachment.  (16). 

18  To  remove  from  office  and  disqualification. 
28  Subject  to  further  trial  in  courts. 
36  Elective. 

i7  Vice-President.  (57). 

27   President  fro  tempore.  (14). 

37  Senate  officers.  (14). 
46  Executive. 

i7  Appointments.  (64) 

2'  Treaties.  (64). 
56  Special. 

i7  To  judge  the  elections,  returns   and  qualifications  of  mem- 


27  To  establish  rules  of  proceeding.  (20). 
37  To  punish  and  expel  members.  (20). 
47  To  keep  and  publish  a  journal.  (21). 

57  To  adjourn  for  not  more  than  three  days  without  consent 
of  House.  (22). 

2*  House  of  Representatives.  (3). 
i&  Members. 
i«  Apportionment  —According  to  population.  (7). 
26  Term.— Two  years. 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT.  123 

•js  Election—  Bv  the  People.  (3). 

(  Age  25  yrs.     Citizenship  7  yrs. 
46  Qualifications.  -'  Residence  in  State.     Loyalty. 

(  Olh*cial  Disencumbrance. 
56  Privileges.— Arrest,  Questions.  (23). 
66  Oath.    (86). 
a5  Powers  and  Duties. 
16  Legislative. 

I*  Exclusive  as  to  bills  of  revenue.  (25). 
27  Concurrent. 
26  Inquisitorial. — In  finding  impeachment.  (10). 
36  Elective. 

i7  President  U.  S.  (57). 
27  House  officers.  (10). 
46  Special.— Same  as  Senate. 
23  Powers. 
i<  Express.  (27-45). 

x5  To  lay  taxes,  duties,  etc. 
25  To  borrow  money. 
tf  To  regulate  commerce. 

Js  To  establish  rules  of  naturalization  and  laws  of  bankiuptcy. 
%>  To  coin  money  and  regulate  its  value. 
6*  To  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures. 
75  To  fix  the  penalties  for  counterfeiting  U.  S.  coin. 
85  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads. 
05  To  grant  patents  and  copyrights. 
io5  To  establish  U.  S.  courts. 

116  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal. 
1 25  To  raise  and  support  armies  and  navies. 
,36  To  make   rules    tor   the   government  of  the    army   and    navy, 


etc.,  etc. 


2*   Incidental. 

i»  To  purchase  foreign  territory. 

25  To  establish  military  and  naval  academies. 

35  To  make  internal  improvements. 

$%S£*E2?2Lm,t.cmj  into  effect  an  express  or 
plainly  implied  power  of  Congress. 
33  Assembling. 

1*  Once  a  year.  (18). 

2*  When  President  convenes  it.  (00). 

43  Laws. 
1*  Passage. 

i»  With  President's  consent.  (2b). 

2&  Without  President's  consent.  (26). 
c3  Prohibitions.-  . 

i«  To  suspend  the  writ  of  Habeas  Corpus.  (46). 
2*  To  pass  bill  of  attainder.  (48). 
i*  To  pass  ex  fost facto  law.    (48). 
1*  To  lay  taxes  on  exports  trom  States.  (50). 
5«  To  favor  the  commerce  of  particular  States.  (50). 
6*  To  grant  titles  of  nobility.  (52)  _ 

7«  To  establish  religion  or  to  prohibit  its  exercise.  (83). 
4*  To  ibrid"-e  the  freedom  of  speech  or  ot  the  press.  (63). 
I*  S  deny  the  right  of  assembling  to  petition  the  government 


(83). 


2  As  to  Executive  Department. 


Object. 
1*  To  enforce  the  laws. 


124  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART 

23  Chief  officer. 
I*  President. 

I«   Qualifications,  j  ^h(3S)"     CitizenshiP" 

25  Term.     Four  vrs. 
35  Election. 

ib  By  electors.  (57). 
2T   Number  of  electors. — The  number  of  Senators  and  Repre- 


sentatives 


cur.  (64). 


37  Choosing  as  State  Legislatures  direct. 

47  Voting  by  ballot. 

5"  Signing,  sealing,  certifying  and  transmitting  lists  of  votes. 

67  Opening  lists. 

77  Counting  votes. 

87  Declaring  result. 
26  By  House  of  Representatives. 

i7  Vote  taken  by  States. 

27  Majority  necessary  to  choice. 
•  Powers  and  Duties. 
i6  To  be  commander-in-chief  of  army  and  navy.  (63). 
26  To  grant  pardons  and  reprieves.  (63). 
36  To  make  treaties   provided   two-thirds  of  the  Senators   con- 


46  To  make  appointments.  (64). 
56  To  fill  vacancies.  (64). 
66  To  recommend  measures  to  Congress.  (66). 
76  To  see  that  the  laws  are  executed.  (66). 
32  As  to  Judicial  Department. 

i3  Object. — To  interpret  and  apply  the  law. 
23  In  what  vested. 

1*  Supreme  Court.  (68). 
24  Inferior  Courts.  (68). 
i5  Judges. 

i6  How  chosen. — Appointed  by  the  President.  (64) 
26  Term  of  office. — During  good  behavior.  (68). 
42  As  to  States. 
I3  Prohibitions. 

14  To  enter  into  a  treaty  or  alliance.  (53). 
24  To  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal.  (53). 
34  To  coin  money  or  emit  bills  of  credit.  (53). 
4*  To  pass  a  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts.  (53). 
54  To  grant  any  title  of  nobility.  (53). 
64  To  lay  duties  only  to  pay  for  inspection.  (54). 
23  Powers  and  rights. 

I4  To  all  powers  not  delegated  to  U.  S. 
24  To  protection. 

i5  In  form  of  government.  (S2). 
25  Against  invasion.  (82). 
35  Against  domestic  violence.  (82.) 
34  To  fugitives  from  justice.  (81). 
4*  To  credit  in  records,  acts,  etc.  (80). 
52  As  to  Personal  Rights. 

1    The  right  to  freedom  of  worship,  of  speech,  of  press. 

2'  Theright  to  bear  arms. 

33  Tin-  right  to  domicile.  (72). 

43  The  right  to  be  secure  against  searches  and  seizure.  (73). 

5:l  The  right  to  he  accused  by  grand  jury.  (74). 

6s  Not  to  be  subject  to  two  trials  for  same  crime 

7a  Not  to  be  a  witness  against  himself. 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT.  136 

83  Right  to  private  property. 
(j3  Right  to  jury  trial. 
io3  Right  to  witnesses  and  counsel. 
II3  To  habeas  corpus  writ. 
123  To  be  protected  against  unreasonable  bail,  excessive  fines,  etc 
6s  As  to  amendments. 
I3  Manner  of  proposing. 

i*  By  two-thirds  vote  in  Congress. 
2*  By  conventions. 
23  Manner  of  Adopting, 
i*  By  State  legislatures. 
2*  By  conventions  in  three-fourths  of  States. 

CIVIL    GOVERNMENT. 

The  quotations  from  the  constitution  arc  numbered  with  figures  in  parentheses,  the  com- 
ments with  figures  in  bold  face. 

1.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  is  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  land,  prescribing  the  form  and  limiting  the  powers  of 
the  government. 

2.  Our  Constitution  unlike  the  British  Constitution,  does  not 
comprise  the  whole  body  of  public  law;  it  is  a  plain,  concise,  writ- 
ten document  which  forms  the  basis  of  all  our  laws  and  in  its  main 
features  is  easily  comprehended  by  all  intelligent  persons. 

3.  Of  itself  it  is  the  best  treatise  on  Civil  Government  that 
could  possibly  be  written  in  the  same  space,  and  as  this  article  is  to 
be  brief  the  greater  part  of  it  will  be  composed  of  quotations  from 
the  Constitution;  such  explanation  being  given  as  is  thought  necessary 
to  interest  and  instruct  those  into  whose  hands  this  book  may  come. 

4.  The  history  of  the  formation  and  adoption  of  our  Constitu- 
tion is  as  follows:  Soon  after  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War, 
it  was  found  that  the  system  of  government  formed  during  that 
war  was  inadequate  to  the  control  of  a  people  with  such  diversity 
of  interests  as  was  found  in  this  country. 

This  system  embodied  in  the  Articles  of  Confederation,  went  in- 
to operation  in  1781,  and  was  little  more  than  a  league  between  the 
States  for  their  mutual  protection. 

In  Mav,  17S7,  a  convention  of  delegates  from  all  the  States  met 
at  Philadelphia  to  remedy  the  defects  in  the  existing  government, 
by  altering  or  abolishing  it.  This  convention  with  George  Wash- 
ington as  its  President  continued  in  session  with  closed  doors  until 
the  17th  of  the  following  September,  and  the  result  of  its  delibera- 
tions was  the  formation  of  our  present  constitution  without  the  sub- 
sequent amendments. 

The  Constitution  thus  agreed  upon  was  forwarded  to  the  Con- 
gress of  the  Confederation  then  in  session  at  New  York.  It  was 
referred  by  this  Congress  to  the  legislatures  of  the  .States,  who 
called  conventions  of  the  people  to  consider  its  ratification  or  adop- 
tion. The  adoption  of  the  Constitution  was  violently  opposed  in 
some  of  the    States.      Rhode    Island   and    North    Carolina    refused 


126  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI HEART. 

their  consent  until  after  the  new  government  went  into  operation  in 

5.  Since  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  there  have  been 
fifteen  amendments  added  in  the  manner  provided  in  the  Constitu- 
tion itself.  As  amendments  are  component  parts  of  the  entire 
Constitution  they  will  not  be  treated  of  separately,  though  they  are 

usually  classed  so. 

6.  The  Preamble  states  very  clearly  by  whom  and  for  what 
purposes  the  Constitution  was  formed. 

(i)  We,  the  people  of  the  United  States  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect 
Union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquility,  provide  for  the  common 
defense,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity 
the  blessings  of  liberty,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  constitution  for  the  United 
States  of  America. 

7.  Ever  since  the  formation  of  the  Constitution  different  views 
have  been  held  as  to  what  it  really  is.  It  has  been  claimed  by 
wise  and  honest  statesmen  that  it  is  simply  a  compact  between 
sovereign  States  whereby  they  strengthened  their  former  govern- 
ment. This  theorv  makes  the  States  sovereign  and  the  general 
government  subordinate.  It  has  been  maintained  by  statesmen 
equally  wise  and  honest  that  it  is  the  work  of  a  sovereign  people 
acting  in  their  original  capacity  who  permitted  the  States  to  exist 
under  it,  but  possessing  the  power  had  they  so  chosen  to  destroy  the 
agency  of  the  States  in  the  government  of  the  people. 

8.  The  War  of  the  Rebellion  was  the  fruit  of  the  former 
theory,  and  since  its  termination  the  question  has  been  generally  re- 
garded as  finally  settled.  For  an  able  advocacy  of  both  views  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  debates  of  Webster,  Calhoun  and  Ilaynein 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States. 

9.  The  Constitution  divides  our  government  into  three  distinct 
departments,  exercising  three  distinct  functions,  and  at  the  same 
time  serving  as  checks  and  balances  on  each  other. 

Those  departments  are:  (i)  the  Legislative,  or  that  which  makes 
the  laws;  (2)  the  Judicial,  which  interprets  the  laws  and  applies  them 
to  particular  cases;   (3)  the  Executive,  which  enforces  the  laws. 

10.  The  following  provisions  of  the  Constitution  relate  to  the 
Legislative  department : — 

(:)  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress  of 
the  United  States  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representa- 
tives. 

(3)  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  consist  of  members  chosen  every 
•  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States  and  the  electors  in  each  State 
shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch 
of  the  State  L'^ri  ilature. 

(|j  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  and  who  shall  not  when  elected  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which 
he  shall  be  chosen. 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT.  127 

(5)  No  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States  shall  be  a  mem- 
ber ot"  either  House  during  his  continuance  in  office. 

(6)  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Congress  or  elector 
of  President  or  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office  civil  or  military  under  the 
United  States  or  under  any  Shite  who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath  as  a 
member  of  Congress  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of 
any  State  legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  sup- 
port the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or 
rebellion  against  the  same  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But 
Congress  may  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House  remove  such  disability. 

(7)  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  Slates  accord- 
ing to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each 
State  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.   But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  lor 

•  the  choice  of  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Representa- 
tives in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  the  State  or  the  members 
of  the  legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State, 
being  twenty-one  years  of  age  and  citizens  of  the  United  States  or  in  any  way 
abridged  except  for  participation  in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  repre- 
sentation therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  whole  number  of 
such  male  citizens  bears  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years 
of  age  in  such  State. 

(8)  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three  years  after  the 
first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  and  within  every  subsequent 
term  of  ten  years  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of 
Representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State 
shall  be  entitled  to  at  least  one  Representative. 

(9)  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  the  execu- 
tive authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

(ioj  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and  other 
officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

11.  Representatives  are  elected  by  the  people  of  the  States  for 
a  term  of  two  years.  If  a  person  is  entitled  to  vote  for  members 
of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  his  own  State  legislature,  he  can 
vote  for  representatives. 

12.  The  qualifications  of  Representatives  relate  to  age,  citi- 
zenships inhabitancy,  loyalty  and  official  disencumbrance. 

13.  Representatives  are  apportioned  according  to  numbers, 
but  the  original  rule  for  ascertaining  those  numbers  has  been 
changed  to  that  given  above,  by  an  amendment.  Formerly  three- 
fifths  of  the  slaves  were  counted,  but  since  the'  abolition  of  slavery 
and  the  adoption  of  the  15th  amendment,  all  persons  are  included 
except  Indians  not  taxed.  The  number  of  Representatives  cannot 
exceed  one  for  every  32,000,  but  the  actual  apportionment  has 
always  been  much  less  than  thi>.  The  present  ratio  is  one  Rep- 
resentative for  every  130,533  inhabitants.  The  ratio  is  changed 
after  each  census  or  enumeration. 

14.  The  House  chooses  its  own  officers.  These  are  the 
Speaker,  Clerk,  Sergeant-at-Arm-,  Doorkeeper,  Postmaster  and 
Chaplain.  It  has  the  sole  power  of  impeachment  or  bringing  an 
accusation  against  a  public  officer.  The  .Senate  tries  the  impeach- 
ment.     The  following  provisions  relate  to  the  Senate: — 

(11)  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators 
from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof  for  six  years,  and  each  Sen- 
ator shall  have  one  vote. 


128  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

(12)  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age 
of  thirty  years  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  Tinted  State6,and  \s  ho  shall 
not,  when  elected,  bean  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

(13)  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President  of  the 
Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

(14)  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  President  pro 
tempore  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 

(15)  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  trj  all  impeachments. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When  the 
President  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief  Justice  shall  preside;  and  no 
person  shall  be  convicted  without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members 
present. 

(16)  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than  to 
removal  from  office  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor, 
trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States;  but  the  party  convicted  shall  neverthe- 
less be  liable  and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment  and  punishment  accord- 
ing to  law . 

15.  The  States  have  equal  representation  in  the  Senate,  and 
those  representatives  are  chosen  by  the  State  legislatures  for  six 
years.  The  qualifications  of  Senators  also  relate  to  age, citizenship, 
inhabitancy  and  official  disencumbrance.  The  Vice-President  of 
the  United  States  is  President  of  the  Senate,  but  the  other  officers 
are  chosen  by  the  Senate  itself".  They  are  a  .Secretary.  Chief 
Clerk,  Executive  Clerk,  Sergeant-at-Arms  Doorkeeper  and 
Chaplain. 

16.  The  power  of  trying  impeachments  is  a  judicial  one.  On 
the  trial  of  the  President  the  Chief-Justice  shall  preside,  and  in  all 
cases  t luri-  can  he  no  conviction  without  the  concurrence  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  members  present. 

17.  Judgment  may  extend  to  removal  only  or  to  removal  and 
disqualification  to  hold  office, but  no  further  than  this  latter  punish- 
ment. But  for  a  criminal  violation  of  law  the  party  convicted  i--' 
subject  to  trial  and  punishment  by  the  courts  of  law. 

(17)  The  times,  places  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  Senators  ami 
Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  legislature  thereof; 
but  the  Congress  mav  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter  such  regulations, 
except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing  Senators: 

(18)  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year;  and  such  meet- 
ing shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint 
a  different  day  : 

(19)  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns  and  qualifica- 
tions of  its  own  members;  and  a  majority  of  eaeli  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do 
business,  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be 
authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such  manner  and 
under  such  penalties  as  each  House  may  provide: 

120)  Each  House  may  determine  tile  rules  of  it-  proceedings,  punish  it- 
members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds,  ex- 
pel a  member  : 

(ji)  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to 
lime  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  require 
secrecy  ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  house  shall,  at  the  de- 
sire of"  one- fifth  ot  the  members  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal: 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT.  129 

(22)  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place 
than  that  in  which  the  two  Houses  shall  be  sitting: 

(24)  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation  for 
their  services  to  be  ascertained  by  law  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  excepl  treason,  felony  and  breach  of  the  peace, 
be  privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  re- 
spective Houses  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same;  and  for  any 
speech  or  debate  in  either  House  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other 
place : 

(24)     No   Senator  or   Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he 
was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United. 
States  which   shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have 
been  increased  during  such  time: 

(2cj)  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  must  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives; but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments  as  on 
other  bills: 

(26)  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  and 
the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States;  if  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it;  but  if  not,  he  shall  return  it  with 
his  objections,  to  that  House  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter 
the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If,  after 
such  reconsideration,  two-thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it 
shall  be  sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  House,  by  which  it  shall 
likewise  be  reconsidered :  and,  if  approved  by  two-thirds  of  that  House  it  shall 
become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases,  the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be  deter- 
mined by  veasand  nays;  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and  against 
the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  House  respectively.  If  any  bill 
shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after 
it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law  in  like  manner  as  if 
he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress,  by  their  adjournment,  prevent  its  return; 
in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law : 

(27)  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts, 
and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts,  and  provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general 
welfare  of  the  United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts  and  excises  shall  be  uni- 
form throughout  the  United  States: 

(28)  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States: 

(29)  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several 
States, and  with  the  Indian  tribes: 

(30)  To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization  and  uniform  laws  on  the 
subject  of  bankruptcies,  throughout  the  United  States: 

(31)  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof  and  of  foreign  coin,  and 
fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures: 

(32)  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and 
current  coin  of  the  United  States: 

(33)  To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads: 

(34)  T°  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts  by  securing  for 
limited  times,  to  authors  and  inventors,  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective 
writings  and  discoveries: 

(35)  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court: 

(36)  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high 
seas,  and  offences  against  the  law  of  nations : 

(37)  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  and  make  rules 
concerning  captures  on  land  and  water: 

(38)  To  raise  and  support  armies;  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that 
use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years: 

(39)  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy: 

(40)  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces : 

9 


180  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

(41)  To  provide  for  the  calling  forth  of  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of 
the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions: 

(42)  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia,  and  for 
governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  he  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and 
the  authority  of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  hy 
Congress  \ 

(_13)  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over  sucii 
district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may  by  cession  of  Congress,  hecome 
the  seat  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States;  and  to  exercise  like  authority 
over  all  places  purchase. 1,  by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in 
which  the  same  shall  he,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock- 
yards, and  other  needful  buildings: 

(44)  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  he  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying 
into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  con- 
stitution in  the  Government  of  the  United  States  or  any  of  them. 

18.  The  foregoing  constitute  what  are  called  the  enumerated 
or  express  powers  of  the  United  States  Congress.  Most  of  these 
provisions  arc  so  plain  that  they  may  he  readily  comprehended  and 
need  no  explanation.  They  will  he  found  conveniently  arranged 
under  the  outline. 

19.  Besides  these  express  powers  there  are  other  powers  called 
incidental,  that  have  frequently  heen  exercised  hut  not  without 
much  discussion.  The  last  paragraph  of  the  above  seems  to  recog- 
nize other  powers  than  those  here  stated  as  auxiliary  to  the  enforce- 
ment of  these  express  powers,  or  as  naturally  incident  to  national 
sovereignty.  The  following  incidental  powers  have  heen  exercised 
since  the  organization  of  our  government. 

20.  Though  there  is  no  express  power  given  to  purchase  for- 
eign  territory,  yet  this  power  has  heen  frequently  exercised  as  in- 
cidental to  national  sovereignty  and  as  justifiable  upon  the  ground 
that  it  was  for  the  general  welfare  of  the  people. 

21.  The  power  to  lay  an  embargo  is  not  conferred,  but  it  has 
been  exercised  as  incidental  to  the  war  or  commercial  power.  No 
express  power  is  given  to  establish  military  or  naval  academics, 
and  their  establishment  is  only  incidental  to  the  power  to  provide 
for  the  common  defence. 

22.  The  power  to  make  internal  improvements  is  not  stated  in 
the  Constitution,  but  its  frequent  exercise  has  (irmly  established  it  as 
an  incidental  power.  No  power  is  given  to  create  a  corporation, 
but  the  exercise  of  this  power  by  the  creation  of  National  Banks 
is  justified  as  a  means  appropriately  belonging  to  the  commercial  or 
revenue  power. 

23.  Other  incidental  powers  might  be  named,  but  the  above  are 
sufficient  to  indicate  their  general  scope  and  object.  Incidental 
powers  should  be  exercised  with  caution,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  the  Supreme  Court  has  frequently  affirmed  that  Congress  has 
power  to  exercise  them.  All  such  should  be  clearly  comprised  in 
the  general  terms  of  the  written  constitution. 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT.  \$\ 

PROHIBITIONS    ON    CONGRESS. 

(45)  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States 
now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  Congress 
prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  "may 
be  imposed  on  such  importation  not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

(46)  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended  un- 
less when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

(47)  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

(48)  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid  unless  in  proportion  to 
the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

(49)  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State.  No 
preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the 
ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another;  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to  or  from 
one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

(50)  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but  in  consequence  of  ap- 
propriations made  by  law;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  receipts  and 
expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

(51)  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States;  and  no  per- 
son holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall  without  the  consent  of 
the  Congress  accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office  or  title  of  any  kind  what- 
ever from  any  king,  prince  or  foreign  State. 

24.  Paragraph  45  related  to  the  foreign  slave  trade.  This  in 
any  of  the  States  existing  at  the  formation  of  the  Constitution 
could  not  he  prohibited  before  the  year  1S0S.  It  was  prohibited 
by  a  law  which  took  effect  on  the  first  day  of  January,  1808,  as 
soon  as  the  limitation  of  the  Constitution  expired. 

25.  The  writ  of  habeas  corpus  is  a  command  of  the  sovereign 
to  the  officer  to  bring  a  person  deprived  of  his  liberty  by  imprison- 
ment, before  the  court,  with  the  cause  of  his  imprisonment.  The 
court  then  investigates  the  case,  and  if  the  imprisonment  be  illegal, 
commands  his  discharge. 

26.  This  writ  cannot  be  suspended  only  in  cases  of  invasion 
and  rebellion,  and  even  then  it  cannot  be  suspended  unless  the  pub- 
lic safety  may  require  it. 

27.  A  bill  of  attainder  is  an  act  of  the  legislature  by  which  it 
inflicts  death  or  other  punishment  without  a  judicial  trial. 

28.  An  ex  post  facto  law  is  one  which  makes  an  act  punishable 
as  a  crime  which  was  not  punishable  when  committed,  or  which 
inflicts  a  greater  punishment  than  the  law  imposed  when  the  crime 
was  committed. 

PROHIBITIONS    ON    THE    STATES. 

(52)  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance  or  confederation;  grant 
letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin  money;  emit  billsof  credit;  make  anything 
but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder, 
ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  "or  grant  any  title 
of  nobility. 

(53)  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  imposts 
or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for 
executing  its  inspection  laws;  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts 
laid  by  any  Stite  on  imports  or  exports  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of 
the  United  States;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control 
of  Congress. 


132  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

(54)  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lav  any  duty  of  ton- 
nage, keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  anv  agreement  or 
compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  "in  war  unless 
actually  invaded  or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

29.  Letters  of  marque  and  reprisal  arc  commissions  of  au- 
thority from  the  government  issued  to  certain  persons  allowing  them 
to  seize  the  persons  or  property  of  subjects  of  foreign  nations  as  a 
satisfaction  for  injuries  to  our  government.  They  can  be  issued  by 
the  general  government,  hut  not  by  the  States. 

30.  Bills  of  credit  are  obligations  of  the  State  designed  to  cir- 
culate as  money,  on  the  credit  of  the  State,  in  the  ordinary  uses  of 
business.  Bonds  of  a  State  issued  for  borrowed  money  are  not  bills 
of  credit. 

31.  No  State  can  pass  a  law  impairing  the  legal  obligation  of 
a  contract  binding  upon  the  parties  at  the  time  and  place  entered 
into  by  them.  The  word  obligation  signifies  the  binding  force  of 
a  contract.  States  cannot  lay  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except 
such  duties  as  may  be  necessary  to  execute  the  inspection  laws  of 
the  States.  Even  the  State  laws  on  the  subject  of  duties  for  in- 
spection are  subject  to  the  revision  of  Congress. 

EXECUTIVE    DEPARTMENT. 

(1^5)  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  for  the  term  of  four  years,  and  to- 
gether with  the  Vice-President  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected  as  follows: 

(56)  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  legislature  thereof 
may  direct,  a  number  of  electors  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  Senators  and 
Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress,  but  no 
Senator  or  Representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under 
the  United  States  shall  be  appointed  an  Elector. 

(57)  The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot 
for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhab- 
itant of  the  same  State  with  themselves;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the 
person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  persons  voted  for  as 
Vice-President,  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as 
President  and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of 
votes  for  each,  which  lkts  they  shall  sign  and  certify  and  transmit  sealed  to  the 
seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Sen- 
ate. The  Presidentof  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted; 
the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President  shall  be  the  Presi- 
dent, if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed; 
and  if  no  person  have  such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest 
numbers,  not  exceeding  three  on  the  list  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of 
Representatives  shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  Hut  in 
choosing  the  President  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation 
from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a 
member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all 
the  Mates  shall  be  neeessarv  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives shall  not  choose  a  President,  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  de- 
volve upon  them,  before  tin-  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then  the  Vice- 
President  shall  art  as  President,  as  in  the  ease  ot"  the  death  or  other  Constitu- 
tional disability  of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  for  Vice-President  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a   ma- 


CIVIL  GOVERNMENT.  133 

jority  of  the  whole  number  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then 
from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-Pres- 
ident; a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  num- 
ber of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
choice.  But  no  person  Constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President 
shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

(58)  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  Electors  and 
the  dav  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes;  which  day  shall  be  the  same 
throughout  the  United  Slates. 

(59)  No  person  except  a  natural  born    citizen    or    a    citizen  of  the    United 
States  at  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  Pres- 
ident; neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  at 
tained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and   have  been  fourteen  years   a  resident 
within  the  United  States. 

(60)  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death, 
resignation  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  said  office,  the 
same  shall  devolve  on'the  Vice-President;  and  the  Congress  may  by  law  pro- 
vide for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resignation  or  inability  both  of  the  President 
and  Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such 
officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President 
shall  be  elected. 

(61)  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a  com- 
pensation, which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the  time  for 
which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  period 
any  other  emolument  from  the  United  States  or  any  of  them. 

(62)  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office  he  shall  take  the  follow- 
ing oath  or  affirmation : 

I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the  office  of 
President  of  the  "United  States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve, 
protect  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 

(63)  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of 
the  United  .v  tates  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States  when  called  into  actual 
service  of  the  United  States;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing  of  the 
principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments  upon  any  subject  relating 
to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  re- 
prieves and  pardons  over  offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of 
impeachment. 

(64)  He  shall  have  power  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided' two- thirds  of  the  Senators  present  c<  ncur; 
and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  ot  the  Senate 
shall  appoint  Ambassadors.  a"nd  other  public  Ministers  and  Consuls,  Judges  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appoint- 
ment are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by 
law;  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  offi- 
cers as  they  think  proper,  "in  the  President  in  the  Courts  of  law  or  in  the  heads 
of  departments. 

(65)  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may  hap- 
pen during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions  which  shall  expire 
at  the  end  of  the  next  session. 

(66/  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  Congress  information  of  the  state 
of  the  Union  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures  as  he  shall 
judge  necessary  and  expedient;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene 
both  Houses,  or  either  of  them  and  in  cases  of  disagreement  between  them 
with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as 
he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers; 
he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  t  xecuted,  and  shall  commission  all 
the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

(67)  The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  remove  I  from  office  on  impeachment  for  and  conviction  of  treason, 
bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 


134  TEACHERS1  AND  STCD1  X  I S'  L/BRART 


32.  The  manner  of  electing  the  President  and  Vice-President 
is  fully  described  in  the  Constitution  and  nccd>  n«i  comment.  The 
President  and  Vice-President  are  the  only  offices  under  our  govern- 
ment that  cannot  he  held  by  persons  of foreign   birth. 

33.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of 
his  death,  resignation  or  inability,  the  duties  of  the  office  devolve 
upon  the  Vice-President. 

34.  There  has  been  much  discussion  of  late  as  to  what  would 
constitute  "  inability  "  to  discharge  the  duties  of  the  office,  who  is  to 
determine  this  "  inability,1'  and  whether  the  Vice-President  on  a 
case  of  actual  "inability"  would  really  In-  President  or  Vice-Presi- 
dent, exercising  the  duties  of  President.  These  questions  arc  yet 
open.  For  a  discussion  of  these  questions  see  November  issue  of 
the  North  American  Review,  1S81. 

35.  Congress  has  provided  by  law  that  in  case  of  the  removal  of 
the  President  and  Vice-President  that  the  President  fro  tempore  of 
the  Senate  act  as  President,  and  in  case  there  is  no  President  pro 
tempore  that  the  duties  of  President  devolve  on  the  Speaker  of  the 
House.  The  oath,  powers  and  duties  of  the  President  are  given 
clearly  and  concisely  in  the   Constitution. 

36.  The  following  provisions  relating  to  the  Judicial  Depart- 
ment of  our  government  are  given: — ■ 

(68)  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one  supreme 
court  and  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time,  ordain 
and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold 
their  offices  during  good  behavior  and  shall  at  stated  times  receive  for  their 
services  a  compensation  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance 
in  office. 

(69)  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  be  by 
jury;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall  have 
been  committed. 

(70)  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war 
against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort.  No 
person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to 
the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

(71)  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason, 
but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood  or  forfeiture  of  estate, 
except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

The  following  provisions  relate  to  personal  and  State  rights  under  the  Con- 
stitution : 

(;j)  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  house  without 
the  consent  of  the  owner;  nor  in  time  of  war  but    in    a   manner    prescribed   by 

law. 

(73)  The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses,  papers 
anil  effects  again6t  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated  ;  ami 
no  warrants  Bhall  issue  hut  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirma- 
tion, and  particularly  describing  tin-  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or 
things  10  be  seized. 

,-  1 1  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or  otherwise  inlamous 
crime  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  In  cases 
arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces  or  in  the  militia,  when  In  actual  service  in 
time  of  war  or  public  danger;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same 
offense,  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in 
any  criminal  ca6e  i<    be  a  witness  against  himself;  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty. 


CIVIL  UOVERNMENT.  135 

or  property  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken    for 
public  use,  without  just  compensation. 

(75)  In  all  criminal  prosecutions  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a 
speedy  and  public  trial  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  Stale  and  district  wherein 
the  crime  shall  have  been  committed  width  district  shall  have  been  previously 
ascertained  by  law;  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusa- 
tion ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him  ;  to  have  compulsory  pro- 
cess for  obtaining  witnesses  in  his  favor;  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel 
for  his  defense. 

(76)  In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall  exceed 
twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved;  and  no  fact,  tried 
by  a  jury,  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States 
than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

(77)  Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

(78)  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  acts, 
records  aid  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress  may, 
by  general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records  and  proceed- 
ings shall  be  proved. 

(79)  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  and 
immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

(80)  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony  or  other  crime, 
who  shall  flee  from  justice  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall  on  demand  of 
the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled  be  delivered  up  to  be 
removed  to  the  S'ate  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

(81)  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State  under  the  laws  thereof, 
escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation  therein  be 
discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the 
party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

(82)  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union  a  re- 
publican form  of  government  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  invasion, 
and  on  application  of  the  legislature  or  of  the  executive  (when  the  legislature 
cannot  be  convened),  against  domestic  violence. 

(83)  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion, 
or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech  or 
of  the  press;  or  of  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble  and  to  petition 
the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

(84)  A  well  regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  State, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

(85)  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be 
made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made 
under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  he  the  supreme  law  of 
the  land  ;  and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the 
Constituiion  or  laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

(86)  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned  and  the  members 
of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  the 
United  States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation 
to  support  this  Constitution ;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a 
qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 

(87)  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  except  as  a  punishment  for 
crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  in  the 
United  Slates  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

(88)  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be 
denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  any  State  on  account  of  race,  color. 
or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

AMENDMENTS. 

(89)  The  Congress  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  shall  deem  it 
necessary  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or  on  the  application 


136  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

of  the  Legislatures  of  two-thirds  of  the  several  States  shall  call  a  convention  for 
proposing  amendments  which  in  either  case  shall  he  valid  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three 
fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the 
one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress;  no 
amendment  shall  he  made  by  which  a  State,  without  its  consent,  is  deprived  of 
its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

37.  There  are  two  methods  of  proposing  amendments  and  two 

methods  of  ratifying  them.  The  fifteen  amendments  adopted  thus 
far  in  the  history  of  our  country  have  been  proposed  by  two-thirds 
of  Congress  and  ratified  by  three-fourths  of  the    State    legislatures. 

38.  Most  of  the  provisions  relating  to  personal  rights  are  found 
in  the  amendments.  By  the  thirteenth  amendment  slavery  was 
abolished,  and  by  the  fifteenth  the  rights  of  citizenship  were  con- 
ferred on  the  emancipated  slaves. 

QUESTIONS    ON    CIVIL    GOVERNMENT. 

The  numbers  in  parentheses  refer  to  ([notations  l'ro-n  the  Constitution.     Those  not  in  paren- 
theses refer  to  sections  of  the  text. 

i.  Define  the  Constitution,  j.  Does  it  contain  all  the  laws  of  the  U.  S.? 
4.  Give  the  history  of  its  formation  and  adoption.  5.  Amendments?  6,  (1). 
For  what  purpose  was  the  constitution  formed?  7.  Give  the  theories  as  to  the 
Constitution.     S.  Of  what  theory  was  the  war  of  the  Rebellion  the  fruit? 

1).  Name  and  define  the  departments  of  our  government.  (2).  Of  what 
does  Congress  consist?  (3).  How  are  members  of  the  House  chosen?  How 
long  do  they  serve?  (4),  (5),  (6).  What  are  the  qualifications  of  a  Representa- 
tive? 

(7),  (8).  How  are  Representatives  apportioned  among  the  States?  (9).  How 
are  vacancies  filled?  (10).  Who  chooses  the  officers  of  the  House?  Who  has 
the  power  of  impeachment?  13.  What  is  the  present  ratio  for  each  representa- 
tive? (n).  How  are  the  Senators  chosen?  For  how  long?  (12).  What  are 
the  qualifications  of  a  Senator?  (13).  Who  is  the  presiding  officer  of  the  Sen- 
ate? Does  he  have  a  vote?  f  1 4 >.  How  are  the  other  officers  of  the  Senate 
chosen? 

(15).  Who  has  the  power  to  try  impeachments?  Who  presides  when  the 
President  is  tried?  (16).  What  is  the  extent  of  the  judgment  in  cases  of  im- 
peachment? 15.  What  are  the  officer^  of  the  Senate?  17.  If  the  President 
commits  a  crime,  who  has  the  power  to  try  him? 

(17).  Who  prescribes  the  times,  places  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for 
Senators  and  Representative:  iS).  How  often  shall  Congress  assemble?  (19). 
Who  decides  as  to  the  elections  returns  and  qualifications  of  the  members  of 
Congress?  How  many  constitute  a  quorum?  (20).  State  the  powers  of  each 
House  as  to  rules  of  proceeding,  punishment  and  expulsion  of  members? 

(21).  Give  the  regulations  as  to  a  journal.  (--)•  What  are  the  prohibi- 
tions as  to  adjournment?  (23).  Can  a  member  of  Congress  he  arrested?  (24). 
Can  a  member  of  Congress  hold  any  other  office? 

(25).  What  hills  must  originate  in  tin'  House?  (26).  What  is  necessary  be- 
fore a  hi  11  can  become  a  law?  What  is  meant  by  the  "  President's  veto"? 
Ans. —  When  the  President  returns  the  bill  without  his  signature,  stating  his  ob- 
jection-, he  is  said  to  veto  the  bill.  What  is  necessary  for  a  hill  to  become  a  law 
without  the  Preside  1  t|s  -auction? 

(27 — 43)  Give  ten  express  powers  of  Congress.  iS.  What  is  an  ex- 
press power?  [9  What  other  powers  has  Congress?  *o — 22.  Name  four  inci- 
dental powers.  25.  Define  Habeas  Corpus.  l6.  When  can  this  writ  be  sus- 
pended? 27.  Wli.it  is  a  hill  of  attainder3  18.  An  e\  post  facto  law  ?  (46 — 48). 
What  arc  the  prohibitions  on  L'ongp-s-,  :i>,  io  the  abo\  e  ? 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  137 

(4S 49).  What  are  the  prohibitions  as  to  direct  taxes,  exports  and  com- 
merce of  each  State?  (50—51).  As  to  the  use  of  public  money,  titles  of  nobil- 
ity and  presents  from  foreign  States  or  rulers?  (52—54).  Name  ten  prohibitions 
upon  the  States.  29.  What  are  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal?  30.  Bills  of 
credit?     31.  What  is  meant  by  a  legal  obligation  of  a  contract? 

(55).  In  whom  is  the  executive  power  vested?  (56—58).  Describe  the 
manner  of  electing  the  President.  (59).  Who  is  eligible  to  the  Presidency? 
(60).  In  case  the  President  dies  or  is  removed  from  office,  who  fills  his  place? 
(61).   What  is  the  salary  of  the  President?     Ans.— At  present,  $50,000  per  year. 

(63).  Who  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  army?  (64—65).  What  are  the 
powers  of  the  President?  (66).  What  are  the  duties  of  the  President?  (67). 
On  what  grounds mav  the  President  be  removed  from  office? 

32.  What  offices  under  our  government  cannot  be  held  by  persons  of  for- 
eign birth?  35.  In  case  the  President  and  Vice-President  both  die  or  are  re- 
moved from  office,  who  fills  the  place  of  President?  In  what  case  may  the 
speaker  of  the  House  become  President? 

(6S).  In  what  is  the  judicial  power  vested?  How  long  may  Judges  ot  the 
U.  S.  Courts  hold  their  offices?  (69).  What  provisions  are  made  as  to  trial  of 
crimes  against  the  U.  S.? 

(69).  State  the  provisions  as  to  the  trial  of  crimes  against  the  U.  S.  (70). 
What  constitutes  treason?  (71).  What  is  the  limit  to  the  punishment  of  trea- 
son? (72—77).  What  are  the  personal  rights  of  citizens?  (78).  What  are  the 
relations  between  the  States  as  to  judicial  proceedings?  (79).  What  privileges 
have  citizens  of  one  State  in  other  States? 

(80).  Can  a  man  escape  from  the  punishment  of  crime  by  fleeing  to  anoth- 
er State?  (82).  What  form  of  government  must  each  State  have?  (83).  Can 
Congress  exercise  any  control  over  religious  worship?  (85).  What  is  the  su- 
preme law  of  this  country?  37.  How  may  the  Constitution  be  amended? 
How  many  amendments  have  been  adopted  ? 


••Ml^lW"— • 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


OUTLINE  OF  THE  EARTH  AS  TO  PHYSICAL  FEATURES. 

(See  Note  to  General  Outline  of  Geography,  p.  25.) 
THE    EARTH. 

11  As  a  part  of  the  Universe  (1).  ****** 

21  As  a  part   of  the    Solar  System.  8*  Rising    and    sinking    of 

(2—4).  land.  (32). 

31  As  a  whole.  9*  Artesian  wells  and  mines. 

iJ  Temperature.  (6—8).  (33)- 

j»  Phenomena.  2*  Magnetic  properties.  (34). 

1*  Thermal  Springs.  (9— 10).  ****** 

2*  Geysers.  (11).  41    Asto  the  land. 

3*  Volcanoes.  (14).  i2  As  to  contour. 

*****  i3  Grouping  of  the  land  mass- 

4*  Fields  of  Fire.  (23)  es.  (35). 

5<  Solf.tara-.  (24).    '  23  Zone  of  fracture.  (36). 

6*  Mud  Volcanoes.  (25).  3*  Comparison  ofland  masses. 

7*  Earthquakes.  (26).  (37.) 


138 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 


22  As  to  size  of  land  masses. 
i3  Continents.   (37). 
23  Islands. 

14   Proportion  of  land  in. 
2*  Classes. 

i'u  Continental.  (40). 
***** 

2b  Oceanic. 

16  Volcanic.  (42). 

*  *     *     * 

2*  Coral.  (43). 

*  *     *     * 

3a  As    to    distribution    of    land 


15  Arrangement. 

i*  In  systems. 

26  In  chains. 

36  Isolated  or  in  groups. 
2&  Parts. 

i6  Crest,   or    summit, 
separated  mto  peaks. 

26  Base. 

36  Slope. 
35  Origin. 

16  By  flexure. 

26  By  fracture. 
45  Accompaniments. 


masses.  16  Valleys. 

13  Hemispheres.    (See  General 


Geography) 

14  Eastern. 
2*  Western. 
34  Northern. 
44  Southern. 
54  Water.     [     . 
64  Land.       p3»;- 
4*  As  to  Relief. 
13  Lowlands. 

14  Plains.  (50—51). 

10  As  to  mode  of  forma- 
tion. 

16  Marine. 
26  Alluvial. 
25  As  to  nature  of  surface. 
i6  Level. 
26  Undulating. 
35  As  to  vegetation. 
i6  Destitute  of  trees. 
i7  Prairies,      steppes, 
llanos,  pampas,  landes  or  heaths. 

20  Covered  with  trees. 

i7  Selvas. 
3*  Destitute   o  f  vegeta- 
tion. 

i7  Deserts  or  'plains." 
4*  Partly  under  water. 
i7  Swamps,  marshes, 
tundras,  etc. 

2*  Valleys,  gorges,    ravines, 
canyons,  passes,  etc. 
23  Highlands. 

14   Plateaus,  or    table    lands. 

(52)- 

r'  Ol  the  1st  order — 10,000 

to  13,000  ft. 

[Give  examples.  | 

Jr'  Of  the  2d   order — 4,000 
to  8,000  ft. 

I  ( >iw  examples.] 
35  Ox  the  3d  order — 1,000 
to  4,000  ft. 

|(ji\ e  exampl*  b. j 
2*  Mountains.  (53), 


26  Passes,     gorges,    ra- 
vines, canyons,  defiles,  etc. 
51  As  to  the  waters. 

I2  Composition    and    properties. 
(See  Chemistry). 

22  Divisions. 

I3  Continental,  or  inland. 
14  Springs.  (57). 
Is  Origin. 

2:'  Classes.  (59). 
i6  As  to  flow. 
*     *     *     * 

26  As  to  temperature. 

****** 

36  As  to  ingredients. 

****** 

24  Rivers.  (60—65). 

*     *     *     *     * 

34  Lakes.  (66—69). 

***** 

23  Oceanic. 

i4  Divisions.  1,70). 
i5  Oceans. 

*     *     *     * 

2&  Seas. 

35  Gull's  and  Bays. 
45  Straits,    Sounds,  Chan- 
nels, etc. 

2*  Character  of  waters,  (71 — 

72). 

******** 

34  Depth  and  nature  of  ba- 
sins. (73). 

*  ******* 

44  Movements. 

13   Waves.  (74). 

*  *     * 

23  Tides.  (75-77). 
***** 

33  Currents.  (78—82). 
*****      * 

(A  As  to  the  Atmosphere. 

i2  Composition   and    Properties. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  139 

(See  Chemistry  and  Nat.  Philosophy).  33  As  to  moisture. 

22  Height.  (83).  24  Depending  upon.  (89). 

32  Condition.    (Climate).  ***** 

i3  As  to  temperature.  (84).  2*  Precipitation.    (88). 

******  ***** 

23  As  to  winds.  71  As  to  life. 

1*  Depending  upon.  (85).  12  Vegetable.  (92). 

******  ***** 

2*  Classes.  (86).  22  Animal.  (95). 

****  ***** 

PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 

Subjects  which  have  been  discussed  under  the  head  of  "  Geography"  are  not  repeated  here 
except  in  some  cases  where  they  are  mentioned  for  the  purpose  of  treating-  them  more  fully. 

1.  The  earth  is  but  one  of  the  vast  bodies  which  compose  the 
universe.  These  bodies  are  in  all  probability  very  similar  in  their 
constitution.  When  compared  in  size  with  many  heavenly  bodies 
which  have  been  weighed  and  measured,  the  earth  is  an  insignificant 

ball. 

2.  According  to  the  Nebular  Hypothesis,  all  the  matter  which 
makes  up  the  sun  and  the  bodies  revolving  around  it,  was  at  one 
time  in  a  gaseous  state  and  whirling  around  a  center.  By  its  centrif- 
ugal force,  rings  of  matter  were  thrown  off  from  the  outside,  which, 
obeyino-  the  law  of  attraction,  formed  into  globes.  These  globes 
became  the  planets,  the  earth  among  the  number. 

3  The  fraseous  matter  in  the  course  of  time  cooled  down  to  a 
liquid  ball.  The  outside  of  this  ball  by  further  cooling  became  a 
solid  crust  shutting  up  the  heated  liquid  matter  within;  and  thus  we 
have  the  earth  which  in  time  became  so  modified  as  to  be  suited  to 
the  abode  and  development  of  vegetable  and  animal  life.  The  earth 
is  one  of  the  smaller  of  the  planets  of  the  solar  system. 

4.  These  subjects  belong  properly  to  Astronomy  and  Geology. 
It  is  the  province  of  Geography  to  discuss  the  condition  of  the  earth 
as  we  find  it  at  the  present  day.  For  facts  which  seem  to  sustain 
the  Nebular  Hypothesis,  see  works  on  Astronomy,  Natural  Phil- 
osophy and  Chemistry. 

5.  The  earth  considered  in  detail  is  indeed  a  world  of  wonders. 
Whether  we  penetrate  its  crust,  investigate  the  waters  which  cover 
three-fourths  of  it,  travel  over  its  land  surface,  or  study  the  atmos- 
phere which  everywhere  surrounds  it,  we  are  met  with  a  succession 
of  phenomena  which  attest  the  greatness  of  the  Hand  which  made  it. 

6.  There  are  many  phenomena  which  seem  to  prove  that  the 
interior  <>f  the  earth  has  a  high  temperature  independent  of  the 
influence  of  the  sun  shining  on  its  surface. 

7.  The  majority  of  scientific  men  maintain  that  this  temperature 
increases  from  near  the  surface  toward  the  center,  which  is  a  mass 
of  molten  material.  This  theory  is  not  only  in  accordance  with 
the  nebular  hypothesis,  but  seems  to  accord  with  the  facts  in  regard 
to  hot  springs,  artesian  wells,  volcanoes,  etc.     Others  maintain  that 


140  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 

the   latter   phenomena    may    be   caused    entirely  by    local   chemical 
changes  going  on  within  the  crust   of  the  earth,  and  that  we  can 

know   nothing  certain  of  the  interior. 

8.  The  various  natural  phenomena  which  indicate  a  heated 
condition  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  earth's  interior,  may  be 
grouped  as  volcanic  phenomena.  This  term  will  include  hot 
springs,  geysers,  volcanoes  proper,  mud  volcanoes,  submarine  vol- 
canoes, sol  fata  ras,  fields  of  fire,  anil  earthquakes.  Observations 
made  in  artesian  wells  (33)  and  deep  mines,  also  show  the  tem- 
perature of  the  interior  of  the  earth. 

9.  Thermal,  or  hot  springs  are  most  common  in  mountainous 
regions,  and  especially  where  the  earth's  crust  is  most  broken  and 
disturbed.  Springs  of  every  kind  are  formed  by  the  rain  or  melted 
snow  sinking  into  the  earth  and  issuing  from  it  again  at  a  lower 
level.  The  fact  that  the  water  is  sometimes  hot,  shows  that  it  must 
have  come  in  contact  with  heated  rock  material  within  the  crust  of 
the  earth. 

10.  They  are  found  of  every  grade  of  temperature  from  that 
of  slightly  above  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  to  the  boiling  point. 
Thev  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  the  most  numerous,  per- 
haps, in  Europe.  "  Over  8oo  have  been  described  in  France,  400 
in  Spain,  and  a  still  greater  number  in  Germany,  Bohemia,  Swit- 
zerland, Italy  and  England." 

1 1.  Geysers,  or  intermittent,  spouting,  hot  springs  have  a  tem- 
perature ;it  the  boiling  point.  They  arc  found  in  Iceland,  New 
Zealand,  and  in  the  "National  Park"  at  the  head  waters  of  the 
Yellowstone  R.  in  the  Rocky  Mts. 

The  most  celebrated  is  the  Great  Geyser  of  Iceland.  It  consists 
of  an  immense  well  or  funnel  10  ft.  wide  at  its  mouth  and  about  70 
ft.  deep,  surmounted  at  the  surface  with  a  basin  65  ft.  in  diameter 
and  7  ft.  deep,  formed  by  the  deposit  of  mineral  matter  from  the 
water.  At  intervals  it  sends  up  a  column  of  water  and  steam  to  the 
height  of  100  ft. 

12.  More  remarkable  even,  than  the  geysers  of  Iceland  are  some 
that  are  found  in  the  "  National  Park."  One,  the  Giantess,  throws 
water  to  the  height  of  200  ft.  Grasshoppers  and  other  insects,  and 
pieces  of  wood  which  fall  into  the  waters  soon  become  encrusted 
with  quartz  which  is  held  in  solution  by  the  water,  thus  Derma- 
nently  petrifying  them. 

13.  The  intermittent  action  of  geysers  may  be  explained  as 
follows;  Water  boils,  or  is  converted  into  vapor,  at  a  temperature 
of  212''  F.  ;it  sea  level,  or  under  the  pressure  of  one  atmosphere, 
but  requires  ;i  higher  temperature  under  greater  pressure  (See  Nat. 
Philosophy  ).  When  the  proper  temperature  is  reached  in  the  shaft, 
steam  is  formed  and  escaping,  expels  a  quantity  of  water  with  it. 
This  relieves  the  pressure  on  the  water  below,  which  will  now  boil 
at  a  lower  temperature,  and  it  suddenly  bursts  into  steam  and  is  ex- 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  141 

pelled,  in  great  masses  carrying-  a  great  quantity  of  water  with  it. 
The  water  reaching  the  cooler  atmosphere,  its  temperature  is  much 
lowered,  and  running  hack  into  the  shaft,  it  requires  some  time  again 
to  reach  the  boiling  point. 

14.  A  volcano  proper,  or  volcanic  mountain,  is  an  elevation 
usually  conical  in  form,  with  a  circular  depression  or  basin  at  the 
top  called  the  crater.  In  the  center  of  this  crater  is  a  shaft  extend- 
ing to  an  unknown  depth  from  which  may  issue  clouds  of  hot  vapor 
and  smoke,  and  at  times  great  quantities  of  ashes,  fragments  of  rock, 
and  lava,  or  melted  rock. 

15.  The  volcanic  cone,  or  elevation,  is  formed  by  the  material 
thrown  out  from  the  shaft.  The  nature  of  the  material  determines 
the  form  of  the  cone.  If  it  be  more  liquid  the  mountain  will  be 
broader  and  flatter  than  when  the  material  is  more  solid. 

16.  The  lava  when  it  first  issues  from  a  volcano  is  somewhat 
like  melted  iron  running  from  a  furnace.  It  flows  down  the  sides 
of  the  mountain  or  bursts  out  from  fissures  in  its  sides,  and  flows  at 
first  rapidly,  scorching  and  destroying  everything  in  its  way,  but  it 
soon  cools  on  the  surface  and  forms  a  black,  porous  crust.  Some- 
times the  streams  are  so  thick  that  the  interior  remains  hot  for  20 
years.     (See  Geology.) 

17.  The  ashes  from  volcanoes  are  composed  of  fine  particles 
of  lava.  Sometimes  they  are  carried  hundreds  of  miles  by  the 
winds.  Volcanic  sand  is  the  name  given  to  coarser  particles  of 
lava. 

18.  •  Volcanoes  throw  out  an  enormous  amount  of  material. 
Whole  islands  and  portions  of  continents,  judging  from  the  nature 
of  the  material  composing  them,  have  been  formed  from  the  ejec- 
tions of  volcanoes.  Iceland  is  an  example  of  a  volcanic  island  of 
large  size.  Towns  and  cities  have  been  buried  beneath  the  ashes 
and  lava,  and  large  sections  of  country  laid  waste.     (20). 

19.  There  are  more  than  500  volcanoes  known,  some  of  which 
are  extinct,  some  intermittent,  and  others  in  constant  action.  They 
are  usually  distributed  in  lines  more  or  less  regular  and  nearly  all 
are  near  the  sea  coast  or  on  islands.  In  the  New  World  the  principal 
volcanic  regions  are  the  Andes,  Central  America,  West  Indies, 
Mexico,  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Mts.,  Alaska,  Aleutian  Islands. 
In  the  Old  World  are  the  regions  of  Kamschatka,  Japan,  Oceanica, 
the  shores  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  India  and  Iceland. 

20.  Mt.  Vesuvius  on  the  shores  of  the  hay  of  Naples, 
Italy,  may  he  taken  as  a  typical  volcano.  In  the  year  79,  A.  I)., 
occurred  the  first  eruption  of  which  we  have  any  history.  During 
this  eruption  the  rain  of  ashes  was  s<.  great  as  to  bury  completely 
two  flourishing  cities,  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii.  During  recent 
years  these  cities  have  been  exhumed  and  much  interesting  knowl- 
edge obtained  in  regard  to  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people 
of  that  time.     Since  then  it  has  had  a  number  of  eruptions.      It  ha^ 


142  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

been  quiet  for  centuries  at  a  time,  so  that  the  sides  of  the  mountain 
and  the  walls  of  the  crater  were  overgrown  with  forests  and  again 
it  has  had  eruptions  at  intervals  of  less  than  ten  years. 

21.  The  eruptions  are  generally  preceded  by  earthquake 
shocks,  and  begin  by  a  terrible  explosion  which  shakes  the  moun- 
tain to  its  foundations  and  throws  high  in  the  air  clouds  of  vapor 
and  ashes.  This  is  followed  hy  the  lava,  which  runs  over  the  top 
like  a  huge  kettle  boiling  over,  or  bursts  through  fissures  in  its  sides. 
It  may  continue  to  send  forth  steam,  ashes  and  lava  at  intervals  for 
months  afterward.  The  dense  clouds  of  vapor  hang  over  the 
mountain  somewhat  in  the  shape  of  an  immense  umbrella,  and  are 
illuminated  by  the  white  hot  furnace  below.  Flashes  of  lightning 
play  among  the  clouds,  and  often  a  local  thunder-storm  occurs,  the 
rain  mingling  with  the  falling  ashes,  the  whole  presenting  an  un- 
paralleled spectacle  of  magnificence  and  grandeur. 

22.  Stromboli,  on  one  of  the  Lipari  islands,  is  in  a  constant 
state  of  eruption.  It  is  called  the  "Light-house  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean." Mt.  Etna  on  the  Island  of  Sicily  has  less  frequent 
eruptions  than  Vesuvius.  We  have  history  of  an  eruption  occur- 
ring 480  R.  C.  According  to  Roman  mythology,  the  thunderbolts 
of  Jupiter  were  forged  here.  Mt.  Hecla  and  Skaptar  Jokul  in 
Iceland;  Chimborazo  and  Cotopaxi  in  Equador;  Aconcagua  in 
Chili  and  Popocatepetl  in  Mexico,  arc  noted  volcanoes. 

23.  Fields  of  Fire. — In  some  localities  an  inflammable  gas 
issues  from  openings  in  the  ground.  This  gas  frequently  becomes 
ignited  and  burns  for  some  time.  There  is  a  region  of  this  kind  on 
the  western  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  This  gas  is  supposed  to  be 
from  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  by   internal  heat. 

24.  "  Solfataras  are  regions  where  sulphur  vapors  escape  and 
form  incrustations.  They  occur  in  volcanic  regions,  but  away  from 
intense  volcanic  activity." 

25.  Mud  Volcanoes  are  small  elevations  found  in  volcanic 
regions,  which  emit  vapor,  hot  water  and  mud. 

^26.  Earthquakes  are  movements  of  parts  of  the  crust  of  the 
earth  varying  from  a  scarcely  perceptible  trembling  to  violent  con- 
vulsions which  disturb  the  whole  face  of  nature,  overturning  cities, 
prostrating  forests,  depressing  the  land  in  one  place  and  elevating  it 
in  another,  and  causing  great  rents  and  chasms  in  which  houses, 
trees,  men  and  animals  are   engulfed. 

27.  During  an  earthquake  the  surface  is  moved  in  various  ways. 
Sometimes  the  force  seems  to  act  directly  vertical  as  in  an  explosion 
from  a  mine;  again  it  is  undulatory,  or  wave-like;  or  it  maybe 
rotary,  or  whirling,  in  which  the  earth  seems  to  be  twisted  around. 

28.  The  shocks  rarely  last  longer  than  a  minute,  but  are  often 
repeated  at  Longer  or  shorter  intervals  for  months,  and  even  years. 

The    greatest    earthquakes    known    accomplished     their   work   of 
destruction  in  a  very  few  minutes. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  148 

29.  Earthquakes  are  most  liable  to  occur  in  volcanic  regions. 
In  some  places  they  are  of  such  frequent  occurrence  that  the  inhab- 
itants build  their  houses  but  one  story  in  height.  On  the  coast  of 
Peru  they  expect  as  many  as  45  shocks  in  a  year. 

30.  Some  of  the  most  remarkable  earthquakes  on  record  are  as 
follows:  The  city  of  Lisbon,  Portugal,  was  visited  in  1755  by  an 
earthquake  which  destroyed  60,000  people  and  laid  the  city  in  ruins. 
The  effect  of  these  shocks  was  felt  for  thousands  of  miles.  The 
city  of  Caracas,  Venezuela,  was  destroyed  in  1S12,  with  10,000 
inhabitants;  40,000  persons  were  destroyed  in  Sicily  in  1783.  In 
1797  Peru  was  visited  by  an  earthquake  which  destroyed  16,000 
persons. 

31.  As  to  the  causes  of  earthquakes  no  very  satisfactory  expla- 
nation has  been  given.  Many  of  them,  especially  those  sudden  and 
violent  shocks  occurring  in  the  near  region  of  volcanoes,  would  seem 
to  be  from  a  cause  similar  to  that  of  a  volcanic  eruption,  viz :  The 
tension  of  pent  up  gases,  as  the  vapor  of  water,  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  something  on  the  principle  of  a  steam  boiler  explosion. 
Those  occurring  outside  of  volcanic  regions  and  extending  over 
vast  territories  may  be  due  to  the  contracting  of  the  cooling  crust  of 
the  earth. 

32.  The  crust  of  the  earth  is  in  some  places  gradually  and 
slowly  rising,  in  other  places  it  is  sinking.  The  coast  of  North 
America,  from  Labrador  to  New  Jersey,  is  slowly  rising.  The 
southern  part  of  Greenland  is  sinking.  The  Scandinavian  peninsula 
is  sinking  in  the  southern  part  and  rising  in  the  northern  part. 
These  changes  are  at  the  rate  of  a  few  feet  only  in  a  hundred  years. 
The  cause  is  probably  the  slow  contraction  from  cooling  of  the 
earth's  crust. 

33.  From  observations  made  in  artesian  wells  (see  Philosophy, 
sec.  88),  and  deep  mines,  there  appears  to  be  an  increase  of  heat 
toward  the  interior  of  the  earth  at  the  rate  of  about  i°  F.  for  every 
fifty-five  feet.  At  this  rate  water  would  boil  two  miles  below  the 
surface,  and  at  thirty  miles  depth,  it  would  be  hot  enough  to  melt 
any  material  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  crust  of  the  earth 
must  be  thicker  than  thirty  miles,  however,  for  substances  do  not 
melt  so  readily  under  pressure,  and  at  that  depth  the  pressure  would 
be  very  great. 

34.  The  earth  exhibits  the  properties  of  a  magnet.  (See  Nat. 
Philosophy.)  The  magnetic  poles  are  about  200,  respectively, 
from  the  geographical  poles. 

35.  The  land  masses  are  crowded  about  the  N.  pole,  and  appear 
to  radiate  in  three  lines,  one  comprising  N.  and  S.  America,  and 
terminating  in  C.  Horn.  Another  comprise-  Europe  and  Africa, 
and  terminates  with  the  C.  of  Good  Hope.  The  third  comprises 
Asia  and  Australia,  and  terminates  with  the  island  of  Tasmania. 

36.  If  a  circle  be  described  having  Behring  Strait  for  its  center 


144  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

with  a  radius  of  about  So°,  near  the  circumference  of  the  circle  will 
be  found  a  holt  of  peninsulas  and  islands,  or  broken  lands.  This 
belt  is  called  die  zone  of  fracture,  as  it  includes  the  line  of  separa- 
tion of  the  southern  continents  from  the  northern. 

37.     Comparing  the  size  and  contour  of  the  six    continents,   we 

may  say : — 

Asia  has  the  greatest  area  and  greatest  absolute  coast  line. 
Australia  has  the  least  area  and  the  least  absolute  coast  line. 
Europe  has  the  greatest  relative  coast  line  and  is  the  fifth  in 

area. 

Africa  has  the  least  relative  coast  line  and  is  the   second  in 

area. 

\.  and  S.  America  are  the  most  elongated  from  north  to  south 
and  have  their  sharp   angles   toward    the    south,   and    do   not  differ 

greatly  in  area. 

Europe  and  Asia  have  their  greatest  length  from  east  to  west. 

Africa  and  Australia  narrow  toward  the  south  hut  their  from- 
east-to-west  diameters  an'  about  equal  to  their  from-north-to-south 
diameters. 

Europe  and  Australia   are    the   two    smallest,    and  differ    very 

little  in  area. 

The  western  coast  of  the  Old  World  and  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  New  World  seem  to  correspond  like  parts  of  a  broken  vessel. 
The  great  projection  of  the  coast  of  Brazil  would  lit  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  and  the  projection  from  Africa  would  fit  into  die  Caribbean 
Sea,  and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Labrador  and  Newfoundland  would 
fill  up  the  North  Sea,  and  Greenland  would  wedge  nicely  between 
Scandinavia  and  the  country  north  of  Hudson    Bay. 

38.  If  a  globe   were  cut   into  hemispheres  so  that  the  point 
which   marks   the   position  of  London   should   occupy  the  center  of 
one,  that  hemisphere    would    contain    nearly    all    the    land    and    the 
other  nearly  all  the  water.      The  former  is  called  the  continental,  or 
land  hemisphere,  the  latter  the  oceanic,  or  water  hemisphere. 

39.  About  one-seventeenth  of  the  land  is  in  the  form  of  frag- 
mentary bodies,  called  islands.  They  may  be  considered  as  of  two 
classes:  (i)  continental,  those  lying  in  the  near  vicinity  of  the 
continents,  and  really  forming  a  pari  of  the  continental  structure; 
(j)oceanic,  th<.se  lying  a!  a  distance  from  the  continents  in  the  midst 
of  the  oceans,  and  differing  in  structure  from  the  continents. 

40.  The  continental  islands  vary  greatly  in  size— from  mere 
rocky  points  to  those  which  sustain  great  empires,  :i-  the  British 
[sles  and  the  fapan  tslands, or  such  extensive  tracts  as  Madagascar, 
Borneo  and  Papua,  each  of  the  three  latter  containing  over  joo,ooo 
square  miles.  The  character  of  the  rock  structure,  plants  and  ani- 
mals is  similar  to  that  of  the  near  coasts  of  the  mainlands.  They 
are  usual  I  v  elongated  in  form  and  lie  in  lines  parallel  to  the  coasts 
of  the  continent-. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  145 

41.  Oceanic  Islands  are  all  small  and  usually  occur  in  groups. 
Their  rock  structure  is  essentially  different  from  that  of  the  conti- 
nents, and  the  vegetation  and  animal  life  generally  peculiar.  Thev 
may  be  divided  as  to  their  formation  and  character  into  two  classes 
— volcanic,  or  high,  and  the  coral,  or  low. 

42.  The  volcanic  islands  are  the  summits  of  active  or  extinct 
volcanoes  projecting  above  the  water.  They  are  usually  consider- 
ably elevated,  with  steep  shores,  and  more  or  less  circular  in  out- 
line. Some  have  peaks  of  great  height,  as  one  of  the  Sandwich 
islands,  with  the  peak  of  Hawaii,  14,000  feet  above  the  sea  level. 
Many  of  them  have  appeared  within  the  history  of  man. 

43.  Coral  islands  are  amongst  the  most  interesting  phenomena 
of  Physical  Geography.  They  owe  their  existence  to  the  work  of 
colonies  of  small  radiate  animals  called  polyps  (improperly  called 
coral  insects).  The  following  from  Guyofs  Physical  Geography 
explains  the  nature  of  the  animal  and  its  work : 

"  The  structure  of  the  polyp  consists  of  a  cylindrical  or  sack  like  membrane, 
attached  at  the  bottom  to  some  solid  body,  and  enclosing  a  second  sack,  which' 
forms  the  stomach.  At  the  top  is  an  opening,  or  mouth,  which  is  surrounded 
by  thread-like  organs  called  tentacles.  When  expanded,  the  polvp  resembles  a 
flower  in  form  and  often  in  the  beauty  of  its  color.  The  solid  coral  which 
composes  the  reef  is  secreted  in  the  cavity  between  the  outer  and  inner  mem- 
branes, as  the  bones  are  secreted  i  1  the  bodies  of  higher  animals. 

14  Coral  polyps  multiply  by  eggs,  to  a  certain  extent,  but  chieflv  by  a  process 
of  budding  similar  to  the  branching  of  plants.  Thus  they  grow  into  vast  com- 
munities, in  which  generation  succeeds  generation,  each  "individual  leaving  be- 
hind, as  it  dies,  its  contribution  to  the  reef  in  the  form  of  a  small  cell  of  carbo- 
nate of  lime.  Each  community  had  its  origin  in  a  single  free  polyp,  which  was 
produced  from  an  egg,  and  subsequently  attached  itself  to  the  ground  at  the 
proper  depth  for  its  growth." 

44.  The  polyps  cannot  live  out  of  water,  and  hence  their  work 
must  cease  at  low  water  mark.  Fragments  of  the  coral  structure 
are  broken  off  and  thrown  upon  the  top  of  the  mass  by  the  waves, 
and  thus  in  the  course  of  time  a  reef,  as  it  is  called,  is  formed,  pro- 
jecting from  the  water.  Upon  this  reef  a  vegetation  finally  springs 
up  from  the  seeds  which  the  winds  and  waves  bring,  and  a  soil  is 
formed  from  the  pulverized  coral,  drifted  material  and  decayed 
vegetation. 

45.  The  reef-building  polyps  exist  only  in  tropical  regions,  or 
where  the  water  never  gets  below  the  temperature  of  68  :  F.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  polyp  does  not  live  at  a  great  depth,  not  much  he- 
low  100  feet,  yet  coral  rocks  are  found  at  the  depth  of  1,500  feet. 
According  to  the  theory  of  Darwin,  the  polyps  begin  to  build  on 
the  edge  of  an  island  that  is  slowly  sinking;  as  the  base  of  their 
structure  goes  down,  they  build  up,  and  this  will  account  for  their 
formations  at  so  great  a  depth. 

46.  The  varieties  of  coral  formations  are  as  follows:  (1 )  fring- 
ing reefs,  narrow  bands  of  coral  rock  lying  near  the  shores  of  vol- 
canic islands;    (2)  barrier  reefs,  lie  at  a  considerable  distance   from 

10 


146  TEACHERS  AND  sir  DENTS'  LIBRARY 

the  islands,  Leaving  a  tract  of  quiet  water  called  a  lagoon  between 
them  and  the  islands;  (3)  encircling  reefs,  those  which  extend  en- 
tirely around  the  island;  (4)  atolls,  the  usual  form  of  coral  islands, 
consisting  of  a  ring,  more  or  less  broken,  within  which  is  a  lagoon 
of  shallow  water. 

47.  Coral  islands  are  never  much  over  12  ft.  in  height,  and 
slope  from  the  circumference  toward  the  center.  The  vegetation 
is  not  varied,  being  mostly  limited  to  those  plants  whose  seeds  are 
not  injured  by  being  drifted  in  the  sea  water.  It  is,  however,  lux- 
uriant because  under  tropical  skies. 

48.  The  level  of  the  sea  is  taken  as  the  standard  for  measuring 
the  height  or  depth  of  the  land.  The  highest  land  (Mt.  Everest 
of  the  Himalayas)  is  29,000  ft.  above  sea  level.  The  lowest  land 
(the  region  about  the  Dead  Sea  )  is  1,312  ft.  below  the  level  of  the 
sea.  This  difference  of  elevation  is  very  insignificant  compared 
with  the  size  of  the  earth.  The  proportion  is  about  the  same  as 
particles  of  dust  to  a  six  inch  globe. 

49.  The  boundary  line  between  Lowlands  and  highlands  is 
taken  at  1,000  ft.  above  sea  level.  Lowlands  are  divided  into 
plains  and  valleys.  As  to  mode  of  formation,  plains  may  be  di- 
vided into:  (1)  alluvial,  those  formed  by  deposits  from  fresh  water 
of  a  river  or  lake;  (2)  marine,  those  formed  by  a  deposit  from  the 
sea  or  any  body  of  salt  water. 

50.  Alluvial  plains  are  very  fertile  ami  generally  very  level. 
The  great  "bottom  lands"  along  the  Mississippi  and  Other  large 
rivers  are  alluvial  plains.  Some  of  the  great  tracts  of  prairie  in  the 
U.  S.  which  are  so  fertile  were  probably  once  ancient  lake  bottoms. 
The  marine  plains  are  usually  barren,  being  composed  mostly  of 
sand,  and  frequently  containing  salt, soda  and  other  minerals  depos- 
ited from  the  sea  water.  The  great  deserts  and  other  barren  tracts 
are  marine  plains.  A  valley  is  properly  the  lower  land  between 
hills  or  mountains,  and  sometimes  may  be  much  higher  than  the 
limits  assigned  to  lowlands.  The  great  alluvial  plains  of  rivers  arc 
sometimes  called  valleys,  as  the  valley  of  the   Mississippi,  etc. 

51.  Undulating  plains  approach  the  highlands  in  elevation, 
are  uneven,  and  generally  covered  with  forests.  Prairies,  steppes, 
pampas,  sclvas,  etc.,  are  various  names  applied  t<>  plains  indifferent 
parts  of  the  world.  In  the  outline  we  have  attempted  a  classifica- 
tion of  them. 

52.  Plateaus,  or  table  lands,  are  usually  between  mountain 
chains,  or  bordering  on  them  and  connect  with  the  adjoining  low- 
lands, either  abruptly  or  by  a  gradual  descent.  They  vary  in  height 
from  1,000  ft.  to  [3,000  ft.  The  highest  plateaus  are  those  between 
the  two  chains  of  the  Andes.  The  plateau  of  Thibet  is  remark- 
able for  its  height  and  extent.      (See  Outline). 

53.  Mountains  are  usually  arranged  in  chains,  or  long  ridges 
indented  at  the  top,  forming    1  scries  of  peaks.      Sometimes   a  num- 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  147 

ber  of  ridges,  or  chains,  are  connected  together  forming  a  mountain 
system,  as  the  Appalachian  and  Rocky  Mountain  systems.  Occa- 
sionally a  single  mountain  stands  isolated,  or  several  detached 
elevations  are  near  together,  forming  a  group. 

54.  «  The  force  which  upheaved  the  crust  into  mountain  masses 
and  plateaus,  had  its  origin  in  the  contraction  of  a  cooling  globe." 
Under  this  influence  the  crust  has  been  flexed,  or  bent  by  gradual 
strain  and  thrown  into  wrinkles,  or  folds;  or  the  contraction  and  pres- 
sure has  fractured  the  crust  and  thrown  up  the  rocks  on  their  edges. 

55.  The  valleys  among  mountains  are  longitudinal  or  trans- 
verse, the  former  lying  parallel  with  the  ranges,  the  latter  crossing 
them.  The  longitudinal  valleys  are  most  numerous  in  the  moun°- 
tains  formed  by  flexure,  the  transverse-in  those  formed  by  fracture. 
Valleys  owe  their  origin  to  folds  and  fissures  of  the  earth's  crust, 
widened  by  the  action  of  water,  frost  and  chemical  action. 

56.  "The  following  peculiarities  are  noticeable  in  the  relief 
forms  of  the  continents: — 

i.  The  continents  have,  in  general,  high  borders  and  a  low 
interior. 

2.  The  highest  border  lies  nearest  the  deepest  ocean ;  hence, 
the  culminating  point,  or  the  highest  point  of  land,  lies  out  of  the 
center  of  the  continent. 

3-  Tne  greatest  prolongation  of  a  continent  is  always  that 
of  its  predominant  mountain  system. 

4.  The  prevailing  trends  of  the  mountain  masses  are  the 
*ame  as  those  of  the  coast  lines,  and  are,  in  general,  either  north- 
east or  northwest. 

5.  The  greatest  elevations  of  continents  are  nearly  always 
found  in  tropical  regions:'' — Houston's  Phys.  Geog. 

57.  The  rain  or  melted  snow  and  hail  which  sinks  into  the  earth 
penetrates  the  crust  until  it  reaches  an  impervious  strata,  when  it 
runs  along  until  it  finds  an  outlet  at  the  surface  in  the  form  of  a 
spring,  or  gathers  into  underground  reservoirs,  some  of  which  by 
their  peculiar  formation,  having  an  outlet  in  the  form  of  a  siphon, 
(See  Nat.  Philosophy,)  form  intermittent  springs. 

58.  Springs  are:  (1)  constant,  having  a  nearly  uniform  flow 
throughout  the  year,  showing  that  their  source  is  beyond  the  in- 
fluence of  the  seasons;  (2)  temporary,  flowing  only  during,  or  for 
a  time  after,  wet  weather;  (3)  intermittent,  having  regular  periods 
of  rest  and  flow,  without  regard  to  the  season;  (57);  (4)  cold,  when 
the  temperature  is  not  over  6o°F.;  hot,  or  thermal,  when  the  tem- 
perature is  above  6o°  (9);  (5)  mineral,  containing  various  mineral 
substances,  and  admitting  of  the  following  classification :  (a)  cal- 
careous, containing  lime;  (b)  silieious,  containing  silica,  or  quartz; 
(c)  sulphurous,  containing  hydrogen  sulphide  and  other  combi- 
nations of  sulphur;  (d)  chalybeate,  containing  iron;  (  e)  saline,  con- 
taining common  salt;  (f)  additions,  containing  carbonic  acid  gas. 


148  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

59.  The  drainage  from  the  surface  and  the  water  from  springs 
form  small  streams  which  unite  to  form  rivers.  When  the  water 
from  streams  and  from  the  surface  collects  in  depressions  on  the 
earth's  surface  it   forms  lakes. 

60.  The  source  of  a  river  is  where  it  Starts  to  How  as  a  stream. 
The  month  is  where  its  waters  empty  into  some  other  body  of 
water.  Its  channel  is  the  depression  through  which  it  flows.  A 
river  system  is  the  main  stream  with  all  its  tributary  streams.  A 
river  basin  is  the  tract  of  land  drained  by  a  river  and  its  branches. 
The  ridge  of  land  from  which  the  water  runs  in  different  directions 
is  called  a  -.cater  sited. 

61.  The  course  of  a  river  from  its  source  to  its  mouth  is  divided 
for  convenience  of  description  into  three  parts:  (i)  the  upper 
course,  or  that  part  which  extends  from  its  source,  which  is  usually 
in  the  hilly  or  mountainous  country  to  the  more  level  plains  below; 
(2)  the  middle  course,  extending  from  where  the  stream  leaves  the 
hills  to  the  lower  plains  near  the  mouth;  (3)  the  loiver  course,  the 
remainder  of  the  channel. 

62.  From  the  nature  of  the  country  the  upper  course  of  a 
river  has  the  greatest  velocity,  and  it  is  here  where  the  rapids  and 
falls,  or  cataracts,  occur.  The  Falls  of  Niagara  are  the  grandest, 
not  on  account  of  their  height,  which  is  only  160  ft.,  but  on  account 
of  their  immense  volume  of  water.  The  highest  falls  are  those  of 
the  Yosemite  Valley  in  California.  Projecting  rocks  here  break  the 
water  into  three  falls  whose  total  height  is  2,000  ft.  The  erosion,  or 
wear  of  the  stream  in  the   upper  course,  is  chiefly  at  the  bottom. 

63.  In  the  middle  course  the  velocity  is  much  less.  Here  the 
river  widens  its  valley  by  wearing  its  banks.  During  freshets  ma- 
terial is  deposited  where  the  banks  overflow.  In  the  lower  course 
the  velocity  is  less  and  the  deposit  of  material  is  great.  The  allu- 
vial plains  are  thus  formed  by  material  brought  down.  (50). 

64.  The  amount  of  material  transported  by  rivers  is  some- 
times enormous;  in  fact,  rivers  are  one  of  the  chief  agencies  in 
affecting  changes  in  the  configuration  of  the  land.  The  mountains 
are  being  carried  down  to  the  sea  and  the  continents  are  decreas- 
ing in  height  and  increasing  in  extent.  The  Missouri  R.  carries 
past  a  given  point,  in  a  single  day,  enough  material  to  cover  a  square 
mile  to  a  depth  of  4  ft.  It  empties  enough  into  the  Mississippi  in 
one  year,  to  cover  a  square  mile  to  a  depth   of  400  ft. 

65.  "  The  termination  of  rivers  is  commonly  by  a  single  mouth, 
but  many  streams  flowing  through  alluvial  regions,  carry  along 
sedimentary  accumulations  which  they  deposit  at  their  mouths,  pro- 
ducing formations  of  laud,  and  dividing  the  main  stream  into 
branches."  These  formations  are  triangular  in  form  and  named 
deltas  from  their  resemblance  to  the  Greek  Utter,  delta.  The  delta 
of  the  Mississippi  occupies  an  area  of  i2,3(x>  square  miles.  The 
Nile  R.  has  9,000  square  miles  of  delta  formation. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.  149 

66.  Lakes  arc  much  more  numerous  in  the  northern  continents, 
North  America  containing  more  than  any  other  continent.  From 
the  nature  of  the  land  the  lakes  of  mountain  regions  are  more  nar- 
row  but  of  greater  depth  than  those  of  the  plains. 

67.  Lakes  may  be  divided  into  classes  as  follows:  (i)  Those 
having  inlets  but  no  visible  outlets,  {z)  Those  having  outlets,  but 
no  apparent  inlets.  (3)  Those  having  no  apparent  outlets  or  inlets. 
(4)   Those  having  both  inlets  and  outlets.  t 

68.  The  Caspian  Sea,  Aral  Sea,  and  Great  Salt  Lake,  are  ex- 
amples of  the  first  class.  Such  lakes  are  usually  salt  (71).  The 
water  is  either  all  lost  by  evaporation  or  is  absorbed  by  the  earth. 
Lakes  of  the  second  class  are  usually  found  in  mountainous  regions 
and  arc  the  source  of  some  large  rivers.  The  water  evidently 
comes  from  springs  and  rises  until  it  runs  over  the  basin.  Lake 
Albano,  near  Rome,  is  an  example  of  the  third  class.  Such  lakes 
are  usually  situated  in  elevated  regions,  are  supposed  to  be  the 
craters  of  extinct  volcanoes  and  are  fed  by  springs.  Lakes  of  the 
fourth  class  are  by  far  the  most  common. 

69.  Lakes  occur  at  varying  elevations.  Lake  Sirikol,  the 
source  of  the  Amoor  R.  is  15,630  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
while  the  Dead  Sea  is  1,317  ft.  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  They 
vary  greatly  also  in  their  depth.  The  surface  of  L.  Huron  is  nearly 
600  ft.  above  sea  level,  while  the  bottom  is  400  ft.  below  the  sea 
level,  giving  it  a  depth  of  about  1,000  ft.      L.  Baikal,  in  Siberia,  is 

3,000  ft.  in  depth.      L.  Erie  is  only  about  90  ft.  deep,  and  L.  Supe- 
rior, the  largest  fresh  water  lake  in  the  world,  is  1,200  ft.  in  depth. 

70.  For  convenience  of  description  the  great  oceanic  waters  are 
divided  into  five  parts,  each  called  an  ocean.  The  Arctic  and  Ant- 
arctic are  separated  from  the  others  by  the  polar  circles.  The  others 
are  mainly  separated  by  the  continents. 

The  Pacific  is  the  largest,  occupying  about  \  the  entire  water 
area.  Of  the  others,  the  Atlantic  occupies  ^,  the  Indian  i,  the 
Antarctic  TS,  and  the  Arctic  jfo  of  the  entire  area.  The  various  names 
given  to  the  articulations  of  the  oceanic  waters  with  the  land  have 
been  explained  in  General  Geography. 

71.  The  water  of  the  sea,  besides  common  salt,  or  sodium 
chloride,  contains  many  other  mineral  substances.  The  cause  of  the 
saltness  may  be  sought  in  the  fact  that  these  minerals  are  soluble  in 
water,  and  as  the  sea  receives  the  water  drained  from  the  land  it 
receives  all  the  soluble  material  over  which  the  water  flows.  It 
retains  it  because,  in  giving  its  water  back  to  the  land  through 
evaporation,  these  minerals  are  not  evaporated  with  the  water.  The 
great  salt  lakes,  or  seas,  as  the  Caspian,  owe  their  saltness  to  the 
sanu-  causes. 

72.  The  color  of  the  sea  varies,  though  usually  a  dark  blue. 
The  Black  Sea,  Yellow  Sea,  Red  Sea,  and  Vermillion  Sea  are  so 
named   from  the  apparent  tinge  of  the  waters.      The  color  is  partly 


160  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS  L1BRART. 

due  to  the  nature  of  the  bottom,  and  partly  t<>  minute  living  organ- 
isms. The  temperature  of  the  sea  varies  from  the  freezing  point, 
which,  on  account  of  its  saltness  is  26^4°  F.,  to  near  80  .  At  a 
depth  varying  from  a  point  quite  near  the  surface  in  the  polar  regions, 
to  IO,000  ft.  in  the  tropical  regions,  the  water  is  of  a  nearly  uniform 
and  constant  temperature  (about  34°  F.). 

73.  The  bottom  of  the  ocean  is  less  irregular  than  the  surface 
of  the  land.  The  greatest  depth  is  not  yet  definitely  known,  hut  it 
i-  supposed  that  the  greatest  depth  is  about  equal  to  the  highest 
elevations  of  land.      Deep    sea    sounding    cannot    always    he    relied 

upon. 

74.  Waves  caused  by  the  action  of  the  wind  arc  sometimes 
raised  as  high  as  60  ft.  The  distance  between  the  crests  of  the 
waves  varies  from  10  to  20  times  their  height. 

75.  Tides  are  periodical  elevations  and  depressions  of  the  water 
caused  by  the  attraction  of  the  sun  and  moon.  When  the  water  is 
rising  it  is  called  the  Jlood  tide,  when  receding,  the  ebb  tide.  They 
affect  the  ocean  in  its  whole  extent  and  to  great  depths.  The  height 
of  tides  varies  with  circumstances.  In  the  middle  of  the  Pacific  they 
rise  only  about  2  ft.,  hut  in  narrow  channels  the  waters  accumulate 
until  a  height  of  70  ft.  is  sometimes  reached. 

76.  The  changes  of  level  succeed  each  other  with  great  regu- 
larity. The  water  rises  until  it  attains  its  maximum  height,  remains 
at  a  level  a  few  moments  and  then  recedes,  the  interval  between 
two  consecutive  high  or  low  tides  being  \2  hours  and  26  minutes, 
high  water  or  low  water  occurring  52  minutes  later  each  day. 
When  the  sun  and  moon  act  together  on  the  same  side  of  the  earth 
the  flood  tides  are  highest,  and  the  ebb  tides  lowest.  These  occur 
at  full  and  new  moon  And  are  called  spring  tides.  The  highest  of 
these  occur  in  March  and  September.  When  the  sun  and  moon  are 
in  such  positions  that  they  act  somewhat  in  opposition  to  each  other, 
the  flood  tides  are  not  very  high  nor  the  ebb  tides  very  low.  These 
are  called  neap  tides  and  are  lowest  in  June  and  December. 

77.  Places  remarkable  for  high  tides  are  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
English  Channel,  Persian  Gulf  and  China  Sea.  The  currents  pro- 
duced bv  tides  in  some  places  come  in  contact  with  each  other  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  produce  whirlpools.  The  Maelstrom,  oil  the 
coast  of  Norway,  is  a  noted  example. 

78.  In  waves  produced  by  the  wind  or  by  the  tides  there  is  no 
real  onward  movement  of  the  water,  except  under  certain  conditions. 
The  water  rises  and  falls,  and  like  the  waving  of  a  field  of  grain 
there  seems  to  he  an  onward  motion,  but  such  is  not  strictly  the 
rase-.  There  are,  however,  progressive  motions  of  the  water  of  the 
ocean,  by  which  there  is  an  interchange  of  the  water  of  the  polar 
regions  with  that  of  the  tropics.  These  movements  are  called  ocean 
currents. 

70.      The   water   in    the   equatorial  regions  being  exposed  to  the 


PHTSICAL  GEOGRAPHT.  151 

great  heat  of  the  sun  is  lowered  to  a  considerable  extent  hy  evapo- 
ration and  made  specifically  lighter.  .Some  of  the  colder  waters  from 

the  polar  regions  consequently  will  flow  toward  the  equator,  and 
some  of  the  equatorial  waters  flow  toward  the  poles.  The  rotation 
of  the  earth,  the  winds  and  the  configuration  of  the  ocean  basins, 
will  tend  to  change  the  directions  of  the  currents,  and  consequently 
they  will  not  be  exactly  in  a  north  and  south  direction.  A  current 
toward  the  poles  will  be  deflected  by  the  earth's  rotation  toward  the 
east,  and  those  flowing  toward  the  equator  toward  the  west. 

80.  Ocean  currents  are  sometimes  hundreds  of  miles  broad, 
thousands  of  feet  deep,  and  of  a  temperature  different  from  that  of 
the  surrounding  waters.  Thev  exist  not  only  on  the  surface,  but 
there  are  under-currents  going  in  the  ojDposite  direction  to  the  surface 
currents.  I 

81.  Ocean  currents  greatly  modify  climate.  The  Gulf  Stream, 
one  of  the  most  noted  currents,  rises  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cuba, 
and  following  north  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  U.  S.,  turns  about 
the  latitude  of  New  York  to  the  east  and  crossing  the  Atlantic, 
divides  about  the  Azores  Islands,  one  branch  going  toward  Norway, 
the  other  south  along  the  coast  of  Africa.  The  mildness  of  the 
climate  of  the  British  Isles  is  due  to  its  influence. 

82.  Near  the  center  of  the  Atlantic  O.  is  a  large  tract  where 
the  water  is  comparatively  quiet  and  here  have  collected  great 
quantities  of  sea-weed.      This  tract  is  called  the  Sargasso  Sea. 

83.  The  atmosphere  extends  to  the  height  of  about  50  miles 
according  to  estimates  based  upon  the  diminution  of  pressure  with 
the  height  as  shown  by  the  barometer.     (See  Natural  Philosophy). 

84.  (For  a  definition  of  climate  see  page  30.)  The  climate 
of  a  place  as  regards  temperature  depends  upon : — 

1.  Latitude. — The  general  law  is  that  the  amount  of  heat  is 
greatest  at  the  equator,  and  diminishes  toward  the  poles.  There  are 
three  reasons  for  this:  (1)  The  sun's  rays  fall  perpendicularly 
upon  the  earth  at  the  equator,  and  more  and  more  obliquely  as  we 
go  toward  the  poles.  (2)  The  area  covered  by  a  given  amount  of 
heating  power  from  the  sun  is  smaller  at  the  equator.  (3)  Where 
the  sun's  rays  fall  perpendicularly  they  pass  through  a  less  amount 
of  atmosphere,  and  the  absorption  of  heat  is  less. 

2.  Altitude. — The  decrease  in  temperature  is  about  30  F.  for 
every  1,000  ft.  of  elevation.  As  the  air  receives  most  of  its  heat  by 
radiation  and  reflection  from  the  earth,  and  as  the  higher  we  go  the 
less  dense  the  air,  the  less  heat  is  absorbed  either  from  the  earth  or 
from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

3.  Prevailing  Winds. — Winds  blowing  from  the  tropical 
regions  carry  the  heat  with  them  and  conversely  winds  from  the 
polar  regions  lower  the  temperature.  Whichever  wind  prevails 
throughout  the  year  in  a  given  place  will  consequently  modify  the 
temperature  of  that  place.  (86). 


152  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS1   LIBRARY. 

4.  Length  of  Day. — "  During  the  day  the  earth  receives 
from  the  sun  more  heat  than  it  radiates  into  space;  while  during 
the  night  it  radiates  more  than  ii  receives.  Hence  a  succession  ot 
long  davs  and  short  nights  results  in  an  accumulation  of  heat,  rais- 
ing the  average  temperature  and  producing  summer;  while  Long 
nights  and  short  days  result  in  a  temperature  below  the  average, 
producing  winter."  The  heating  power  ot"  the  sun  is  greater  in 
summer,  because  at  that  season  it  is  shining  more  directly  upon  that 
part  of  the  earth  and  conversely  in  winter.  In  the  tropical  regions 
the  inequality  of  day  and  night  is  very  little,  hut  increases  toward 
the  poles.  The  temperature  in  the  tropics  is  therefore  more  uni- 
form. The  length  of  day  makes  up  for  the  lessened  intensity  of 
the  sun's  rays,  hence  a  place  in  high  latitude  may  have  at  times 
higher  temperature   than  a  place   within  the  tropics. 

5.  Ocean  Currents. — The  warm  waters  of  the  tropical  re- 
gions being  brought  toward  the  polar  regions  bring  the  heat  with 
them,  radiating  it  into  space,  and  it  is  absorbed  by  the  atmos- 
phere. 

6.  Mountain  Ran  ires.—"  A  mountain  range  will  make  a 
country  near  it  warmer  or  colder  according  as  it  shields  it  from  a 
cold  or  warm  wind." 

7.  The  Distribution  of  Land  and  Water. — "Land  heats  or 
cools  rapidly,  absorbing  or  emitting  but  little  heat.  Water  heats 
or  cools  slowly,  absorbing  or  emitting  large  quantities  of  heat. 
Hence,  the  land  is  subject  to  great  and  sudden  changes  of  tempera- 
ture; the  water  to  small  and  gradual  changes.  Places  situated  near 
the  sea  have,  therefore,  a  more  equable  climate.'" 

S.  Character  of  Soil. — Dry,  sandy  soil  heats  ami  cools  more 
rapidly  than  wet  and  marshy  hinds,  hence  the  latter  will  have  a 
more  uniform   temperature. 

9.  Slope  of  the  Land.— LiSitid  which  slopes  so  that  the  sun's 
ravs  will  strike  it  nearer  vertically  will  receive  more  heat.  The 
south  side  of  a  hill  is  warmer  in  winter  than  the  north  sick'. 

85.      In  regard  to  winds  the  climate  of  a  place  depends  upon  :— 

1.  Temperature.  —As  winds  are  but  masses  ot"  air  set  in 
motion  by  the  unequal  heating,  the  winds  of  any  given  place  de- 
pend primarily  upon  the  temperature,  though  not  necessarily  upon 
the  temperature  of  that  place.  As  the  air  is  heated  in  the  tropical 
parts  of  the  earth  by  the  sun,  it  rises  and  colder  air  Bows  in  from 
the  polar  regions  to  take  its  place,  hence  the  primary  currents 
which  are  modified  in  various  ways  by  other  causes.  (84). 

2.  Rotation  of  the  Earth. — The  winds  are  turned  out  of 
their  course  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
ocean    currents.   (79). 

a.  Laud  and  Water. — The  land  becomes  wanner  during  the 
day  than  the  sea  and  the  air  rising,  a  cooler  air  (lows  in  from  the 
sea.      At   night  the  land  parts  with    its  heat    more    rapidly  than    the 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHT.  158 

water    and    becomes    cooler,  then    the    wind    sets    the    other  way. 
Hence  we  have  the  land  and  sea  breezes. 

4.  Elevation  of  the  Land. — Mountains,  as  has  ahead}  been 
stated,  shelter  places  horn  winds.  Some  of  the  great  plains  are 
subject  to  almost  constant  winds. 

86.  Winds  may  he  classified  as  follows: — 

1.  Constant  Winds. — They  are  called  "trade  winds,"  be- 
cause of  advantage  to  commerce.  Their  direction  is  the  same 
throughout  the  year.  A  current  of  air  is  named  according  to  the 
direction  from  which  it  comes.  The  trade  winds  are  northeast  in 
the  northern  hemisphere  and  southeast  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 
They  occupy  a  belt  of  25 °  or  30°  on  each  side  of  the  equator. 
They  are  the  result  of:  ( 1 )  The  unequal  heating  of  the  polar 
and  equatorial  regions,  causing  the  current;  (2)  the  rotation  of 
the  earth  giving  the  oblique  direction.  They  blow  with  entire 
regularity  only  on  the  open  sea,  being  modified  on  the  land  by  local 
influences. 

2.  Periodical  Winds    are  those   which   during  regular  pe- 
riods   blow    in    opposite    directions.        Of  these   there   are    several 
classes:     (a).  Land  and  Sea  Breezes  (85).     (b).  Monsoons,  winds 
which  blow  a  part  of  the  year  in  one  direction  and  during   the  re- 
mainder of  the  year  in    another  direction.      They  are   trade  winds 
in  reality,  which    have    been   turned  out  of  their  course    by  the  un- 
equal heating  of  the  great  land  and  sea  masses.     They  occur  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  Gulf  of  Guinea   and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Carib- 
bean  Sea.      (c).    Local  Land  Winds,  caused  by  unequal  heating   of 
different  parts  of  the  land.     Among   them    may  be   mentioned  the 
Sirocco    of    the    shores    of  the    Mediterranean,    the    Khamsin    of 
Egypt,    the     Simoon    of    Syria     and    Arabia,   the    Harmattan    of 
Guinea,  all  hot  and  dry  winds    from  the   neighboring  deserts;  Ete- 
sian winds,  blowing  from    the   northeast  during  the  summer  over 
Greece   and    the   Mediterranean    toward     Africa;   the    northers   of 
Texas,  cold,  dry  winds    which    blow    over   Texas  and    Mexico,  de- 
scending from    the   upper  regions    of   the    atmosphere;  mountain 
winds,   ascending  and    descending    the    slopes  of    the    mountains, 
called  Pamperos  and  Puna  winds  in  the  Andes,  the  Bora   in   the 
Alps  and  the  Mistral  in  Southern  France. 

>  Variable  Winds. — Under  this  head  are  included  those 
violent  ^disturbances  of  the  atmosphere  called  storms,  hurricanes, 
tornadoes,  cyclones,  typhoons,  whirlwinds,  etc.  The  movement  is 
nearly  always  a  progressive,  rotary  one,  and  the  velocity  is  some- 
times as  great  as  100  miles  per  hour. 

87.  On  the  ocean  in  the  equatorial  regions  the  ascending  cur- 
rents of  air  are  so  great  as  to  counteract  the  currents  from  the  polar 
regions  and  consequently  there  are  places  which  are  subject  to 
calms,  when  the  wind  does  not  blow  at  all 

88.  The  humidity,  or  moisture  of  the  atmosphere   1-  caused  by 


154  TEACHERS'  AND   STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

the  evaporation  of  water  from  the  ocean  and  land.  When  the 
moisture  in  the  atmosphere  changes  from  the  gaseous  or  vapor  form 
it  is  said  to  be  condensed  and  is  precipitated  as  dew,  mist,  fog, 
cloud,  rain,  sleet,  hail,  or  snow.     In  order  that  precipitation  may 

occur  the  air  must  he  cooled  helow  the  dezv  point.  The  dew  point 
is  the  point  of  saturation,  or  where  the  air  contains  as  much  moist- 
ure as  it  is  capable  of  holding.  This  varies  with  the  tempera- 
ture. 

89.      In    regard    to    moisture,  the    climate    of  a    place   depends 

upon : — 

1.  Prevailing  Winds. — If  a  wind  blows  from  large  bodies 

of  water  in  a  warm  region  it  will  he  laden  with  moisture  which 
will  he  likely  to  he  precipitated  on  reaching  a  colder  country. 

2.  Mountains. — The  contact  of  a  moisture-laden  wind  with 
the  cold  sides  of  mountains  will  cause  a  precipitation  of  its  moist- 
ure and  the  regions  heyond  the  mountains  will  not  receive  it. 

3.  Forests,  by  shading  the  earth,  keep  its  surface  cool  and 
this  tends  to  condense  the  moisture. 

4.  Cultivation  of  the  Soil,  causing  it  to  absorb  moisture 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  by  capillary  attraction  in  dry  weather 
bring  up  moisture  from  helow  to  the  surface. 

5.  Temperature. — Increased  heat  causes  greater  evapora- 
tion and  hence  more  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  More  rain  falls 
within  the  tropics  than  in  the  temperate  or  polar  Regions. 

6.  Land  and  Water. —  More  rain  falls  on  the  coasts  of  a 
country  than  in  the  interior,  hecause  the  winds  are  more  moist. 
More  rain  falls  in  the  northern  hemisphere  than  in  the  southern 
because  there  is  a  greater  diversity  of  land  and  water,  the  evapora- 
tion coming  mainly  from  the  ocean,  and  the  condensation  from  the 
diversified  land  surface. 

90.  Glaciers  are  immense  masses  of  ice  formed  by  the  accumu- 
lated snows  upon  the  mountain  tops.  They  till  in  vast  valleys,  and 
have  an  onward  motion  throughout  like  a  liquid  or  semi-liquid  body. 
Their  course  down  the  slopes  is  very  slow,  hut  like  rivers,  they  flow 
faster  in  the  middle  than  at  the  bottom  and  sides.  The  lower 
extremities  are  constantly  melting,  forming  torrents  and  mountain 
streams,  while  they  are  i'a\  at  the  upperpartsby  the  snows.  Rocks 
of  immense  size  are  torn  off  and  carried  down  by  glaciers.  (See 
Geology.)  They  occur  in  the  greatest  numbers  in  the  Alps  Mts. 
When  the  glacier  reaches  the  ocean  large  fragments  are  broken  off 
and  float  away  as  icebergs. 

91.  Isothermal  lines,  are  lines  drawn  on  maps  connecting 
places  which  have  the  same  average  annual  temperature.  They 
are  very  far  from  corresponding  with  the  parallels  of  latitude. 

92.  The  plants  of  a  country  taken  together  are  called  its  flora. 
Vegetation  depends  mainly  for  its  development  upon  heat  and 
moisture,  hence  the  nature   of  the    flora   of  a    country  will    depend 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHT.  155 

almost  entirely  upon  its   climate.     Vegetation    may  be  arranged  in 
zones  bounded  by  isothermal  lines: — 

1.  The  tropical  zone,  bounded  by  the  isothermal  lines  of 
73°  F.  on  each  side  of  the  equator  is  characterized  by  palms,  banan- 
as, spices  and  aromatic  plants.  The  vegetation  is  very  luxuriant. 
Trees  attain  enormous  size,  the  leaves  sometimes  very  large.  Mam- 
plants  attach  themselves  to  trees  and  rocks,  and  derive  their  suste- 
nance from  the  water  and  air.  The  forests  are  almost  impenetrable 
from  the  hanging  and  twining  vines  and  the  denseness  of  the  vege- 
tation. The  famous  banyan  tree  grows  in  this  zone.  From  its 
trunk  branches  are  sent  out  which,  taking  root  again,  form  other 
trunks,  thus  in  time  an  entire  grove  is  produced  from  a  single  tree. 

2.  The  sub-tropical  zones,  in  each  hemisphere,  lying 
between  the  isothermal  lines  of  73°  and  68°  F.  are  characterized 
by  trees  with  thick,  shining  leaves,  as  magnolias,  laurels  and  myrtles. 
The  winters  are  so  mild  as  scarcely  to  arrest  the  growth  of  vege- 
tation. 

3.  The  -warm  temperate  zones,  in  each  hemisphere,  lying 
between  the  isothermal  lines  of  6S°  and  55°  F.  are  characterized 
by  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  with  shining  leaves,  along  with  oaks, 
beeches  and  plants  similar  to  the  cold  temperate  zones.  The  olive, 
fig,  cork  tree  and  pomegranate  are  also  characteristic.  The  vine 
here  attains  its  greatest  perfection. 

4.  The  cold  temperate  zones  in  each  hemisphere,  lying 
between  the  isothermal  lines  of  550  and  41°  F.  are  characterized 
by  deciduous  trees,  as  oaks,  beeches,  maples,  elms,  walnuts,  larches, 
etc.,  while  mosses,  grasses,  the  rose,  honeysuckle,  clematis,  holly, 
etc.,  form  much  of  the  smaller  vegetation.  '  This  zone  contains  the 
most  highly  civilized  peoples,  and  has  the  greatest  variety  of  food 
plants,  and  the  most  extensive  forests. 

5.  The  sub-arctic  zones,  in  each  hemisphere,  lying  between 
the  isothermal  lines  of  41°  and  the  September  isothermal  lines  of 
36.5 °  F.  are  characterized  by  evergreen  coniferous  trees,  as  pines, 
hemlocks,  cedars,  firs,  etc.  Beeches,  alders  and  willows  are  found 
in  the  moist  grounds  of  the  northern  oortions,  and  grasses  and 
flowers  abound  in  summer. 

6.  The  polar  zones,  extending  from  the  limits  of  the  sub- 
arctic zones  to  the  poles,  have  very  scanty  vegetation.  The  trees 
are  dwarfed,  and  are  mostly  birch,  willow  and  alder.  Mosses  and 
lichens,  with  some  sedges  and  grasses,  t  xJst. 

93.  As  we  ascend  above  sea  level,  in  a  tropical  country,  the 
vegetation  changes  somewhat,  as  is  seen  in  traveling  from  the  "equa- 
tor to  the  poles;  at  a  height  of  15,000  feet  and  over,  the  flora  cor- 
responds to  the  sub-arctic  and  polar  zones. 

94.  The  agencies  which  have  been  active  in  disseminating 
species  of  plants  over  the  globe  may  be  mentioned  as  follows:  The 
winds;   ocean   currents;  animals,  cither  by   seeds  carried    in  their 


L56  TBAi  HERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

stomachs  or  adhering  to  their  coats;  and  man.  I  For  information 
concerning  the  origin,  nature,  etc.,  of  our  common  food  plants, 
fruits,  spices,  etc.,  see  Index.) 

95.  The  animals  of  a  country  taken  together  are  called  its 
fauna.  "  Flic  distribution  of  heat,  moisture  and  vegetation  forms 
the  true  basis  for  the  distribution  of  animal  life.'1  As  a  general 
law  it  may  he  stated  that  animal  life,  the  same  as  vegetable,  varies 
as  we  lc°  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  and  also  as  the  altitude 
above  sea  level  increases,  hut  the  lines  are  not  so  distinctly  marked, 
and  it  is  difficult  t<>  arrange  them  in  zones. 

96.  As  a  general  rule,  the  terrestrial  animal  life  decreases  in 
variety  of  forms,  and  luxuriance  of  development,  as  we  go  from 
the  equator  to  the  poles.  Man  is  rather  an  exception  to  the  rule,  as 
the  most  highly  developed  races,  both  physically  and  mentally,  are 
found  in  the  intermediate  regions.  The  reverse  of  the  rule  is  true  of 
marine  animal  life.  Certain  species  are  found  in  the  Western  conti- 
nents which  are  not  found  in  the  Eastern,  even  in  the  same  latitude  and 
under  the  same  climatic  conditions,  showing  that  the  ocean  is  a  harrier 
to  the  dissemination  of  species.  Australia  has  a  fauna  peculiar  to 
itself,  and  the  fact  of  its  complete  isolation  from  the  other  land 
masses,  will  in  part  explain  it. 

QUESTIONS    ON     PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 
(See  Note  to  Questions  on  Geography). 

i.  Is  the  earth  a  large  body?  2 — 4.  State  the  Nebular  Hypothesis.  6 — 7. 
What  is  the  probable  condition  of  the  interior  of  the  earth  ?  8.  Name  the  phe- 
nomena which  seem  to  indicate  a  heated  interior,  y.  What  are  thermal  springs? 
S.  Where  are  they  very  numerous?  11.  Geysers.  12.  Name  some  remarkable 
gevsers  in  our  own  country.     13.   Explain  the  action  of  geysers. 

14.  Define  volcano;  the  crater;  lava.  15.  What  forms  the  volcanic  com:? 
16.  What  is  the  nature  of  lava  when  it  first  issues  from  a  volcano?  17.  What 
are  volcanic  ashes?  Volcanic  sand?  iS.  What  i-  the  origin  of  Iceland?  19. 
Number  and  distribution  of  volcanoes?  20.  Describe  Vesuvius.  What  cities 
were  buried  by  its  eruption? 

21.  Describe  an  eruption.  22.  Name  four  important  volcanoes  and  tell  all 
vou  can  about  them.  23.  What  are  fields  of  fire?  24.  Solfataras?  25.  Mud 
volcanoes?  26.  Earthquakes?  27.  Movement-  of  the  earth  during  an  earth- 
quake?    28.  Length  of  shocks?     29.  Where  most  liable  to  occur? 

30.  What  were  some  of  the  most  noted  earthquakes?  31.  Cause  of  earth- 
quakes? 32.  Does  the  level  of  the  land  remain  everywhere  the  same?  33.  At 
what  rate  (lor-  the  temperature  increase  as  we  go  down  in  the  earth? 

34.  Where  are  the  magnetic  poles?  36.  What  is  the  zone  of  fracture?  37. 
Compare  and  contrast  the  continents  as  to  size  and  coast  line.  38.  Of  what 
hemisphere  is  London  the  center?  39.  How  are  islands  classified?  Define 
continental  islands.  Oceanic  island-.  40.  Whal  Is  the  usualform  and  position 
of  continental  islands?  41.  Of  oceanic  island-5  How  are  oceanic  islands 
.  lassified? 

42.  Volcanic  islands?  43.  Coral  islands?  Describe  the  polvp  which  -sc- 
cretes  coral.  What  is  a  coral  net?  4.5,  In  what  zone  are  coral  islands  found  ? 
Does  the  polyp  build  up  from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  ? 

40.  Name  the  varieties  of  coral  formations.  17.  How  high  are  coral  islands? 
48.   Whal  is  the  highest  land?     Lowest?     49.    What  is  the  boundary   between 


PHTSIOLOGT.  157 

highlands  and   lowlands?     Define  alluvial  plains;  marine  plains.     50.  Charac- 
teristics of  each? 

51.  What  are  undulating  plains'  52.  Plateaus?  53.  What  is  the  usual 
arrangement  of  mountains?  54.  Origin  of  mountains?  55.  Origin  of  valleys? 
56.  What  peculiarities  of  relief  forms  may  be  observed?  57.  What  is  the  ori- 
gin of  springs?     58.  Classify  them.     59.  Origin  of  rivers  and  lakes? 

60.  What  terms  used  in  describing  a  river?  61.  How  is  a  river  divided?  62. 
What  is  the  nature  of  upper  course*  of  rivers?  What  cataract  is  characterized 
by  the  greatest  volume  of  water?  What  by  the  greatest  height?  64.  What  is 
one  of  the  great  agencies  in  effecting  changes  in  continental  structure? 

65.  What  is  a  delta?     66.  What  continent  contains  most  lakes? 

67,6s.  Classify  lakes  and  give  examples.  69.  What  is  the  highest  lake? 
The  deepest?  70.  What  are  the  relative  sizes  of  the  oceans?  71.  What  is  the 
cause  of  the  saltness  of  the  sea?  72.  What  is  the  color  of  the  sea?  73.  The 
depth  of  the  sea? 

74.  Waves?  75.  Tides?  76.  Spring  and  neap  tides?  77.  Places  noted 
for  high  tides?  Maelstrom?  7S.  Ocean  currents?  79.  Cause?  So.  Extent? 
81.  Effect?     Gulf  Stream?    82.  Sargasso  Sea? 

S3.  Height  of  atmosphere?  84.  Upon  what  does  climate  as  to  temperature 
depend?  85.  As  to  winds?  86.  Classify  winds?  87.  Calms?  SS.  What 
causes  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere?  In  what  forms  is  the  moisture  pre- 
cipitated?    89.  Upon  what  does  climate  as  to  moisture  depend? 

90.  What  are  glaciers?  91.  Isothermal  lines?  92.  What  is  meant  by  the 
flora  of  a  country?  How  are  plants  distributed?  93.  What  is  true  of  the  ver- 
tical distribution  of  plants?  94.  What  agencies  have  been  active  in  effecting  a 
distribution  or  species  of  plants?  95.  What  is  meant  by  the  fauna  of  a  country? 
How  does  it  vary?     How  do  you  explain  the  peculiar  fauna  of  Australia? 


.■||<>1I" 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


OUTLINE    OF    THE    HUMAN     ORGANIZATION. 

It  is  presumed  that  the  pupil  who  has  had  exercise  in  outlining  other  subjects,  has  by  this 
time  acquired  sufficient  skill  to  enable  him  to  elaborate  such  a  subject  as  this  with  the  assistance 
of  these  general  heads,  and  the  references  to  the  text,  where  further  suggestions  will  be  found. 

i1  Organs. 

iJ  Of  Motion.     (Motory  Apparatus). 
i3  Principal.     (Muscular  System). 
i4  Muscles.  (2l). 

*  *     *     * 

23  Accessorv.     (Osseous  System). 

1*  Bones."    (The  Skeleton).  (2). 
***** 

[In  outlining  and  reciting  let  the  pupil  give  the  location,  form,  peculiarities, 
articulations  and  uses  of  each  bone]. 

22  Of  Nutrition  and  Repair.     (Nutritive  Apparatus). 
i3  Of  Digestion.     (Digestive  System). 

i*  Principal.     (Alimentary  Canal).  (30). 

*  *     * 

24  Accessory.     (40).  , 

•T*  *F  *h  ^  ^ 

2s  Of  Circulation.     (Vascular  System). 


158  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

i*  Principal.     (Circulatory  System).     (52). 

T*  ^  ^  ^ 

2*  Accessory.     (Lymphatic,  or  Absorptive  System).  (72). 
3*  Of  Respiration.     (Respiratory  System).  (77). 

$         $         ♦         ♦ 

43  Of  Secretion  and  Excretion.     (Secretory,  or  Glandular  System).  (88). 

32  Of  Sensation.     (Sensorial  Apparatus).  * 

I3  Principal.     (Nervous  System).  (100). 
i4  Originating.  (128). 

2*  Transmitting.  (128). 

*  *     *     * 

3*  Distributing.  (128). 

*  *     *     * 

23  Accessory.  (Organs  of  Special  Sense).     (129). 

*F         *F  •£  t» 

21  Tissues.  (161). 
♦     ♦     $     4 

31  Functions.    /    [These  points  may  be  elaborated  here,  or  be  outlined  in 
41  Hygiene.       f  connection  with  each  organ], 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

1.  Anatomy  treats  of  the  structure  of  the  animal  body.  When 
applied  to  man  it  is  called  Human   Anatomy,  when  applied  to  the 

lower  animals,  Comparative  Anatomy.  Physiology  treats  of  the 
functions  of  the  various  organs.  Hygiene  treats  of  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  body  in  a  state  of  health.  These  three  subjects  are 
usually  taught  in  schools  under  the  general    term  of  «  Physiology." 

2.  The  human  skeleton  in  the  adult  is  composed  of  200  distinct 
bones.  They  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  bones  of  the  head, 
trunk  and  extremities.  As  to  form,  they  may  be  classed  as  long, 
short,  flat  and  irregular.  The  long  bones  arc  found  in  the  limbs. 
They  are  principally  concerned  in  locomotion  and  act  as  levers. 
They  consist  of  a  shaft  of  a  nearly  cylindrical  form  and  two  ex- 
tremities, or  heads.  The  short  bones  are  those  which  are  grouped 
together  and  united  by  ligaments  for  compactness  and  strength,  and 
at  the  same  time  allowing  a  slight  degree  of  motion,  such  as  the 
hones  of  the  wrist  and  ankle.  The  Jteit  bones  are  those  which  are 
for  protection  to  internal  organs  or  for  the  extensive  attachment  of 
muscles.  Some  of  the  hones  of  the  skull,  the  ribs,  shoulder  blade, 
etc.,  belong  to  this  class.  The  irregular  bones  are  such  as  cannot 
be  classed  with  either  of  the   others. 

3.  Certain  terms  are  used  in  describing  bones  as  follows: 
diaphysis,  the  main  part  of  a  long  bone,  apophysis,  a  portion  of 
a  bone  which  projects  prominently  but  which  has  never  been  sep- 
arated from  "i'  movable  upon  the  main  bone;  epiphysis,  a  portion 
which  has  been  developed  as  a  separate  piece  and  afterward  joined 
to  the  main  hone.  Eminences  and  depressions  receive  different 
names,  thus  we  have:  (  1)  tuberosities,  broad,  uneven  elevations; 
(2)   tubercles,  small,  rough   projections;  (3)   spines,   sharp,   slender 


riirsroLoar.  159 

projections;  (_jj  ridges,  or  lines,  narrow,  rough,  extended  eleva- 
tions. jFbssac,  grooves,  Jissit res,  etc.,  denote  depressions.  The  use 
of  these  depressions  and  elevations  is  to  increase  the  extent  of  sur- 
face for  the  attachment  of  muscles  and  ligaments. 

4.  The  hones  of  the  head  may  be  divided  into  those  of  the 
cranium,  face  and  car.  The  cranium  consists  of  S  hones  which 
are  joined  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a  kind  of  box  en- 
closing the  brain.  They  are  as  follows:  (i)  The  occipital  form- 
ing the  hack  and  lower  part  of  the  head,  resting  on  the  spinal 
column  and  perforated  with  a  large  opening  called  the  foramen 
magnum  for  the  entrance  of  the  spinal  marrow;  (2)  the  parietals, 
two  in  number,  forming  the  sides  of  the  head ;  (3)  the  frontal, 
forming  the  forehead  and  brows;  (4)  the  temporals,  one  on  each 
side  forming  the  lower  part  of  the  side  of  the  head,  divided  into 
three  parts,  the  petrous,  mastoid  and  squamous  portions;  (5]  the 
sphenoid  forming  the  lower  front  part  of  the  base  of  the  skull, 
articulating  with  all  the  other  bones  of  the  cranium  and  holding; 
them  together;  (6)  the  ethmoid,  a  light  spongy  bone  at  the  an- 
terior part  of  the  base  of  the   skull   between  the  orbits  of  the  eyes. 

5.  The  face  contains  14  bones  which  form  attachments  for  the 
softer  parts.  They  are:  (1)  the  two  nasal,  forming  the  bridge  of 
the  nose;  (2)  two  superior  maxillary,  or  upper  jaw  bones;  (3)  one 
inferior  maxillary,  ox  lower  jaw  bone;  (4)  two  molar,  or  cheek 
bones;  (5)  two  lachrymal,  very  small  bones  at  the  inner  corner  of 
the  orbits;  (6)  two  palate,  forming  part  of  the  roof  of  the  mouth; 
(7)  two  inferior  turbinated,  scroll-like  projections  from  the  supe- 
rior maxillary  in  the  nasal  fossae;  (S)  one  vomer,  separating  the 
divisions  of  the  nasal  fossae.  The  bones  of  the  ear  are  very  mi- 
nute, 3  in  number,  the  malleus,  incus  and  stapes,  situated  in  a 
cavity  of  the  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal   bone. 

6.  The  trunk,  for  convenience  of  study,  may  be  divided  into 
the  thorax,  the  spinal  column  and  the  pelvis.  The  thorax  includes : 
(1)  the  ribs,  24  in  number  arranged  in  pairs,  joined  to  the  sternum 
in  front  and  to  the  spinal  column  at  the  other  extremity,  the  first 
seven  pairs  being  united  to  the  sternum  directly  by  means  of  sepa- 
rate cartilages,  and  called  true  ribs,  the  next  three  pairs  being  in- 
directly united  to  the  sternum,  called  false  ribs,  the  last  two  pairs 
not  united  to  the  sternum  and  called  footing  ribs;  (2)  the  sternum. 
or  breast  bone,  in  the  adult  divided  into  three  portions,  the  manu- 
brium,  the  gladiolus  and  the  ens  i form  appendage:  (3)  the  clavicle, 
or  collar  hone  acting  as  a  kind  of  brace  and  extending  from  the 
Sternum  to  the  scapula,  being  more  frequently  broken  than  any 
other  bone  in  the  body  ;  (4)  the  scapula,  or  shoulder  blade  afford- 
ing attachment  to  the  arm.  The  two  latter  bones  may  be  classed 
with  the  upper  extremities. 

7.  The  spinal  column  consists  of  24  irregular  bones  called 
vertebra;.      In  general  each  vertebra  consists  of  a  body  and   a  poste- 


160  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBEAET. 

rior  arch  which  is  composed  of  two  laminae  and  two  pedicles  with 
seven  processes,  (our  articular,  two  transverse,  and  one  spinous. 
Between  the  arch  and  the  body  is  a  foramen,  or  opening,  which, 
when  all  the  vertebras  are  put  together,  forms  the  spinal  canal  con- 
taining the  spinal  cord.  They  are  divided  into  the  cervical,  dorsal 
and  lumbar  regions.  There  are  7  cervical  vertebrae,  the  first  ar- 
ticulating with  the  occipital  hone  is  called  the  alias,  the  second 
which  forms  the  pivot  on  which  the  head  turns  is  called  the  axis, 
the  seventh  is  called  the  vertebra  pro/uiue>/s.  The  others  have  not 
received  particular  names.  The  bodies  of  the  cervical  are  smaller 
than  in  the  other  vertebras  and  the  spinous  processes  bifid.  The 
dorsal  vertebrae  are  12  in  number,  their  bodies  larger  than  the 
cervical  and  the  spinous  processes  directed  more  downward.  The 
lumbar  vertebrae,  5  in  number,  have  larger  bodies  and  the  spinous 
processes  directed  horizontally. 

8.  The  pelvis  consists  of  the  sacrum,  the  coccyx,  and  the  two 
innominata.  The  sacrum  consists  of  five  solidly  united  vertebrae 
and  is  in  reality  a  continuation  of  the  spinal  column.  The  coccyx 
is  a  small  hone  consisting  usually  of  four  united  vertebrae  being  the 
extremity  of  the  spinal  column.  The  innominata,  or  hip  bones,  are 
very  irregular,  expanded  bones  which  afford  attachment  to  the 
femur.  They  are  attached  firmly  tothe  sacrum  and  consist  of  three- 
parts,  the  lower  called  the  ischium,  the  front  portion  called  the 
pubis  and  the  upper  broad  portion  the  iiiium.  The  cavity  which 
receives  the  head  of  the  femur  is  called  the  acetabulum.  It  is  com- 
posed of  portions  of  the  three  parts.  Between  the  ischium  and 
pubes  is  a  large  opening  called  the  obturator  foramen. 

9.  The  upper  extremities  consist  of  62  bones  as  follows:  (  1  ) 
The  humerus,  or  long  bone  of  the  arm.  (2)  The  uli/a  and  radius, 
the  bones  of  the  forearm;  the  upper  extremity,  olecranon  process. 
of  the  ulna  may  be  felt  at  the  tip  of  the  elbow  (called  the  "crazy 
hone,")  and  the  lower  extremity  is  on  the  same  side  as  the  little 
finger.  The  radius  may  be  known  by  having  its  lower  extremity 
at  the  side  the  thumb  is  on.  It  appears  to  revolve  around  the  ulna 
when  the  hand  is  turned.  The  radius  is  longest  and  articulates  with 
the  carpal  bones.  (3)  The  carpus,  or  wrist,  has  S  bones  arranged 
in  two  rows,  as  follows,  commencing  with  the  one  next  the  thumb: 
trapezium,  trapezoid,  os  magnum,  unciform,  scaphoid  semilunar, 
cuneiform,  pisiform;  (notice  this  arrangement  of  the  initial  let- 
ters and  it  will  help  to  remember  the  names  and  position  of  the 
hones:  the  upper  row,  T.  T.  ( ).  I",  lower  row,  S.  S.  C.  1'.);  (4) 
the  metacarpus,  or  hand,  consists  of  5  bones  articulating  with  the 
carpus  above  and  the  bones  of  the  fingers  and  thumb  below;  the 
hones  of  the  fingers  and  thumb  called  phalanges  are  1  )  ill  number, 
three  to  each  finger  and  two  to  the  thumb. 

10.  The  lower  extremities  consist  of  60  hones  ;1s  follows:  1  1  1 
The  femur,  or  thigh  bone,  the  longest  bone  in  the  body.    (2)    The 


PHTSIOLOGT.  161 

tibia,  \X\c  larger  bone  of  the  leg,  (called  the  "  shin  bone").  (3) 
The  Jibula,  the  smaller  bone  of  the  leg  acting  as  a  kind  of  brace  to 
the  tibia.  (4)  The  patella,  or  knee-cap,  is  in  the  shape  of  a  chest- 
nut, and  lies  over  the  heads  of  the  femur  and  tibia,  held  in  place  by 
Strong  ligaments.  (5)  The  tarsus,  or  ankle,  consists  of  7  bones  as 
follows:  the  os  calcis,ox  heel  bone,  the  largest,  the  astragalus  next 
in  size  supports  the  tibia,  the  scaphoid,  the  c/tboid  and  the  three  cu- 
neiform. (6)  The  metatarsus,  5  bones.  (7]  The  phalanges,  14 
bones,  are  analogous  to  the  metacarpus  and  phalanges  of  the  hand. 

11.  The  os  hyoides,  or  hyoid  bone,  has  no  articulations  with 
any  other  bones.  It  is  located  just  above  the  larynx,  supports  the 
tongue  and  gives  attachment  to  many  muscles.  It  is  in  the  shape 
of  a  letter  U. 

12.  Sesamoid  bones  are  small  rounded  masses  of  a  cartilagi- 
nous nature  until  adult  life,  and  are  found  in  tendons  which  exert 
great  pressure  upon  parts  over  which  they  glide.  The  patella  is  really 
a  sesamoid  bone.  Others  are  very  small  and  are  found  mostly  in 
male  individuals  of  active  muscular  habit,  in  the  region  of  the 
thumb,  great  toe  and  sometimes  in  other  parts  of  the  hand  and  foot. 

Wormian  bones,  or  ossa  triquetra,  are  small  bones  sometimes  found 
between  the  sutures  of  the  skull. 

13.  The  following  outline  indicates  the  kinds  of  articulations 
of  bones: — 

I.  Synarthrosis,  or  immovable. 

1.  Sutura,  interlocked  like  a  seam. 

a.     Sutura  vera,  by  indented  borders. 

(a)  Dentata,  tooth  like  processes,  as  between  parietal  bones. 

(b)  Serrata,  like  saw  teeth,  as  sometimes  between  parts  of  the  frontal. 

(c)  Limbosa,  beveled  indented  processes  as,  in  fronto-parietal. 
(b)     Sutura  notha,  by  rough  surfaces. 

(a>     Squamosa,  thin  beveled  edges  overlapping,  as  in  tempero-parietal. 
(b)     Harmonia,  contiguous  rough  surfaces,  as  between  two  superior 
maxillary. 

2.  Schindylesis,    a  thin  plate  of  bone  fitting  into  a  fissure  in  another,   as 
vomer  into  sphenoid. 

3.  Gomphosis,  conical  process  into  a  socket  as  the  teeth  in  the  jaws 

II.  Diarthrosis,  or  movable. 

1.  Arthrodia,  plane  surfaces  gliding  upon  each  other,  as  clavicle   with 
sternum. 

2.  Enarthrosi-,  or  ball-and-socket  joint,  spherical  head  fitting  into  a  cup- 
like cavity,  as  in  hip  and  shoulder. 

3.  Ginglymus,  or  hinge  joint,  admitting  motion  in  two    directions  only, 
as  in  elbow,  knee  and  ankle. 

4.  Diarthrosis  rotatorius,  a  ring  around  a  pivot,  as  in  atlo-axoid. 
ill.     Amphiarthrosis,  or  mixed. 

14.  Ligaments  arc  bundles  of  white  fibrous  or  yellow 
elastic  tissue,  pliable  and  elastic,  which  are  connected  with  nearly 
all  movable  joints  and  hold  the  bones  in  place,  yet  allow  freedom  of 
movement.  Synovial  membranes  are  delicate  membranous  tissue 
in  the  form  of  short,  wide  tubes  attached  by  the  open  ends  to  the 
edges  of  the  extremities   of  bones  in  the  joints.     They   enclose   a 

1 1 


162  TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS'    UBRART. 

fluid,  synovia,  for  the  lubrication  of  the  joints.  Bursae  are  little 
sacs  containing  a  viscid  fluid  and  arc  found  in  the  neighborhood  of 
joints.     Their  use  is  to  lessen  friction  of  the  moving  parts. 

15.  The  structure  of  hone  may  he  discussed  under  the  heads: 
(i)  mechanical,  meaning  those  parts  which  may  be  seen  with  the  un- 
aided eye;  (2)  microscopic,  the  more  minute  structure  requiring  the 
aid  of  a  microscope;  (3)  chemical,  meaning  the  ultimate  and  proxi- 
mate elements  which  make  up  the  bone  substance. 

16.  Mechanical  Structure. — All  hones  are  covered  except  at 
their  cartilaginous  extremities  with  a  periosteum,  which  is  a  thin 
membrane  intimately  connected  with  the  hone  and  containing 
nutrient  vessels  for  the  nourishment  of  the  bone  beneath.  It  is 
thicker  and  more  vascular  in  young-  hones,  growing  thinner  and 
more  adherent  in  old  age.  The  marrow,  or  medulla,  found  especi- 
ally in  the  cavities  of  long  hones,  consists  mostly  of  fat.  Bone  is 
made  up  of  two  kinds  of  tissue  visible  to  the  eye,  cancellous,  or 
spongy,  and  compact  tissues,  the  compact  being  found  on  the  ex- 
terior and  cancellous  on  the  interior.  In  long  hones  the  cancellous 
tissue  is  mostly  at  the  end.  Blood-vessels  ramify  freely  through 
the  cancellous   tissue. 

17.  Microscopic  Structure. -The  hone  substance  (matrix) 
seems  to  he  arranged  in  layers  {lamellae)  around  certain  chan- 
nels which  in  a  cross  section  appear  as  round  and  oval  openings, 
in   a  longitudinal  section  of  elongated    open    spaces.      In    the    m 

of  these  lamellae  arc  numerous  little  openings,  or  cells  (lacunae)  ar- 
ranged in  rows  around  the  larger  Openings,  which  are  called 
Haversian  canals.  Fiom  the  lacunae,  branching  in  every  direction. 
arc  little  channels  called  canaliculi.  In  a  very  thin  section  viewed 
by  transmitted  light  the  Haversian  canals  appear  as  open  spaces, 
the  lacunae  as  dark  spots  and  the  canaliculi  as  dark  lines.  The 
canaliculi  proceeding  from  one  lacuna  run  into  another  or  into  a 
Haversian  canal.  The  lacunae  are  thought  to  he  hone  cells  and 
the  Haversian  canals  and  canaliculi  arrangements  for  the  circulation 
of  nutriment  for  the  growth  of  the   hone. 

18.  Chemical  Structure. — If  a  long  hone  he  immersed  in  a 
dilute  acid  for  a  few  days,  the  earthy  or  mineral  part  will  he  dissolved 
out,  leaving  a  soft  flexible  mass  which  may  hi'  hent  in  any  direction 
and  even  tied  in  a  knot.  This  soft  part  is  nearly  pure  gelatine. 
The  following  table  gives  the  result  of  a  chemical  analysis  of  hone 
by  Berzelius: — 

Organic  Matter-  Gelatine  and  Blood-vessels,  -                  33-3° 

Inorganic  or  Earthy  Matter, 

Calcium  phosphate,        .....  -         51-04 

"         carbonate, -          ii-3° 

"          fluoride,                 -        2.00 

Magnesium  phosphate,         -  -                    1.16 

Soda  and  Sodium  chloride,         -  -         -            t.30 

100.00 


ri/rs/OLoc)-.  163 

The  proportions  of  earthy  ami  organic  matter  varies:  (i)  in 
the  different  bones  of  the  same  skeleton;  (2)  with  age;  (3)  with 
certain  diseased  conditions.  In  the  disease  called  rickets,  the  earthy 
matter  is  so  small  in  quantity  that  the  hones  are  not  stiff  enough  to 
support  the  weight  of  the  body  and  become  bent  and  variously  de- 
formed in  consequence.  In  old  age  the  hones  become  brittle  by  a 
lack  of  organic  matter  and  old  people  are  more  liable  to  receive 
fractures.  If  a  hone  be  burned  in  the  fire  the  organic  matter  will 
he  consumed,  having  the  earthy  matter.  It  will  retain  its  form  but 
will  he  very  brittle  and  fragile. 

19.  From  the  nature  of  the  material  of  bone  it  will  appear: 
(1)  that  children  should  not  be  encouraged  to  walk  too  soon  lest 
the  weight  of  the  body  bend  the  bones  of  the  limbs  before  they 
become  sufficiently  solid,  thus  producing  "  bow  legs;  "  (2)  that  old 
persons  should  take  great  care  to  avoid  falls  lest  they  receive  frac- 
tures; (3)  that  tight  lacing,  sitting  too  long  in  one  position,  bend- 
ing over  a  table  and  all  other  actions  and  positions  which  will  exert 
continued  pressure  on  bones,  should  be  avoided. 

20.  Bone  is  produced  by  a  kind  of  petrifaction  of  cartilage,  i. 
e.  all  hone  is  first  in  a  soft  condition  but  develops  into  solid  bone  by 
deposit  of  earthy  matter.  This  process  is  called  ossification.  It 
begins  at  different  times  in  different  bones.  Ossification  commences 
at  certain  points,  or  centers,  and  extends  in  all  directions  from  these 
centers.  In  most  of  the  short  bones  there  is  but  one  center  of  ossi- 
fication, in  long  bones  generally  three. 

21.  The  motions  of  the  bodv  are  caused  by  the  contraction  of 
bundles  of  fibers  called  muscles.  There  are  over  500  muscles  in 
the  body.  Thev  are  connected  with  the  bones,  cartilages,  liga- 
ments antl  skin,  directly  or  by  means  of  tendons,  (fibrous  cords)  or 
aponeuroses  (fibrous  membranes  similar  in  structure  to  the  tendons) 
and  covered  with  thin  membranes  called  fascia. 

22.  As  to  form  muscles  may  be:   (  i)  radiated,  fibers  diverging 
from  a  point  like  a  fan;  (2)  penniform,  converging  to  one  side  of  a 
tendon  like  a  feather;  (3)   bipennifonn,  converging  to  both  sides  of 
a  tendon;  {^^  fusiform,  when  the  fibers  converge  to  both  ends;  (5) 
sphincter,  when  the  fibers  run  round  in  a  circle. 

23.  As  to  the  mode  of  action,  they  are:  (1)  extensors,  those 
which  straighten  a  part  from  a  bent  position;  (2)  Jiexors, the  oppo- 
site of  extensors;  (3)  abductors,  those  which  move  a  limb  away 
from  the  body;  (4)  adductors,  the  opposite  of  abductors;  (5)  pro- 
nators, those  which  turn,  or  roll  a  part  over  so  that  it  lies  on  its  face 

*  as  the  hand  turned  so  as  to  lie  with  the  palm  downward;  (6)  supin- 
ators, the  opposite  of  pronators;  (7)  sphincters,  those  which  act  like 
a  draw-string  to  close  an  opening. 

24.  As  to  position  thev  mav  he  superficial,  near  the  surface,  or 
deep  seated,  near  the  hone.  As  to  volition,  thev  are  voluntary^  under 
control  of  the  will,  or  involuntary   acting  independent  of  the    will, 


164  TEACHERS1  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

or  mixed,  partly  under  control  of  the  will.  As  to  structure  the 
\nhintarv  muscles  arc  striped,  or  striated,  and  the  involuntary 
generally  unstriped.  The  fibers  of  the  heart  differ  very  much 
from  other  striped  muscles. 

25.  In  describing  a  muscle  it  is  customary  to  give:  (i)  its 
origin,  the  more  fixed  or  central  attachment  toward  which  the 
force  of  the  muscles  is  exerted;  (2)  its  insertion,  the  more  movable 
point  upon  which  the  force  is  exerted,  (in  the  greater  number  of 
cases,  however,  the  muscles  may  he  made  to  act  from  either  ex- 
tremity, then  these  points  change  places);  (3)  relations,  stating 
what  other  organs  or  parts  lie  in  the  immediate  neighborhood;  (4) 
actions,  or  nse. 

26.  Muscles  are  named  :  (  1  )  from  their  form,  as  Deltoid,  Rhom- 
boidcus ;  (2)  from  their  location,  as  JVbialis,  Ulnar  is ;  (3)  from  their 
attachments,  as  Stcrno-clcido-mastoid ;  (4)  from  their  use,  as  Flexors, 
Extensors j  (5)  from  number  of  divisions  as  Biceps,  Triceps. 

27.  In  mechanical  structure  (15)  striped  muscles,  which  com- 
prise all  the  ordinary  muscles  of  the  trunk  and  limbs,  are  made  up 
of  a  vast  number  of  small  cylindrical  Jibers  arranged  parallel  to 
each  other  and  bound  together  in  little  bundles,  fasciculi,  by  con- 
nective tissue.  These  bundles  are  united  into  still  larger  bundles 
and  these  again  into  one  whole  by  connective  tissue  which  usually 
thickens  at  one  or  both  ends  to  form  the  tendon  or  aponeurosis  (21). 
Under  the  microscope  the  muscular  fiber  (sometimes  called  ultimate 
fiber)  appears  as  a  transparent  sheath,  sarcolemma,  enclosing  a 
bundle  of  what  appear  to  be  still  smaller  fibers  called  fibrils,  or 
fbrillac,  each  of  which  is  made  up  of  rows  of  minute  particles  ap- 
pearing like  a  string  of  beads.  Under  some  circumstances  the 
fiber  will  separate  transversely  into  discs,  in  other  words  the  fiber 
seems  to  be  made  up  of  minute  parts  which  are  so  arranged  as  to 
present  a  striping  and  admitting  of  a  cleavage  in  two  directions, 
transversely  and  longitudinally. 

Smooth,  or  unstriped  muscles  consist  of  flattened  bands  interlac- 
ing in  various  directions. 

In  chemical  structure  the  muscles  consist  of  a  substance  called 
syntonin,  resembling  the  fibrin  of  the  blood. 

28.  We  have  nol  -pace  to  describe  the  divisions  of  the  muscular 
system.  We  will  only  name  a  few  of  the  most  important.  (See 
Outline).  The  pupil  should  describe  these  in  the  order  given  in 
Sec.  25.  1.  Occipito  frontalis.  2.  Orbicularis  palpebrarum.  3. 
Digastric.  4.  Masseter.  s-  Temporal.  6.  Sterno-cleido-mastoid. 
7.  Deltoid.  8.  Latissimus  dorsi.  9.  Pectoralis  major.  10. 
Biceps.  11.  Triceps.  12.  Gluteus  maximus.  13.  Sartorius.  14. 
Gastrocnemius.  There  are  many  others  which  are  perhaps  of 
equal  importance,  but  it  would  be  asking  too  much  to  expect  a  pupil 
to  remember  so  many  when  there  are  so  many  other  things  of  more 
importance  that  should  be  learned. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  103 

29.  The  healthy  condition  of  muscles  depends  upon  a  suffi- 
cient supply  ot"  pure  blood  and  a  proper  alternation  of  exercise  and 
rest.  In  order  to  secure  pure  blood  it  is  necessary  that  the  digestive 
apparatus  be  in  good  condition,  the  lungs  be  supplied  with  pure  air, 
and  the  skin  kept  in  proper  condition  bv  bathing,  proper  clothing 
and  tree  access  of  air  and  .sunlight.  Exercise  should  not  be  violent, 
nor  long  continued  without  rest,  and  to  be  beneficial  it  should  be 
regular  and  frequent  and  of  such  a  nature  as  to  give  all  the  muscles 
their  proper  share.  The  state  of  the  mind  has  also  to  do  with 
muscular  contraction.  A  cheerful,  hopeful  disposition  will  accom- 
plish more  work  with  less  weariness  than  a  fretful,  peevish  disposi- 
tion. 

30.  The  Digestive  System  consists  of  the  Alimentary  Canal 
and  Accessory  Organs.  The  former  is  a  musculo-membranous 
tube  about  30  ft.  long  extending  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the 
trunk  and  lined  by  mucous  membrane.  It  consists  of  the  moutli, 
pharynx,  oesophagus,  stomach  and  intestines.  The  accessory 
organs  are  the  teeth,   salivary  glands,  liver,  pancreas  and  spleen, 

31.  The  mouth  is  the  beginning  of  the  alimentary  canal  and 
needs  no  description  here.  It  is  the  receptacle  of  the  food  where 
by  means  of  the  tcet/i,  tongue,  checks  and  the  action  of  the  saliva  it 
is  masticated  and  prepared  for  the  further  action  in  the  stomach. 

32.  The  pharynx  is  the  next  division  of  the  digestive  canal, 
between  the  mouth  and  the  oesophagus.  Likening  the  body  to  a 
house  the  mouth  woidd  be  as  a  door,  or  entrance,  the  pharynx  a  hall, 
or  vestibule,  from  which  proceed  openings  into  other  parts.  The 
pharynx  has  seven  openings,  one  into  the  mouth,  one  to  the  oesopha- 
gus, one  to  the  larynx,  two  to  the  nose  and  one  to  each  ear,  the 
Eustachian  tubes. 

33.  The  next  division  is  the  oesophagus,  or  gullet,  the  tube 
leading  from  the  pharynx  to  the  stomach.  It  is  about  9  inches 
in  length  and  lies  Jiehind  the  trachea  (80),  the  heart  and  the  lungs, 
and  passes  through  the  diaphragm  (84).  It  is  composed  of  three 
coats,  an  external,  muscular,  middle,  cellular,  and  internal,  mucous. 
The  muscular  coat  consists  of  fibers  in  two  layers,  the  external  run- 
ning longitudinally  and  the  internal  in  a  circular  manner. 

34.  The  stomach,  the  mosl  important  organ  in  the  body,  is  a 
pear-shaped  sac,  or  enlargement  of  the  alimentary  canal,  where  the 
food  is  dissolved  and  reduced  to  chyme.  The  greater  portion  is  to 
the  left  of  the  median  line  of  the  body.  It  varies  in  size  according 
to  the  amount  of  food  contained,  and  also  in  different  subjects.  It 
averages  when  moderately  full,  12  inches  in  length  (transversely), 
and  4  inches  in  breadth  (vertically).  The  left  extremity  is  the  larger, 
and  is  called  the  greater,  6r  splenic  end.  The  part  which  projects 
beyond  the  entrance  of  the  oesophagus  is  called  the  fundus  or  greal 
cul-de-sac.  The  entrance  of  the  oesophagus  is  called  the  cardiac 
orifice.      The  opposite  extremity,  or  where  the  digested  food  passes 


Kj(j  TEACHERS'  AND   STL  DENTS'   LIBRARY. 

into  the  intestine,  is  called  the  pyloric  orifice.  It  is  guarded  by  a 
kind  of  valve  formed  of  a  fold  of  the  mucous  membrane  called  the 
pylorus. 

Thi  walls  of  the  stomach  are  composed  of  four  coats—  the 
outer,  or  serous,  derived  from  the  peritoneum j  the  next  a  mus- 
cular, having  fibers  running  longitudinally,  transversely  and  ob- 
liquely; the  next  a  cellular  st$b-mucous  or  vascular,  inside  of' which 
is  the  mucous  coat,  or  mucous  membrane,  which  is  but  a  part  of  the 
mucous  lining  of  the  entire  alimentary  canal.  Under  the  micro- 
scope the  mucous  membrane  presents  a  honey-combed  appearance, 
due  to  numerous  little  depressions,  alveoli,  in  the  bottom  of  which 
are  seen  orifices  of  minute  tubes,  gastric  follicles.  Some  of  these 
tubes  are  lined  with  cells,  from  which,  it  is  supposed,  comes  the 
gastric  mucous,  and  hence  called  mucous  glands;  others  contain 
nucleated  cells  and  granules,  and  are  called  peptic  glands,  sup- 
posed to  he  the  origin  of  the  gastric  juice,  the  immediate  agent  in 
the  solution  of  the  food. 

35.  The  intestines  are  divided  into  the  large  and  small.  The 
duodenum  is  the  first  division  of  the  small  intestine  which  receives 
the  contents  of  the  stomach  and  effects  further  changes  upon  the 
food.  It  is  S  or  10  inches  in  length.  Commencing  with  the  py- 
lorus, it  extends  upward,  backward  and  toward  the  right  side,  then  • 
descends  and  turns  to  the  left,  crossing  in  front  of  the  spinal  column 
and  terminating  in  the  jejunum  to  the  left  of  the  second  lumbar 
vertebra. 

36.  The  jejunum,  the  second  division  of  the  small  intestine, 
is  about  7  ft.  in  length,  and,  together  with  the  ileum,  the  third  di- 
vision, lies  coiled  chiefly  in  the  central  part  of  the  cavity  of  the  ab- 
domen. The  ileum  is  about  12  ft.  in  length  and  somewhat  smaller 
in  diameter  than  the  jejunum. 

37.  The  large  intestine  is  about  5  ft.  in  length  and  is  divided 
into  the  ciccum,  the  colon  and  the  rectum.  The -caecum,  the  com- 
mencement of  the  large  intestine,  is  a  blind  pouch  or  cul-de-sac  (34) 
about  l\  inches  in  length  and  the  same  ill  diameter.  The  ileum 
opens  into  the  large  intestine  at  the  junction  of  the  <\rcum  with  the 
colon.  At  this  point  is  a  folding  of  the  mucous  membrane  which 
is  called  the  ileo-carcal  valve, or  valvula  Bauhini.  Attached  exter- 
nally to  the  caecum  is  a  worm-like  tube  from  3  to  6  inches  long  and 
the  thickness  of  a  goose  quill,  called  the  appendix  vermiformis.  It 
is  supposed  to  be  the  rudiment  of  the  lengthened  caecum  found  in 
nearly  all  mammals. 

38.  The  colon  is  divided  into  three  parts,  the  ascending,  trans- 
verse and  descending  portions.  These  terms  describe  its  course, 
surrounding  in  a  manner  the  small  intestines.  The  terminal  part 
of  the  large  intestine  and  the  alimentary  canal  is  the  rectum. 

39.  The  intestines  are  composed,  like  the  stomach,  of  four  coats 
serous,  muscular,  cellular  and  mucous.       The  mucous  and  cellu- 


PHYSIOLOGY.  167 

lar  coats  in  the  small  intestines  are  wrinkled  by  numerous  folds 
called  valvules  conniventes.  Their  office  is  to  retard  the  food  in  its 
passage  and  afford  j  greater  surface  for  absorption.  The  villi  are 
minute  projections  from  the  mucous  membrane,  giving  the  surface 
a  velvety  appearance.  These  villi  contain  the  lacteals  and  blood- 
vessels, to  he  hereafter  described  (73).  There  are  also  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  small  intestines  certain  glands — the  duodenal, 
or  Brunner's,  the  solitary  and  Pcvers  glands;  also  simple  follicles, 
or follicles  of  Licbcrkuhn. 

40.  In  the  human  body  there  are  two  sets  of  teeth,  appearing 
at  different  periods  of  life.  The  first  set,  20  in  number,  called  tem- 
porary, deciduous,  or  milk  teeth,  begin  to  make  their  appearance 
about  the  7th  month,  and  are  generally  all  developed  by  the  end  of 
the  second  year.  The  second,  or  permanent  set,  32  in  number, 
appear  between  the  5th  and  21st  years.  Each  tooth  consists  of  the 
crown,  or  part  above  the  gums,  the  root,  ox  fang,  concealed  within 
the  jaw-bone,  and  the  neck,  the  constricted  part  between  root  and 
crown.  As  to  form  and  use,  there  are  four  kinds  of  teeth,  as  fol- 
lows: incisors,  four  in  each  jaw,  located  in  front  part  of  Jaws,  thin, 
broad  and  sharp,  adapted  for  cutting,  having  one  fang;  canine  or 
"  eye  teeth,"  two  in  each  jaw,  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the  in- 
cisors, are  sharp,  conical,  with  single  long  fangs,  and  adapted  to 
tearing;  bicuspids,  or  pre-molars,  four  in  each  jaw,  two  behind 
each  canine,  have  two  cuspes,  or  eminences  on  the  crown,  with 
generally  a  single  fang,  which  is  grooved,  indicating  a  tendency  to 
become  double;  molars,  6  in  each  jaw,  largest  of  the  teeth,  adapted 
for  grinding,  have  several  cuspes  and  from  two  to  five  fangs — gen- 
erally, however,  three  fangs  in  those  in  the  upper  jaw  and  two  in 
those  of  the  lower.  The  third  molar  does  not  appear  until  late — 
usually  about  the  19th  or  20th  year — hence  called  the  wisdom 
tooth  (dens  sapiential).  Of  the  temporary  teeth  there  are  4  incisors, 
2  canine  and  4  molars  in  each  jaw.  The  roots  of  the  temporary 
teeth  become  absorbed  and  the  crowns  drop  out  as  the  permanent 
set  push  up  from  the  alveolar  processes  of  the  jaw. 

41.  In  structure  the  tooth  consists  of  a  solid  portion  and  a 
pulp  cavity.  This  cavity  contains  a  vascular  and  very  sensitive 
substance  called  dental  pulp.  It  is  traversed  with  bloodvessels  and 
nerves  which  enter  at  the  point  of  each  fang.  The  main  portion  of 
the  solid  part  is  called  dentine.  It  is  a  dense,  white  substance, 
somewhat  similar  to  bone,  but  contains  more  earthy  matter.  Un- 
der the  microscope  it  is  seen  to  consist  of  minute  branching  tubes, 
radiating  from  the  pulp  cavity  outward.  These  tubes  are  called 
dental  tub uli  and  the  substance  hetwecn  them  inter/ 'ubn lar  tissue. 
The  crown  of  the  tooth  is  covered  with  a  very  hard,  compact  sub- 
stance called  enamel.  It  is  the  hardest  Mil 'stance  in  the  body  and 
is  made  up  of  minute  hexagonal  rods,  lying  parallel  and  pointing 
toward  the  dentine.      It  consists  ,,!   ,,(>.^  per  cent,  of  earthy  mattei 


1(>8  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

The  fane  of  the  tooth  is  covered  with  a  substance  called  crusta 
pctrosa,  cement^  or  cortical  s/fbstancc,  resembling  in  structure  and 
composition  true   hone. 

42.  Four  rules  may  be  laid  down,  the  observance  of  which 
will  tend  to  the  preservation  of  the  teeth :  i.  Avoid  extremely 
hot  food  or  drink.  2.  Avoid  extremely  cold  food  or  drink.  3. 
Avoid  sweet  fond.  4.  Avoid  sour  food.  Now  the  first  two  rules 
need  no  modification,  hut  in  regard  to  the  last  two  we  will  simply 
say  you  may  eat  as  much  as  you  desire  of  sweet  and  sour,  provided 
always  that  you  clean  your  teeth  after  eating.  Acids  injure  the 
teeth,  and  sweet  foods  form  acids  hy  fermentation,  a  process  which 
takes  place  when  such  food  remains  a  short  time  in  a  warm  place 
exposed  to  the  air.  Extremes  of  heat  and  cold  crack  the  enamel 
and  allow  air  to  enter  to  the  dentine,  and  thus  cause  decay.  Crack- 
ing nuts,  biting  thread  and  picking  the  teeth  with  a  knife  blade  or 
metal  tooth-pick  will  injure  the  enamel.  The  temporary  teeth 
should  he  removed  in  many  cases,  that  the  permanent  set  may  grow 
regularly.  When  permanent  teeth  are  crowded  in  consequence  of 
a  narrow  jaw,  the  removal  of  one  or  more  may  he  necessary. 
Teeth  may  be  extracted  and  replaced,  and  even  removed  from  one 
person  to  another,  and  grow  solid  and  tight  in  the  jaw.  Some 
persons  have  teeth  naturally  SO  good  that  they  wear  out  before 
they  decay,  while  the  teeth  of  others  will  decay  before  they  have 
reached  their  maturity. 

43.  The  salivary  glands  are  three,  the  parotid,  the  submax- 
illary and  the  sublingual.  The  parotid  is  the  largest,  located  im- 
mediately below  and  in  front  of  the  ear.  It  communicates  with  the 
mouth  hy  means  of  Stents  duct,  which  opens  on  the  inner  side  of 
the  cheek,  opposite  the  second  molar  tooth  of  the  upper  jaw.  The 
submaxillary,  next  in  size,  located  below  the  angle  of  the  lower 
jaw,  and  communicates  with  the  mouth  by  means  of  Wharton's 
duct,  which  opens  on  the  floor  of  the  mouth.  The  sublingual,  the 
smallest,  is  beneath  the  tongue.  It  has  from  8  to  20  ducts  (ductus 
Riviniani),  one  or  more  of  which  form  a  tube  which  joins  Whar- 
ton's duct,  called  the  duct  of  Bartholine.  The  salivary  glands  consist 
of  numerous  lobes,  which  again  are  made  up  of  smaller  lobules, 
each  of  which  consists  of  numerous  vesicles  opening  into  a  com- 
mon duct.  The  saliva  secreted  by  these  glands  is  a  ckar,  some- 
what viscid  fluid,  of  an  alkaline  reaction,  and  consisting  mostly  of 
water. 

44.  The  liver,  the  largest  glandular  organ  in  the  body,  is  lo- 
cated mostly  in  the  light  side  of  the  abdomen,  just  helow  the  dia- 
phragm. It  is  from  10  to  12  inches  transversely,  6  to  7  antero- 
posteriorly  and  about  3  inches  thick  in  its  thickest  part,  and  weighs 
from  3  to  4  lbs.  Looking  at  the  under  surface,  5  Assures  may  he 
seen,  which  divide  it  into  5  unequal  lobes.  In  structure  the  liver 
consists  of  a  mass  of  lobules  held  together  by  areolar  tissue,  among 


PHrSIOLOGY.  16!) 

which  ramify  the  portal  vein,  the  hepatic  duct,  hepatic  veins,  he- 
patic artery,  lymphatics  and  nerves.  The  bile,  the  secretion  of  the 
liver,  is  collected  hy  numerous  ducts  which  unite  to  form  the  he- 
patic duct,  which  receives  as  it  issues  from  the  liver  the  cystic  duct, 
coming  from  the  gall  bladder,  the  two  forming  the  ductus  com- 
munis  cholcdochus,  opening  into  the  duodenum.  The  gall  bladder 
is  a  membranous  sac  attached  to  the  under  surface  of  the  liver,  and 
is  the  reservoir  of  the  bile.  The  bile  is  a  clear,  yellowish,  some- 
what tenacious  fluid,  neutral  in  reaction  and  composed  of  about  97 
per  cent,  water,  with  certain  characteristic  ingredients,  biliary  salts 
and  several  mineral  salts. 

45.  The  pancreas,  a  long,  flattened  gland,  located  behind  the 
stomach.  Its  length  is  from  6  to  S  inches,  breadth  [A  inches,  and 
thickness  from  1  to  1  inch,  and  weighs  about  3  oz.  It  is  similar  in 
structure  to  the  salivary  glands.  It  secretes  the  pancreatic  fluid, 
which  is  almost  identical  with  saliva,  and  is  emptied  into  the  du- 
odenum through  the  pancreatic  duct,  or  canal  of  Wirsung. 

46.  The  spleen,  located  to  the  left  of  the  stomach,  is  classified 
as  a  ductless,  or  blood  gland.  It  is  oblong,  flattened,  varying  much 
in  size,  but  usually  about  5  inches  in  length  and  3  or  4  in  breadth, 
and  1  y2  in  thickness,  weighing  about  7  oz.  It  has  arteries,  veins 
and  lymphatics,  but  no  excretory  duct.  Its  use  is  not  well  deter- 
mined but  it  is  thought  that  it  acts  as  a  kind  of  reservoir  for  surplus 
blood  during  digestion,  and  that  it  effects  some  changes  in  the  na- 
ture of  the  blood. 

47.  Of  the  processes  which  food  undergoes  in  order  to  pre- 
pare it  for  supporting  the  body  the  first  is  mastication  and  insali- 
vation.  The  food  is  kept  between  the  jaws  by  the  action  of  the 
tongue  and  cheeks,  and  being  moistened  by  the  saliva  is  by  the 
grinding  action  of  the  teeth  reduced  to  a  pulp  which  is  now  ready 
for  deglutition  or  swallowing.  It  then  passes  into  the  pharynx 
and  is  prevented  from  going  into  the  larynx  by  the  epiglottis  (82) 
over  which  it  glides  into  the  oesophagus,  which  by  the  alternate  rel- 
axation and  contraction  of  its  circular  muscular  fibers  forces  it  on 
to  the  stomach  where  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  gastric  juice. 
The  muscles  of  the  stomach  keep  up  a  kind  of  churning  action 
which  thoroughly  mixes  the  food  and  permits  the  gastric  juice  to 
come  in  contact  with  every  part  of  it.  This  process  is  continued 
until  the  food  is  converted  into  chyme  which  then  passes  into  the 
small  intestines  where  it  receives  the  bile  and  pancreatic  fluid,  also 
the  intestinal  juices  from  the  intestinal  glands,  and  it  is  converted 
into  a  milky  white  fluid  called  chyle.  This  is  taken  up  by  the  lac- 
teals  (73)  and  passed  into  the  blood,  and  thus  reaches  every  part 
of  the  system  where  nourishment  is  needed.  The  waste  portions 
pass  along  the  intestines  and  are  excreted  from  the  body.  The 
effect  of  the  saliva  is  mainly  to  change  the  starch  of  the  food  into 
.sugar.      This  change   takes  place  partly  in  the    mouth  but  is  contin- 


170  TEACH  Ells    AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRARY. 

ued  in  the  stomach.  Besides  moistening  the  food  and  thus  aiding 
in  mastication  and  deglutition  it  is  an  aid  to  taste,  i"<>r  substances  to 
have  a  flavor  must  l>c  in  a  state  of  solution.  It  also  keeps  the  in- 
terior of  the  month  moist  and  prevents  the  disagreeable  sensation  of 
dryness.  The  gastric  juice  dissolves  the  albuminous  portions  of 
the  food  and  also  effects  certain  chemical  changes. 

The  bile,  though  primarily  an  excretion,  or  waste  material, 
seems  to  effect  some  changes  in  the  food,  especially  on  the  fatty 
material,  preparing  it  for  absorption  by  the  lacteals.  The  pan- 
creatic  fluid  has  an  action  similar  to  the  saliva  converting  starch 
into  sugar.  The  secretion  from  Brunner's  glands  seems  to  perform 
also  a  similar  office  as  well  as  an  office  similar  to  that  of  the  gastric 
juice.  The  follicles  of  Lieberkuhn secrete  a  fluid  the  use  of  which 
in  digestion  is  not  well  understood. 

48.  "  By  the  term  food,  or  aliment,  we  denote  such  solid  sub- 
stances as  are  capable  or  being  converted  into  chyle,  and  such  liquid 
substances  as  can  be  readily  absorbed  for  the  wants  of  the  system. 
In  some  parts  of  the  world,  however,  mineral  substances,  such  as 
earth,  are  occasionally  eaten  alone  or  mixed  with  bread,  but  no  such 
nutriment  is  derived  from  such  articles."  As  to  nutritive  value, 
foods  may  be  classified  as  follows: — 

I.  I Iistogknktic,  sometimes  called  nitrogenous,  or  azotized,  as  all  ot"  this 
class  contain  nitrogen,  also  called  albuminoids,  i.  e.  resembling  albumen  a  sub- 
stance found  nearly  pure  in  the  white  of  an  egg. 

i.     Albumen  fropcr. 

2.  Casein,  found  in  milk.     It  forms  the  principal  part  of  cheese. 

3.  Fibrin,  the  principal  part  of  lean  meat. 

4.  Vegetable  Casein,  found  in  beans,  peas,  and  some  other  vegetables. 

5.  Gluten,  found  in  all  grains,  especially  in  wheat. 

II.  Calorifacientt,  contains  no  nitrogen,  hence  called  non-nitrogenous 
or  non-azotized. 

1.  Carbo-hydrates,  those  in  which  carbon  predominates. 

(a)  Amylaceous,  or  food  containing  starch,  as  grains,  seeds,  roots,  and 
many  fruits. 

(b)  Saccharine,  food  containing  sugar. 

(c)  Gum. 

(d)  Cellulose,  or  woody  fiber. 

2.  Hydro-carbons,  those  in  which  hydrogen  predominates, 
(a)     Oleaginous,  food  containing  oils  and  fats. 

The  tVxxls  of  tlie  fust  class,  or  tissue  making  tend  toward  nourishing  the 
system,  supplying  the  material  which  forms  bone,  muscle,  nerve,  etc.,  and  is  in 
constant  demand  to  supply  the  waste  which  is  constantly  going  on, and  to  main- 
tain the  growth  of  the  body.  Those  ot'  the  second  class,  or  heat  making,  are 
burned  up  in  the  system  and  thus  keep  up  the  animal  heal. 

49.  The  following  hygienic  inferences  may  be  drawn  from 
the  nature  of  food:  A  mixed  diet  is  generally  preferable, 
but,  as  the  vegetable  kingdom  contains  nitrogenous,  or  histogenetic 
food  material,  a  person  can,  by  proper  selection  of  food,  do  well  on 
an  exclusively  vegetable  diet.      As  animal  food  is  more    stimulating 

ami  more  highly  concentrated,  the  greater  bulk  of  our  food  should 


PHTSIOLOGT.  171 

be  vegetable.      As  more   animal   heat  is    required  in   winter  than  in 
summer,  our  food  should   be   regulated  accordingly;  more   starch, 

sugar,  fat,  etc.,  than  meat,  should  be  eaten  in  winter. 

Some  kinds  of  food  are  more  easily  digested  than  others.  Va- 
riety is  essential,  as  an  exclusive  use  of  easily  digestible  food 
will  weaken  the  organs  from  want  of  proper  exercise,  and 
an  exclusive  use  of  food  difficult  of  digestion  will  overwork 
the  organs.  Food  should  be  coarse  rather  than  fine,  or  rather 
more  bulky  than  too  highly  concentrated.  Graham  bread, 
corn  bread,  oat  meal,  fruits  and  vegetables,  will  make  a  more 
healthful  diet  than  meat,  and  bread  made  from  fine  flour.  The  in- 
testines need  a  gentle  stimulus  to  maintain  their  proper  action. 
This  stimulus  is  given  by  coarse  food.  Habit,  however,  has  much 
to  do  with  it.  Persons  inclined  to  constipation  should  use  coarse 
food. 

50.  As  to  the  amount  of  food  necessary  to  the  system,  it  is 
impossible  to  lay  down  rules.  It  should  vary:  (i)  With  age, 
persons  while  growing  need  more  food  than  at  other  times;  (2) 
temperature,  more  being  required  in  winter  aid  in  a  cold  climate 
than  in  summer  or  in  hot  climates;  (3)  exercise,  those  persons 
whose  occupations  demand  more  muscular  exercise  need  more 
food  to  supply  the  waste;  (4)  temperament,  persons  of  active  tem- 
perament needing  more  than  those  of  a  sluggish  temperament;  (5) 
habits,  much  depends  on  what  persons  accustom  themselves  to; 
most  persons  eat  more  than  is  really  necessary ;  (6)  mental  condi- 
tion, under  a  depressed  state  of  mind  the  digestive  organs  do  not 
work  so  well  and  a  less  amount  of  food  should  be  taken. 

51.  Food  should  be  from  animals  or  plants  in  a  healthy  condi- 
tion, be  -well  cooked  and  prepared  with  care  as  to  cleanliness  and 
served  in  such  a  variety  of  forms  as  to  please  the  taste.  A  variety 
from  day  to  day  but  not  too  great  a  variety  at  one  meal,  merely  to 
provoke  the  appetite  is  best.  We  should  eat  slowly,  taking  plenty 
of  time  to  masticate  thoroughly  and  giving  the  stomach  time  to 
provide  the  proper  amount  of  gastric  juice.  Cheerful  conversa- 
tion and  flow  of  humor  at  the  table  will  aid  digestion.  Grief  or 
fright  arrests  digestion.  We  should  not  take  great  quantities  of 
liquid  with  our  food  as  it  dilutes  the  gastric  juice  and  digestion 
cannot  go  on  so  well  until  it  is  absorbed  by  the  vessels  of  the 
stomach.  Avoid  extremely  hot  and  extremely  cold  food  and  drink 
as  the  former  unduly  stimulates  the  mucous  lining  of  the  mouth  and 
stomach,  ami  the  latter  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  stomach  be- 
low the  degree  proper  for  digestion.  It  is  not  best  to  eat  just 
before  or  just  after  severe  physical  or  mental  exercise,  as  the  vital 
forces  being  concentrated  somewhere  else  cannot  be  given  to  the 
stomach.  Hearty  meals  should  not  be  taken  just  before  going  to 
sleep,  as  the  stomach  needs  all  the  nervous  power  of  waking  mo- 
ments. 


172  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS  LIBRARY. 

Pure  air  for  the  lungs,  and  the  skin  kept  clean  are  necessary  to 
have  pure  blood,  and  without  pure  blood  there  can  be  no  good  diges- 
tion. A  daily  attention  to  the  evacuation  of  the  alimentary  canal  is 
also  necessary  to  pure  blood,  as  the  waste  matter  in  the  intestines  if 
not  evacuated  will  be  absorbed  and  taken  into  the  blood,  where  it  be- 
comes an  irritant  poison.  If  you  would  keep  your  health,  by  all  means 
avoid  everything  tending  to  constipation.  Attention  to  such  mat- 
ters should  be  more  than  religiously  observed.  So  long  as  the  oc- 
cupation and  the  hours  of  sleep  are  regular  the  time  of  eating  should 
be  regular.  Habit  has  much  to  do  with  the  frequency  of  eating. 
The  system  may  adapt  itself  to  one,  two,  three  or  four  meals  a  day, 
just  as  one   may  habituate  himself. 

52.  The  organs  of  the  circulatory  system  are  the  heart,  the 
arteries,  the  veins,  and  the  capillaries.  The  heart  is  a  muscular  or- 
gan,  hollow,  and  of  a  conical  form,  located  between  the  lungs,  the 
greater  part  being  to  the  left  of  the  median  line  of  the  body.  b 
lies  obliquely,  the  broadest  part  or  base  extending  upward  and  back- 
ward to  the  right,  the  apex  downward,  forward  and  to  the  left.  A 
line  drawn  perpendicularly  to  the  axis  of  the  body  along  the  upper 
border  of  the  cartilage  of  the  3d  rib  will  mark  the  upper  portion. 
The  apex  corresponds  to  the  space  between  the  cartilages  of  the 
5th  and  6th  ribs  and  may  be  felt  beating  two  inches  below  the  left 
nipple.  It  usually  measures  5  inches  in  length,  3^  inches  in 
breadth,  and  zy2  inches  in  thickness,  and  weighs  from  8  to  1  2  oz., 
being  heavier  in  the  male  than  in  the  fem.de.  It  is  divided  into 
two  lateral  halves  by  a  longitudinal  septum,  each  half  being  divided 
by  a  transverse  constriction  into  two  cavities,  the  lower  called  ven- 
tricles, the  upper,  auricles.  The  right  side  of  the  heart  receives 
and  discharges  the  venous,  or  impure  blood,  the  left  the  arterial,  or 
pure  blood.  The  walls  of  the  auricles  are  thinner  than  those  of 
the  ventricles.  The  heart  is  surrounded  with  a  fibro-serous  mem- 
brane which  is  reflected  so  as  to  form  a  sac  containing  a  fluid,  which 
prevents  friction.     This  investment  is  called  the  pericardium. 

53.  The  right  auricle  is  a  little  larger  than  the  left,  with  thin- 
ner walls  and  exhibits  on  dissection: — 

I.  Openings. 

1.  The  mouth   of  the   superior  vena  cava,  or  the   large  venous  trunk 
which  brings  the  blood  from  the  upper  part  of  the  body. 

2.  The  mouth  of  the  inferior  vena  cava,  the  venous   trunk  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  b  dy. 

3.  The   coronary    sinus,  or   the   mouth   of  the    vein  which    returns  the 
blood  from  the  heart  itself. 

4.  Foramina    Thcbesii,  the    mouth  of  the  small  veins  which  return  blood 
from  the  substance  of  the  heart. 

5.  A uriculo- ventricular,  or  the  opening  into  the  ventricle. 

II.  Valves. 

1.  The  Eustachian,  serve  to  direct  the   blood    across  to  the  left  auricle 
through  the  foramen  ovale  previous  to  birth. 

2.  Coronarv,  prevents  the  blood  from  flowing  back  into  the  coronary  vein. 


PHYSIOLOGY.  173 

54.  The  right  ventricle  is  of  the  same  size  as  the  left,  but  with 
thinner  walls  presenting: — 

I.  Openings. 

1.  Auriculo-  ventricular. 

2.  Of  the  pulmonary  artery  which  carries  the  blood  to  the  lungs. 

II.  Valves. 

i.     Tricuspid,  which  guards  the  auriculo-ventricular  opening  preventing 
the  return  of  the  blood  to  the  auricle. 

2.     Semilunar,  prevents  the  return  of  blood  from  the  pulmonary  artery. 

III.  Attachments  of  the  tricuspid  valve, 
i.     Columns  carnae. 

2.     Chorda'  tendinae. 

55.  The  left  auricle  exhibits: — 

i.     The  openings  of  the  pulmonary  veins,  4    in  number,  2   on    the  right 
and  2  on  the  left  not  provided  with  valves. 
2.     The  auriculo-ventricular  opening. 

56.  The  left  ventricle  exhibits: — 

I.  Openings. 

1.  Auriculo-ventricular. 

2.  Aortic. 

II.  Valves. 

1.  Mitral,  guarding   the    auriculo-ventricular   opening    and  preventing 
the  return  of  the  blood  to  the  auricle. 

2.  Semilunar,  guarding  the  aortic  opening  and  preventing  the  return  of 
the  blood  from  the  aorta. 

III.  Attachments  of  the  mitral  valve. 

1.  Chordae  tendinae. 

2.  Columnar  carnae. 

57.  The  endocardium  is  a  serous  membrane  lining  the  internal 
surface  of  the  heart,  assisting  in  forming  its  valves,  and  is  con- 
tinued into  the  greater  blood-vessels.  The  heart  in  intimate  struct- 
ure consists  of  muscular  fibers  intricately  interlaced,  and  of  fibrous 
rings  surrounding  the  auriculo-ventricular  and  arterial  orifices  and 
serving  for  the  attachment  of  the  muscular  fibers. 

58.  The  arteries  are  cylindrical,  tubular,  elastic  vessels  which 
convey  the  blood  from  the  ventricles  to  all  parts  of  the  body.  With 
the  exception  of  the  pulmonary  artery  which  conveys  impure  or 
venous  blood  from  the  right  ventricle  to  the  lungs,  they  carry  pure, 
or  oxygenated  blood.  The  svstemic  arteries,  or  those  which  carry 
blood  to  the  body  for  its  nourishment,  commence  in  one  grand  trunk, 
the  aorta  from  which  they  branch  like  a  tree  until  they  have  pene- 
trated every  part  of  the  body  except  the  hairs,  nails,  epidermis, 
cartilages  and  cornea.  The  usual  mode  of  division  is  dichotomous^ 
but  sometimes  several  branches  are  given  off  at  one  point.  The 
branches  communicate  with  one  another  in  many  places  forming 
what  are  called  anastomoses.  This  arrangement  is  of  peculiar 
interest  to  the  surgeon,  as  by  this  means  the  blood  flows  around,  or 
a  collateral  circulation  is  established,  in  the  case  of  tying  an  artery. 
The  combined  area  of  all  the  branches  greatly  exceeds  that  of  the 


174  '/'/■:.  1  ( '.HER&  .  l.V />  S TUDENTS '   A //>'/,'  I    ' 

aorta  so  that  the  arterial  system  may  be  considered  as  a  cone,  the 
apex  of  which  is  the  aorta.  The  large  arteries  in  their  course 
through  the  body  generally  run  very  deep  following  near  the  bones. 

59.  The  aorta  is  about  an  inch  in  diameter  and  commences  at 
the  upper  part  of  the  left  ventricle  making  a  curve  or  arch  as  it  first 
ascends  behind  the  sternum,  upward  and  forward  toward  the  right, 
then  passes  from  left  to  right,  and  from  before  backward  toward 
the  left  side  of  the  third  dorsal  vertebra,  then  descends  along  the 
left  side  of  the  spine  to  the  lower  border  of  the  fourth  dorsal  ver- 
tebra where  it  takes  the  name  of  the  thoracic  aorta.  The  portion 
described  is  called  the  arch,  and  is  divided  into  the  ascending,  trans- 
verse  and  descending'  portions.  The  tJioracic  aorta  extends  to  the 
opening  of  the  diaphragm  in  front  of  the  last  dorsal  where  it  takes 
the  name  of  the  abdominal  aorta  which  terminates  on  the  left  side 
of  the  fourth  lumbar  vertebra  where  it  divides  to  form  the  common 
iliac  arteries. 

60.  The  aorta  gives  off  from  its  arch  generally  five  branches; 
two  small  ones,  the  right  and  left  coronary,  are  given  off  from  the 
ascending  portion  and  supply  the  heart  itself  with  blood;  and  three 
larger  ones,  from  the  transverse  portion  the  innominate,  the  left 
carotid  and  the  left  subclavian.  The  innominate  artery  ascends  and 
opposite  the  sterno-clavicular  articulation  divides  into  the  right  caro- 
tid and  right  subclavian.  The  two  carotid  arteries  pass  one  on  each 
side  of  the  neck,  and  divide  opposite  the  thyroid  cartilage  into  the 
internal  and  externa/  which  supply  respectively  the  brain  and  out- 
side of  the  head  and  face.  The  external  carotid  may  be  felt  pulsating 
under  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  a  branch  of  it,  the  temporal,  may  be 
felt  in  front  of  the  ears.  The  subclavian  arteries  supply  the  upper 
extremities  and  part  of  the  chest,  one  branch  the  vertebral,  passing 
up  along  the  spinal  column,  enters  the  brain  and  communicates  with 
the  internal  carotid.  The  suhclavians  take  the  name  of  axillary 
arteries  under  the  arm  and  brachial  in  the  upper  arm,  dividing  into 
the  ulnar  and  radial  in  the  forearm.  The  radial  may  be  felt  at  the 
wrist  and  is  known  as  "the  pulse." 

61.  The  com  men  iliac  arteries  which  arise  by  a  division  of  the 
abdominal  aorta  (59),  are  about  2  inches  in  length.  They  diverge 
from  the  aorta  and  divide  opposite  the  articulation  of  the  last  lum- 
bar vertebra  and  the  sacrum,  into  the  internal  and  external  iliacs. 
The  former  sends  branches  to  the  organs  within  the  pelvis, and  to  its 
walls  and  to  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh.  The  latter  extends  to  the 
thigh  where  it  takes  the  name  of  the  femoral  artery  which  continues 
along  the  inner  side  of  the  thigh  to  near  the  lower  part  where  it 
becomes  the  popliteal  artery.  This  artery  divides  below  the  knee 
to  form  the  anterior  and  posterior  tibial  arteries. 

62.  The  abdominal  aorta  gives  ofF  some  important  brain  ins 
the  principal  of  which  is  the  cozliac  axis,  a  short,  thick  trunk  which 
arises  at   the  margin  of  the  diaphragm  and  divides  into  the  gastric 


PHTSIOLOG1'.  173 

hepatic  and  splenic  arteries  supplying  respectively  the  stomach, 
liver  and  spleen.  The  superior  and  inferior  mesenteries  arise  helow 
the  cocliac  axis  and  supply  the  internes. 

63.  The  veins  are  the  system  of  tubes  which  return  the  im- 
pure blood  from  the  body  to  the  right  auricle  with  the  exception  of 
the  pulmonary  veins  which  return  the  oxygenized,  or  pure  blood 
from  the  lungs  to  the  left  auricle.  The  systemic  veins  are  found  in 
nearly  every  part  of  the  body  and  unite  in  two  great  trunks,  the 
superior  vena  cava  receiving  the  blood  of  the  upper  half,  and  the 
inferior  vena  cava  the  blood  from  the  lower  half  of  the  body. 
Veins  are  not  so  elastic  as  the  arteries,  and  collapse  when  empty. 
They  contain  folds  called  valves  on  the  inner  side.  They  are  divi- 
ded into  three  sets:  (i)  supcrjiciul,  found  near  the  surface  or  im- 
mediately beneath  the  skin;  (2)  the  deep, found  accompanying  the 
arteries  and  usually  enclosed  in  the  same  sheath  with  them ;  (3) 
the  sinuses,  venous  channels  found  only  on  the  interior  of  the  skull 
and  formed  by  a  separation  of  the  layers  of  dura  mater.  The  veins 
anastomose  with  each  other  the  same  as  the  arteries,  and  are  alto- 
gether more  numerous. 

64.  The  principal  deep  veins  take  similar  names  and  follow 
nearly  the  same  course  as  the  arteries.  They  are  called  the  vena 
comitcs.  The  blood  from  the  stomach,  intestines  and  spleen  is  col- 
lected by  the  gastric,  inferior  and  superior  mesenteric  a?id  splenic 
veins  which  unite  in  one  common  trunk,  the  portal  vein  which 
ramifies  through  the  substance  of  the  liver,  and  is  again  taken  up  by 
the  hepatic  veins,  three  in  number,  and  conveyed  to  the  inferior  vena 
cava.  This  is  known  as  the  portal  circulation.  The  puhnonary 
veins,  four  in  number,  return  the  blood  from  the  lungs  in  a  purified 
condition  to  the  left  auricle. 

65.  The  capillaries  are  the  minute  network  of  vessels  which  are 
the  termination  of  the  arteries,  and  the  commencement  of  the  veins. 
They  are  found  in  nearly  every  tissue  of  the  body.  Their  diameter 
varies,  being  usually  about  -snrW  of  an  inch.  Their  walls  consist  of 
fine,  homogeneous  membrane. 

66.  Structure. — The  arteries  are  composed  of  three  coats,  the 
external  cellular,  or  tunica  adventitial,  the  m\cic\\c  Jihrous,  or  circtilar, 
and  the  internal,  serous,  or  epithelial.  The  middle  and  inner  coats 
are  easily  divided  by  the  application  of  a  tight  ligature,  while  the 
outer  coat  will  remain  uninjured.  The  veins  have  also  three  coat- 
in  structure  nearly  like  those  of  the  arteries,  the  principal  difference 
being  the  comparative  weakness  of  the-  middle  coat.  The  valves 
are  formed  by  a  reduplication  of  the  middle  and  inner  coats,  semi- 
lunar in  form  and  arranged  so  that  the  blood  will  pass  readily  inone 
direction,  but  not  in  the  other. 

67.  The  process  of  circulation  is  as  follows:  The  blood  in  the 
capillaries  in  all  parts  of  the  body  having  performed  its  office,  is  col- 
lected by  the  veins  which  continue  to  unite  in  larger  trunks  until  it 


176  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS  LIBRARY 

is  poured  by  two  main  trunks,  the  vena  cava  inferior  and  superior, 
into  the  right  auricle  from  which  it  passes  through  the  auriculo- ven- 
tricular opening  into  the  right  ventricle,  being  prevented  from  re- 
turning by  the  tricuspid  valve.     ISy  the  contraction  of  the  ventricle 

it  is  forced  into  the  pulmonary  artery,  through  the  semilunar  valves 
which  prevent  its  return.  The  pulmonary  artery  conveys  it  to  the 
lungs,  distributing  it  to  every  part  by  its  minute  ramification.  Here 
it  receives  oxygen  from  the  air  and  gives  off  carbon  in  the  form  of 
carbonic  oxide,  and  is  again  collected  by  the  pulmonary  veins  and 
returned  to  the  left  auricle.  It  now  has  a  bright-red  appearance. 
From  the  left  auricle  it  descends  through  the  a uriculo- ventricular 
opening,  prevented  from  returning  by  the  mitral  valve.  By  the 
contraction  of  the  ventricle  it  is  forced  into  the  aorta,  prevented 
from  regurgitation  by  the  semilunar  valves.  From  the  aorta  it  is 
distributed  through  every  part  of  the  body.  There  is  then  a  double 
circulation,  tin.  right  side  of  the  heart  engaged  in  receiving  the  impure- 
blood  and  sending  it  to  the  lungs,  from  whence  it  is  returned  purified 
to  the  heart.  This  is  called  t  he  "pulmonary  <  irculation.  The  left  side 
of  the  heart  receives  the  blood  made  pure  by  the  lungs  and  distrib- 
utes it  to  the  various  parts  of  the  bod\  from  which  it  is  brought  back 
by  the  veins.  This  is  called  the  systemic  circulation.  The  passage 
of  the  blood  from  the  organs  of  digestion  through  the  liver  is  a 
subordinate  act,  before  mentioned  as>  the  portal  circulation.  f<->-j-). 
The  passage  of  the  blood  through  the  capillaries  is  sometimes  desig- 
nated as  the  capillary  circulation. 

68.  Although  the  heart  propels  the  blood  with  considerable 
force  into  the  arteries,  its  action  will  not  account  for  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  circulation.  The  apparatus  of  the  portal  circulation  com- 
mences in  a  capillary  system  and  ends  in  one  without  a  propelling 
organ  analogous  to  a  heart.  This  fact  is  pointed  out  by  Draper  to 
show  that  the  cause  of  circulation  must  be  looked  for  in  something 
Other  than  the  contractions  and  dilations  of  the  heart.  Fishes 
have  no  true  heart,  but  the  blood  is  sent  from  the  capillaries  of  the 
gills  to  the  aorta,  and  from  thence  to  the  systemic  capillaries.  The 
circulation  of  the  fish  is  thus  seen  to  be  analogous  to  the  portal  cir- 
culation in  man.  The  causes  of  circulation  in  man  are,  no  doubt, 
various.  The  arterialization  of  the  blood  in  the  lungs,  the  action 
of  the  heart,  the  elasticity  of  the  arteries,  the  valves  in  the  veins, 
the  action  of  the  muscles  and  capillary  attraction  or  osmose,  all  are 
concerned  in  the  motion  of  the  blood  through  the  system.  (See 
Draper's  Human  Physiology.) 

69.  The  motions  of  the  heart  consist  of  alternate  contraction 
(systole)  and  relaxation  (diastole)  of  its  walls.  The  two  auricles 
contract  simultaneously  at  the  same  time  that  the  two  ventricles  relax, 
and  vice  versa.  When  the  ventricles  contract,  the  heart  is  tilted  so 
that  the  apex  strikes  the  walls  of  the  chest.  The  heart  pulsates  on 
an  average  in    the    adult    about    yo   times    per    minute,    being    much 


PHTSIOLOGT.  177 

greater  in  infancy  and  youth  and  less  in  old  age.  At  birth  it  is  130 
to  140  per  minute.  It  is  more  frequent  in  women  than  in  men,  less 
frequent  during  sleep  than  when  awake,  more  frequent  after  eating 
and  during  exercise.  It  varies  greatly  in  diseased  conditions. 
During  each  pulsation  two  distinct  sounds  may  be  heard.  The  first 
is  dull  and  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  ventricles  and  the 
striking  of  the  apex  against  the  walls  of  the  chest,  also  by  the 
opening  of  the  semilunar  valves  and  the  rush  of  blood  into  the  pul- 
monary artery  and  aorta.  The  second  sound  is  sharp  and  caused  by 
the  shutting  of  the  semilunar  valves  of  the  aorta  and  pulmonary 
artery.  There  is  an  interval  of  silence  between  the  second  and  first 
sounds. 

70.  The  blood  in  a  human  being  amounts  to  about  one-eighth 
of  the  weight  of  the  body,  or  in  a  person  of  average  size  about  10 
quarts.  It  is  a  little  heavier  than  water,  and  is  of  a  bright-scarlet 
color  in  the  systemic  arteries,  and  of  a  dark-red  color  in  the  system- 
ic veins.  It  has  a  slightly  alkaline  or  saline  taste,  and  an  odor  pe- 
culiar to  itself.  Fresh  blood  consists  of  a  transparent  liquid  called 
plasma,  or  liquor  sanguinis,  in  which  float  numbers  of  bodies  called 
cells,  corpuscles,  globules,  or  disks.  These  cells  are  of  two  kinds, 
red  and  white.  The  red  corpuscles  are  circular  disks,  appearing 
concave  on  both  sides  in  profile.  When  seen  singly  they  are  of  a 
shghtly  yellow  tinge,  but  when  seen  in  masses  they  appear  red  and 
give  the  blood  its  characteristic  color.  In  man  the  red  blood  cor- 
puscles are  on  an  average  about  s^m  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  the  white 
corpuscles  being  a  little  larger.  In  some  of  the  lower  animals  as 
in  the  frog  and  turtle,  the  red  corpuscles  are  oval  in  shape  and  much 
larger  than  in  man.  The  proportion  of  red  and  white  corpuscles  is 
variously  estimated  :  300  or  400  red  to  one  white  ( Harley  ),  50  to  one, 
(Todd  &  Bowman),  others  a  much  less  proportion  of  the  white. 
The  blood  on  standing  about  10  minutes  after  being  drawn  from  the 
body  coagulates,  separating  into  serum,  a  thin  fluid  consisting  mostly 
of  water  holding  mineral  salts  in  solution  with  some  albumen,  and 
clot  or  coagulum  which  is  composed  of  fibrin  and  the  corpuscles. 
The  fibrin  is  in  a  state  of  solution  in  the  plasma,  and  the  coagulation 
arises  from  the  tendency  which  fibrin  has  to  collect  together  form- 
ing an  agglutinated  mass  in  which  the  corpuscles  are  entangled. 
The  fibrin  may  be  separated  from  fresh  blood  by  beating  it  with  a 
stick.  As  to  the  cause  of  coagulation  it  is  very  probable  that  the 
blood  is  constantly  coagulating  in  the  system,  and  the  fibrin  thus 
formed  is  being  immediately  used  in  building  up  the  tissues  and  sup- 
plying waste.  The  muscle  fibrin,  or  syntonin  does  not  differ  greatly 
from  the  blood  fibrin.      (See  Draper's  Human  Physiology.) 

71.  The  function  of  the  red  corpuscles  seems  to  be  that  of 
conveyors  of  oxygen  to  the  various  tisMies  of  the  body.  The  ani- 
mal heat  is  maintained  by  the  union  of  oxygen  with  the  carbon  of 
the  tissues.      The  carbonic  oxide  thus  produced    is  given   off  by  the 


178  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARV. 

lungs  and  constitutes  a  great  part  of  the  waste  of  the  system.  The 
use  of  the  white  corpuscles  is  not  certainly  known.  They  are  more 
numerous  after  digestion  of  food,  and  resemble  very  closely  the 
corpuscles  of  lymph  and  chyle  and  the  cells  found  in  pus,  and  it  is 
thought  that  they  are  an  earlier  stage  of  the  reel  corpuscles.  «  For 
every  beat  of  the  pulse,"  says  Draper,  a  nearly  twenty  millions  of 
these  organisms  (corpuscles)  die." 

72.  The  lymphatic,  or  absorptive  system,  consists  of  lymphatic 
vessels  and  lym pliatic  glands.  The  lymphatic  vessels  are  exceed- 
ingly delicate  tubes  of  a  nearly  uniform  thickness,  but  having  a 
knotted  appearance  due  to  valves  in  their  interior.  They  are  found 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  body  with  the  exception  of  the  substance 
of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  the  eyeballs,  tendons,  cartilages,  nails, 
epidermis  and  hair.  It  is  doubtful  whether  they  exist  in  the  sub- 
stance of  the  bones.  They  are  divided  into:  (  i)  superficial,  lying 
immediately  beneath  the  skin  and  accompanying  the  superficial 
veins,  also  near  the  surface  of  the  abdominal,  thoracic  and  cranial 
cavities;  (2)  deep,  accompanying  the  deep  blood-vessels.  In  any 
organ  or  part  the  lymphatic  vessels  are  more  numerous  than  the 
veins,  but  are  much  smaller  ami  anastomose  more  frequently. 
With  the  exception  of  those  of  the  small  intestine  (73)  they  contain 
a  clear  fluid  called  lymph  (75). 

73.  The  lymphatic  vessels  or  the  small  intestine (35)  are  called 
lacteals,  their  office  being  to  take  up  and  carry  into  the  circulation 
the  chyle  (47).  The  lacteals  and  all  the  lymphatics  of  the  body 
except  those  of  the  right  side  of  the  head,  neck  and  thorax,  and  the 
upper  right  extremity,  the  right  lung,  right  side  of  the  heart  and 
the  convex  surface  of  the  liver,  empty  into  one  main  trunk  called 
the  thoracic  duct.  The  thoracic  duct  is  about  18  or  20  inches  in 
length,  extending  from  the  second  lumbar  vertebra  to  the  seventh 
cervical  vertebra  where  it  empties  into  the  left  subclavian  vein  near 
its  junction  with  the  left  internal  jugular.  It  commences  at  the 
lower  extremity  with  a  triangular  dilatation  called  the  receptaculum 
chyli.  It  passes  up  in  front  of  the  spinal  column  through  the  aortic 
opening  in  the  diaphragm.  Its  diameter  is  about  that  of  a  goose 
quill.  The  lymphatics  which  do  not  empty  into  the  thoracic  duct 
unite  into  a  short  trunk  about  one  inch  in  length  and  about  a  line  in 
diameter  which  empties  into  the  light  subclavian  vein  at  its  junction 
with  1  he  right  jugular  vein.  This  duct  is  called  the  right  lymph- 
atic duct. 

74.  The  lymphatic  glands  (absorbent,  or  conglobate  glands) 
arc  small  bodies  situated  in  various  parts  of  the  body  in  the  course 
of  the  lymphatic  vessels.  The  principal  localities  are  in  the  neck, 
in  the  axilla,  groin, popliteal  space  and  in  the  mesenteries  (folds  of 
membrane  which  connect  the  small  intestines  to  the  walls  of  the 
abdomen).  They  are  in  size  from  a  hemp  seed  to  an  almond  and 
of  a  pinkish  gray  color.       The  lymphatic  vessels  pass  through  these 


PHYSIOLOGY.  179 

glands.     In  the    substance    of  the    gland    they   divide    into  several 
branches  which  again  unite  on  leaving  it. 

75.  The  lymphatics  proper,  as  has  been  said,  convey  lymph, 
and  the  lacteals  chyle.  The  composition  of  chyle  differs  very  little 
from  that  of  lymph  except  that  the  chyle  contains  the  oily  globules 
which  give  it  the  milky  white  appearance.  Lymph  differs  but 
little  from  the  serum  of  the  blood  (70).  The  conclusions  are  that 
the  uses  of  the  lymphatics  proper  are  to  collect  the  albuminous 
matter  which  has  transuded  through  the  blood-vessels  or  been  set 
free  by  the  tearing  down  of  the  tissues,  and  which  is  in  a  certain 
sense  waste  material,  and  by  means  of  the  lymphatic  glands  to 
convert  it  into  fibrin  to  be  again  used  in  building  the  tissues. 

The  lacteals  with  their  glands  perform  a  similar  office  upon  the 
albuminous  matter  of  the  food.  The  lymphatics  proper  also  per- 
form another  office.  It  is  well  known  that  certain  medicines  rubbed 
on  the  skin  are  taken  up  by  it  and  carried  into  the  general  circula- 
tion, and  that  persons  bathing  in  water  have  their  thirst  assuaged 
by  the  water  absorbed  through  the  skin.  Persons  have  also  been 
nourished  by  immersing  the  body  in  soup  or  other  nourishing  liquid. 
The  absorbing  vessels  in  such  cases  are  the  lymphatics.  From  this 
fact  we  infer  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  skin  clean,  as  the  materi- 
als thrown  out,  or  excreted  by  the  skin  are  poisonous  to  the  system, 
and  if  allowed  to  remain  on  the  surface  they  are  liable  to  be  again 
absorbed  along  with  other  deleterious  matter  that  may  be  with  it 
on  the  body.  A  great  number  of  diseases  might  be  prevented  if 
greater  attention  was  paid  to  this  matter.    (96). 

76.  The  veins  also  participate  in  absorption.  Certain  elements 
are  absorbed  in  the  stomach  and  taken  into  the  portal  circulation 
(64).  Medicines  are  absorbed  by  the  veins  of  the  stomach,  and 
when  a  great  quantity  of  water  is  taken  with  the  food  the  greater 
portion  is  absorbed  before  digestion  can  properly  go  on. 

77.  The  organs  of  the  respiratory  system  are  primarily  the 
lungs,  assisted  by  the  larynx,  trachea,  diaphrag?n,  and  the  ribs  and 
muscles  of  the  thorax. 

The  lungs  are  two  in  number,  one  in  each  side  of  the  cavity  of 
the  thorax,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  the  mediastinum. 
The  latter  is  the  space  in  the  median  line  of  the  thorax  extending 
from  the  spinal  column  behind  to  the  sternum  in  front,  and  longi- 
tudinally the  entire  length  of  the  thorax.  It  contains  the  heart, 
some  of  the  larger  blood-vessels, some  important  nerves,  the  trachea, 
oesophagus,  thoracic  duct,  etc.  Each  lung  is  of  a  conical  form,  the 
apex  extending  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  first  rib  and  the  base 
resting  on  the  convex  surface  of  the  diaphragm.  The  external  sur- 
face is  smooth,  convex  and  corresponds  in  form  to  the  interior 
of  the  cavity  of  the  thorax.  The  internal  surface,  or  that  next  the 
mediastinum,  is  concave. 

78.  The  right  lung    is  the  larger;    broader  on   account    of  the 


TEA  ( '  ///•:  A'.s '  .  1 ND  S  TUDENTS*  L I  BR.  I R  ) '. 

heart  being  nearer  the  leftside,  about  an  inchshortei  because  of  the 
diaphragm  rising  higher  on  that  side  to  make  room   for  the  liver; 

.iiul  is  divided  by  fissures  into  three  lobes.  The  left  lung  has  only 
two  lobes.  Each  lung  is  connected  to  the  trachea  and  heart  by 
its  root  which  consists  of  the  bronchial  tube  <>r  main  division  of  the 
trachea, the  pulmonary  artery  (58)  and  the  pulmonary  veins  (64). 
The  two  lungs  taken  together  weigh  about  \i  ounces;  the  right 
weighs  about  two  ounces  more  than  the  left.  They  are  heavier  in 
proportion  to  the  body  in  the  male  than  in  the  female.  The  specific 
gravity  varies  from  345  to  746,  water  being  I, ooo.^  The  color  at 
birth  is  pinkish  white,  growing  darker  as  age  advances. 

79.  The  structure  of  the  substance  of  the  lungs  is  that  of  a 
light,  porous,  spongy  and  elastic  body,  which  will  float  in  water, 
and  gives  a  cracking  sound  when  pressed  by  the  hand.  It  may  be 
said  to  consist  of  parenchyma,  or  cellular  tissue,  bronchi  and  cover- 
ings. The  parenchyma  is  the  main  part  of  the  lung  tissue,  and 
consists  of  lobules  connected  by  interlobular  areolar  tissue  and  each 
consisting  of  the  extremities  of  one  of  the  bronchi  and  the  air  cells, 
which  terminate  it,  and  of  the  ramifications  of  the  pulmonary  ca- 
pillaries, lymphatics  and  nerves.  The  bronchi,  or  divisions  of  the 
trachea,  enter  the  lungs  and  divide  and  subdivide  in  a  dichotomous 
manner;  each  one  of  the  smaller  divisions  entering  a  lobule,  and 
again  dividing,  terminates  in  air  cells  and  intercellular  passages. 
The  coverings  arc  two,  one  external  serous  coat  covering  the  entire 
surface,  and  an  internal  coat  of  areolar  tissue  which  also  extends  in- 
ward between  the  lol  es. 

80.  The  trachea,  or  windpipe,  is  a  cylindrical  tube  made  up  of 
cartilaginous  rings  connected  by  membrane,  and  extending  bom 
opposite  the  5th  cervical  vertebra  to  a  point  opposite  the  3d  dorsal, 
where  it  divides  into  the  two  bronchi,  in  length  about  45^  inches, 
and  from  7>/x  to  an  inch  in  diameter,  being  larger  in  man  than  in 
woman.  The  rings  are  from  16  to  20  in  number,  and  are  not  com- 
plete rings,  one-third  of  the  space  behind  being  filled  up  with  mem- 
brane. 

81.  The  larynx  is  the  organ  of  voice.  It  is  placed  at  the  up- 
per part  of  the  trachea  and  forms  the  projection  in  the  neck  called 
"AdamV  apple."  It  is  larger  in  man  than  in  woman,  and  is 
but  a  continuation  of  the  trachea,  being  made  up  of  cartilages  sim- 
ilar in  structure  to  the  rings  of  the  trachea,  but  of  different  shape. 
The  cartilages  are  9  in  number,  as  follows:  The  thyroid,  the  larg- 
est, and  can  be  felt  externally;  the  cricoid,  below  the  thyroid,  ring- 
like in  form;  the  two  arytenoid;  two  cuneiform;  two  cornicula 
laryngis,  and  tin-  epiglottis. 

82^  The  epiglottis  deserves  special  mention.  It  i-  leaf-like  in 
shape  and  acts  somewhat  like  a  trap  door  to  the  trachea,  rising  to 
admit  the  air  and  closing,  whe/i  food  is  swallowed,  allowing  it  to 
pass  over  it  into    the    cesophagus.       If  we  attempt  to  breathe   and 


piirsioLoc  r.  ibi 

swallow  at  the  same  time,  food  will  pass  into  the  trachea  and  cause 
great  irritation  and  violent  efforts  will  be  made  to  expel  it. 

83.  The  vocal  cords  are  fibrous  bands  covered  with  mucous 
membrane  which  stretch  across  the  interior  of  the  larynx  and  di- 
vide it  into  two  cavities.  There  are  four  of  these  cords,  two  supe- 
rior, or  false,  and  two  interior,  or  true  vocal  cords.  The  space  be- 
tween them  which  admits  the  air  and  forms  the  communication 
between  the  two  cavities  of  the  larynx  is  called  the  glottis,  or  rima 
glottidis.  These  cords  are  made  more  or  less  tense  and  the  form 
of  the  cavity  changed  by  the  action  of  certain  muscles,  and  it  is  by 
their  vibration  combined  with  the  form  of  the  passage  that  the  va- 
rious sounds  arc  produced  as  the  air  passes  through  the  larynx. 

84.  The  diaphragm  is  a  very  important  organ  which,  perhaps 
should  be  classed  with  the  organs  of  respiration.  It  is  a  musculo- 
fibrous  septem  which  divides  the  cavity  of  the  trunk  into  two  parts, 
the  upper  division  containing  the  lungs,  heart,  etc.,  and  called  the 
thorax;  the  lower  division  containing  the  stomach,  intestines,  liver, 
etc.,  anil  called  the  abdomen.  By  its  contraction  and  relaxation  as- 
sisted by  the  muscles  of  the  chest  and  abdomen,  the  thoracic 
cavity  is  alternately    enlarged  and  diminished  in  size. 

85.  The  process  of  respiration  consists  of  two  distinct  acts, 
inspiration  and  expiration.  Inspiration  is  effected  by  the  elevation 
of  the  ribs  and  sternum,  by  their  proper  muscles,  a  depression  of 
the  diaphragm  by  the  contraction  of  its  fibers  and  a  relaxation  of 
the  muscles  of  the  abdomen,  all  of  which  movements  combine  to 
enlarge  the  cavity  of  the  thorax  and  the  air  enters  the  lungs 
through  the  trachea  as  into  a  pair  of  bellows,  by  pressure  from  the 
outside.  Expiration  is  mainly  passive,  as  the  muscles  of  the  chest 
relax,  allowing  the  ribs  and  sternum  to  fall,  and  the  diaphragm  is 
forced  upward  by  the  contraction  of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen. 

86.  The  respirations  per  minute  average  in  the  healthy  adult 
about  i  S,  rarely  ever  exceeding  25,  nor  falling  below  14.  They 
are  more  frequent  in  children  than  in  adults  and  in  women  than 
in  men.  They  are  increased  by  food,  exercise,  moderate  cold, 
stimulating  medicines  and  disease  and  diminished  by  moderate 
heat,  inactivity,  depressing  medicines,  starvation  and  disease. 
Sighing,  yawning,  coughing  and  sneezing  are  modifications  of  the 
respiratory  act,  the  two  former  caused  by  mental  emotions  or  a 
close   atmosphere,  the  two  latter  by  irritation  of  the  air  passages. 

87.  Oxygen  is  taken  into  the  blood  during  the  act  of  respira- 
tion, and  carbon  is  given  out  in  the  form  of  carbonic  anhydride, 
(C  U-.  See  Chemistry).  Animal  heat  is  the  result  mainly  of  the 
chemical  changes  which  take  place,  the  carbon  of  the  tissues 
uniting  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  being  in  a  certain  sense  similar 
to  the  combustion  of  fuel  in  a  stove.  The  fuel  is  mainly  carbon,  the 
combustion   simply  the  combining  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with  it. 

88.  Secretion  is    the    separation    from    the  blood    by    means  of 


182  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS"  LIBRART. 

glands,  certain  materials  which  are  in  a  more  or  less  liquid  condi- 
tion. These  materials  answer  certain  purposes  in  the  system, 
either  effecting  certain  chemical  changes,  or  lubricating  surfaces. 
In  some  eases  glands  separate  a  material  which  is  a  mere  waste 
and  must  he  thrown  out  of  the  system.  This  act  is  called  excre- 
tion. The  terms  secretion  and  excretion  are  used  to  denote  the 
products  separated  as  well  as  the  act  of  separation.  Some  liquids, 
as  the  bile,  seem  to  partake  of  the  nature  ofboth  a  secretion  and  an 
excretion.  As  far  ;is  the  food  in  the  intestines  is  concerned,  the 
bile  effecting  certain  changes  upon  it,  it  is  called  a  secretion  of  the 
liver,  hut  in  retrard  to  the  blood,  the  bile  is  a  waste  material  and  is 
excreted  by  the  liver. 

89.  The  principal  secreting  glands  have  been  described.  They 
are  the  salivary  glands,  mucous  -lands,  intestinal  glands,  peptic 
glands,  pancreas  and  liver,  to  which  may  be  added  the  lachrymal 
-lands  of  the  eves,  the  sebaceous  ami  sudorific  -lands  of  the  skin, 
to  be  described  hereafter.  The  principal  excreting  glands  may  be 
mentioned  as  the  liver,  the  kidneys,  the  glands  of  the  skin  and  the 
lungs.  To  sum  up,  all  excreting  organs  are  secreting  also  because 
the  material  is  separated  from  the  blood,  and  all  secreting  organs 
are  excreting  in  the  sense  that  they  throw  out  the  material  secreted, 
but  not  in  the  sense  that  it  is  waste  matter. 

90.  Certain  membranes  as  the  synovial,  serous  and  mucous 
membranes  are  considered  as  secreting  organs,  but  these  are  more 
properly  transuding  organs,  as  the  material  is  merely  strained 
through  the  pores,  unaltered    in  chemical  nature. 

91.  The  kidneys  are  excreting  glands,  situated,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  spinal  column,  extending  from  the  t  ith  rib  to  the  crest 
of  the  ilium,  the  right  one  being  lower  than  the  left.  They  are  in 
the  shape  of  a  bean,  and  in  structure  composed  mainly  of  a  system 
of  tubes  called  the  medullary  substance,  covered  with  agranular 
body  called  the  cortical  substance. 

92.  The  skin,  or  integument,  is  made  up  of  two  layers,  the 
derma,  cutis  vera,  or  true  skin,  and  the  cuticle, OT  epidermis.  The 
derma  is  tough  and  elastic  and  consists  of  fibro-areolar  tissue,  inter- 
mingled with  blood-vessels,  lymphatics  and  nerves  and  within  or 
immediately  beneath  are  sudoriferous,  or  sweat  glands,  sebaceous, 
or  oil  glands  and  hair  follicles,  and  on  the  surface  are  little  projec- 
tions called  papilhc  in  which  the  sensitive  nerves  terminate. 

93.  The  derma  differs  somewhat  in  its  structure  in  the  deep 
and  superficial  parts,  and  hence  is  described  as  composed  of  two 
layers,  the  corium  or  deep  layer  and  the  papillary  or  superficial 
layer.  On  the  general  surface  of  the  body  the  papillae  are  few  in 
number  and  but  slightly  sensitive,  but  on  certain  parts  as  on  the 
palms  of  the  hands,  ends  of  the  fingers,  they  are  very  numerous. 
highly  sensitive  and  arranged  in  parallel  curved  lines.  They  con- 
stitute the  little-  ridges  seen  on  the  palmar  surface  of  the  hand,  giv- 


PHI  SIOLiH.T.  183 

ing  it    the   appearance   of  a  file.       The  corium    varies  in  thickness, 
from  )£  to  i  y2  lines. 

94.  The  epidermis  is  a  non-sensitive  structure  composed  of 
epithelium  and  varies  in  thickness,  being  thickest  in  the  palms  of 
the  hands  and  soles  of  the  feet,  or  where  pressure  is  frequent. 
It  lies  over  and  falls  into  the  spaces  between  the  papillae  of  the  co- 
rium, so  that  the  form  of  the  surface  of  the  latter  is  maintained. 
Its  use  is  to  protect  the  corium  from  injury  and  to  prevent  evapora- 
tion. The  black  color  of  the  negro  and  the  various  complexions 
of  persons  and  the  spots  called  freckles  are  caused  by  a  coloring 
matter,  or  pigment,  in  the  cells  of  the  epidermis.  The  epidermis 
is  constantly  being  thrown  off  in  little  scales  and  replaced  by  a  new 
growth. 

95.  The  part  immediately  beneath  the  skin  is  called  subcuta- 
neous cellular  tissue  and  contains  usually  a  large  amount  of  adi- 
pose tissue,  or  fat.  The  glands,  hair  and  nails  may  be  considered 
as  appendages  of  the  skin. 

96.  The  sebaceous  and  sudoriferous  glands  are  small  and  are 
located  in  the  corium  and  just  beneath  it.  The  former  secrete  an 
oily  liquid  and  are  more  numerous  about  the  face  and  on  the  scalp. 
This  secretion  is  what  makes  the  hair  oily.  The  latter  are  found 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  skin  and  are  the  organs  through  which  a 
large  part  of  the  waste  material  is  thrown  out  of  the  body.  They 
have  spiral  ducts  which  terminate  on  the  surface,  the  openings  called 
pores.  In  the  palm  of  the  hand  there  are  as  many  as  2,800  pores 
to  a  square  inch. 

97.  Hairs  are  modifications  of  the  epidermis.  The  root  of  a 
hair  is  a  bulbous  enlargement  and  is  lodged  in  a  kind  of  sac  called 
a  hair  follicle.  Some  of  the  follicles  are  found  in  the  corium  but 
most  of  them  extend  beneath  it.  The  shaft  or  main  body  of  the 
hair  consists  of  a  fibrous  part  covered  with  scales  and  a  medulla,  or 
marrow  in  the  center.  This  medulla  contains  pigment  cells  which 
give  color  to  the  hair.     When  they  are  wanting,  the  hair  is  gray. 

98.  Nails  are  also  a  modification  of  the  epidermis.  The  horns, 
hoofs,  claws,  scales  and  feathers  of  the  lower  animals  are  of  the 
same  nature. 

99.  The  following  hygienic  inferences  may  be  derived  from  a 
knowledge  of  the  circulatory,  lymphatic,  secretory  and  excretory 
systems  : — 

1.  Clothing  should  not  be  worn  so  tight  as  to  obstruct  the 
free  circulation  of  the  blood.  Exercise,  proper  temperature  and 
temperate  habits  promote  proper  circulation. 

If  great  hemorrhage  results  from  a  wound,  do  not  wait  for  a 
surgeon  but  attempt  to  stop  the  flow  of  blood.  If  the  blood  flows 
in  jerks  and  is  of  a  bright,  scarlet  color  an  artery  is  wounded;  if 
it  flow  steadily  and  is  darker  in  color,  veins  only,  or  very  minute  ar- 
teries arc  injured.      If  an  artery,  apply  ;i  bandage  above  the  wound, 


181  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

that  is,  between  the  wound  and  the  heart ;  it"  veins,  on  the  other  side. 
Take  a  handkerchief,  tic  a  knot  in  the  middle  and  the  ends  to- 
gether, place  the  loop  thus  made  over  the  limb  with  the  knot  over 
the  blood-vessel  next  the  wound,  or  in  the  wound  itself,  and  put- 
ting a  stick  through  the  loop  twist  it  around  until  theblood  stops. 

3.  Pure  air  is  an  essential  to  health.  A  loom  is  properly 
ventilated  when  there  is  a  free  access  of  fresh  air  and  a  free  egress 
of  foul  air,  and  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the  inmates  are  not 
exposed  to  drafts. 

4.  "Taking  cold"  is  simply  a  closing  of  the  pores  of  the 
skin,  caused  by  a  current  of  air  when  the  body  is  warm  and  inactive, 
or  by  a  chill  of  the  entire  system.  A  cold  draft  is  not  injurious 
when  one  is  exercising,  but  when  quiet  and  the  system  is  warm 
and  relaxed  it  is  sometimes  fatal. 

5.  The  skin  and  lungs  are  two  excretory  organs,  constantly 
throwing  waste  matter  out  of  the  system.  This  waste  matter  is 
poisonous  if  allowed  to  remain  circulating  through  the  blood. 
When  the  pores  are  closed  the  skm  cannot  perform  its  office,  and 
the  lungs  and  mucous  membranes  of  the  bronchi,  trachea,  larynx 
and!  nasal  passages  attempt  the  work  of  excretion  and  having 
double  duty  to  perform  are  irritated  and  inflamed  and  thus  result, 
pneumonia,  bronchitis,  laryngitis,  nasal  catarrh,  etc. 

6.  A  person  should  often  take  full;  deep  inspirations.  Yawn- 
iner,  though  sometimes  a  mere  involuntary  act  of  imitation,  is 
usually  nature's  demand  for  more  air  to  the  lungs,  a  kind  of  spas- 
modic effort.  Persons  a  long  time  in  a  close  room  will  yawn. 
When  worn  out  with  fatigue  one  will  yawn  because  the  oxygen  is 
stimulating  to  the  system  and  nature  seems  to  make  an  effort  to 
obtain  it.  Under  certain  circumstances,  then,  yawning  should  be 
encouraged. 

7.  The  same  clothes  should  not  he  worn  at  night  as  are 
worn  in  the  day-time.  Clothes  worn  next  to  the-  skin  should  be 
changed  frequently.  Clothes  may  be  worn  a  longer  time  without 
washing  if  they  are  allowed  to  air. 

S.  Hair  that  is  in  a  healthy  condition  is  naturally  oily  and 
needs  no  application  of  hair  oil.  Dyeing  the  hair  makes  it  brittle 
and  liable  to  break. 

9.  A  healthy  skin  needs  no  cosmetics  to  make  it  beautiful. 
All  applications  to  improve  the  complexion  injure  the  skin  by  clos- 
ing the  pores,  and  some  of  them  are  actually  poisonous  and  are  ab- 
Borbed  into  the  bl< tod. 

10.  Attention  should  he  paid  to  evacuating  the  secretion  of 
the  kidneys.  Disease  of  the  organs  is  often  a  result  of  a  retention 
beyond  a  proper  period,  as  the  matter  may  be  again  absorbed  and 
poison  the-  system. 

100.     The  nervous  system,  comprising  the   primary  organs  <>f 
sensation,  is  divided  by  Gray  into  (Ik-  cerebrospinal  center,  the  gan~ 


pf/rs/OLour.  m 

glia  and  nerves.  It  is  frequently  considered  also  as  composed  of 
two  systems,  the  cerebrospinal  system  and  the  sympathetic,  or  £■«»- 
glionic  system.  (Sec  also  our  arrangement  in  the  Outline.)  The 
arrangement  of  Gray  is  the  most  convenient  for  anatomical  descrip- 
tion, the  others  are  based  on  physiological  distinctions  and  will  be 
explained  further  on. 

101.  The  cerebrospinal  center,  or  more  properly,  the  encepha- 
lo-spinal  axis,  is  composed  of  the  encephalon  and  the  spinal  cord. 
The  encephalon,  or  brain  is  composed  of  the  cerebrum,  the  cere- 
bellum, the  pons  varolii  and  the  medulla  oblongata. 

102.  The  brain  occupies  the  entire  cavity  of  the  cranium  and 
weighs  on  an  average  in  the  adult  male  49^  07..,  in  the  female  44 
oz.  The  prevailing  weights  in  the  male  range  from  46  to  53  oz., 
and  in  the  female  from  41  to  47  oz.  Cuvier's  brain  weighed  over  64 
oz.,  Dr.  Abercrombie's  63  oz.,  and  Dupuytren's  6214  oz.  The 
brain  of  an  idiot  rarely  weighs  over  23  oz.  The  human  brain  is 
relatively  larger  than  that  of  any  other  animal,  and  absolutely 
larger  than  any  other  except  that  of  the  whale  and  elephant. 

103.  The  cerebrum  (126)  is  the  largest  division  of  the  brain, 
resting  in  the  anterior  and  middle  portions  of  the  base  of  the  crani- 
um. It  is  ovoid  in  form,  broader  behind  than  in  front  and  is  divided 
into  two  lateral  hemispheres,  right  and  left,  by  a  longitudinal  fis- 
sure, extending  through  its  entire  length  and  reaching  to  the  base 
in  front  and  behind  but  only  part  way  down  in  the  middle,  the  two 
halves  being  connected  by  a  body  of  white  matter  called  the  cor- 
pus callosum. 

The  outer  surface  is  .thrown  into  folds,  or  convolutions,  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  depressions  called  sulci,  the  object  of 
which  arrangement  seems  to  be  to  increase  the  amount  of  surface. 
They  are  more  numerous  and  deeper  in  individuals  of  intellectual 
power,  and  as  we  descend  in  the  scale  of  animal  life  they  become 
less  complex  until  the  lowest  orders  of  mammalia  are  reached 
where  they  disappear  entirely.      (See  Zoology.) 

104.  The  cerebellum  (125)  or  little  brain,  lies  in  the  back 
and  lower  part  of  the  cranium  beneath  the  posterior  part  of  the 
cerebrum.  It  is  about  y%  the  size  of  the  cerebrum.  It  is  oblong  in 
form,  the  greater  diameter  being  from  side  to  side  and  it  is  flattened 
from  above  downward.  Its  surface  is  not  convoluted  but  traversed 
by  curved  sulci  which  separate  the  la  vers,  of  which  the  outside  is 
composed.  It  is  divided  into  two  hemispheres  by  deep  notches  in 
front  and  behind. 

105.  The  pons  Varolii,  mesocephale,  or  middle  brain,  lies  be- 
tween the  hemispheres  of  the  cerebellum  and  forms  a  connection 
between  the  cerebrum,  cerebellum  and  medulla  oblongata.  It  is 
divided  into  two  halves   bv  a  septum  of  fibrous  matter. 

106.  Tiie  medulla  oblongata  (124)  is  really  the  upper  en- 
larged part  of  the  spinal  cord.      It  extends  from  the  pons  Varolii  to 


180  1  HAL  HERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

the  spinal  cord  which  begins  at  the  upper  border  of  the  atlas.  It 
is  about  i  5j£  inches  in  Length,  i/x  of  an  inch  thick  and  y2  of  an  inch 
wide,  being  largest  at  the  upper  end. 

107.  Structure  of  the  Brain. — If  a  cross  section  of  the  cere- 
brum  be  made  on  a  level  with  the  corpus  callosum  there  will  be 
seen  two  masses  of  white  matter,  one  in  each  hemisphere,  connected 
by  the  corpus  callosum  which  will  be  seen  to  be  a  fibrous  white 
substance  more  dense  than  the  white  matter.  The  white  matter  is 
surrounded  by  a  border  of  gray  matter  about  J^  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness. The  sulci  of  the  convolutions  may  be  seen,  the  gray  matter  bor- 
dering each.  If  the  corpus  callosum  be  cut  away  slightly  two  rather 
large  cavities  may  be  seen,  called  the  lateral  ventricles.  These 
cavities  are  lined  by  a  serous  membrane  and  contain  a  small  amount 
of  serous  fluid.  There  are  three  smaller  cavities  in  the  brain  called 
respectively,  the  third,  fourth  and  fifth  ventricles.  Their  position 
cannot  be  made  clear  by  description.     (117). 

On  cutting  through  the  cerebellum  vertically  in  the  central 
part  of  each  hemisphere  will  be  seen  a  mass  of  white  matter  which 
sends  out  plates  which  are  covered  with  gray  matter,  the  whole 
presenting  the  appearance  of  the  leaves  and  branches  of  a  tree. 
hence  called  arbor  vitae. 

The  pons  varolii  consists  of  alternate  layers  of  transverse  and 
longitudinal  white  fibers  intermingled  with  gray  matter.  The 
structure  of  the  medulla  oblongata  is  similar  to  that  of  the  spinal 
cord. 

108.  The  brain  has  three  coverings: — 

i.  The  dura  mater,  "a  thick,  dense,  inelastic  membrane 
which  lines  the  interior  of  the  skull."  Its  outer  surface  adheres 
closely  to  the  skull  and  forms  its  internal  periosteum.  It  sends  a 
process  into  the  fissure  between  the  hemispheres  of  the  cerebrum 
called  the  falx  cerebri,  one  between  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum 
called  the  tentorium  eerebe//i,  and  one  between  the  hemispheres  of 
the  cerebellum  called  the falx  eerebelli. 

2.  The  arachnoid  membrane,  a  very  thin  serous  membrane 
which  envelopes  the  brain  and  is  reflected  on  the  inner  surface  of 
the  dura  mater.  It  is  like  other  serous  membranes,  a  closed  sac 
containing  a  serous  fluid. 

3.  The  dura  mater  consists  of  minute  blood-vessels  united  by 
areolar  tissue  and  lies  next  to  the  brain,  dipping  down  into  the  sulci 
of  thi'  c< evolutions. 

109.  The  spinal  cord  (121)  is  a  long  cylinder  of  nervous  mat- 
ter contained  in  the  spinal  canal  and  extending  from  the  occipital 
bone  to  the  lower  body  of  the  first  lumbar  vertebra.  It  consists  of 
white  and  gray  matter  like  that  of  the  brain,  but  differently  ar- 
ranged. The  white-  matter  is  on  the  outside,  the  gray  in  the  center 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  present  on  across  section  two  crescent-shaped 
nia-s,...,  united  bv  a  transverse  hand  of  gray  matter.     It  is  covered 


PHTSIOLOGT.  187 

with  a  continuation  of  the  same  membranes  which  invest  the  brain. 

110.  The  nerves  are  cylindrical  cords  of  matter  similar  to  that 
of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  They  may  be  considered  as  exten- 
sions of  these  organs,  like  the  branches  of  a  tree.  They  arc  given 
off  (i)  from  the  brain,  called  cranial  nerves,  and  (2)  from  the 
spinal  cord  called  spinal  nerves,  and  besides  these  is  the  sympathetic 
nerve  which  seems  to  be  a  kind  of  system  itself.  A  ganglion  is  a 
knot,  or  small  ma-s  of  nervous  matter. 

111.  The  cranial  nerves  are  arranged  according  to  Gray  in  9 
"pairs,  named  numerically  from  the  order  in  which  they  pass  out  of 
the  cranium.  They  receive  other  names  also  from  their  functions 
and  parts  to  which  they  are  distributed.  Some  make  12  pairs  by 
considering  the  7th  as  two,  and  the  8th  as  three. 

112.  The  names,  distribution  and  uses  of  the  cranial  nerves  are 
as  follows  : — 

1st.  Olfactory. — Consists  of  fibers  which  are  sent  off  from 
the  olfactory  bulb  in  the  front  part  of  the  brain,  and  pass  through 
the  ethmoid  bone  to  be  distributed  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
nose.     It  is  the  nerve  of  smell. 

2d.  Optic. — The  nerves  of  opposite  sides  are  connected  to- 
gether at  a  point  called  the  optic  commissure,  and  from  this  they 
may  be  traced  to  the  brain  under  the  name  of  the  optic  tracts.  One 
goes  to  each  eyeball.     It  is  the  nerve  of  sight. 

3d.  Motor  oculi. — Distributed  to  a  part  of  the  muscles  of  the 
eye.     A  nerve  of  motion. 

4th.  Trochlear,  or  Pathetic. — Distributed  to  the  superior 
oblique  muscles  of  the  eye.  The  smallest  of  the  cranial  nerves.  A 
nerve  of  motion. 

5th.  Trifacial,  or  Trigeminus. — Resembles  the  spinal  nerves 
in  having  two  roots,  a  posterior,  sensory  and  an  anterior,  motor.  On 
the  sensory  root  is  a  ganglion,  the  Casseriau,  from  which  proceed 
three  branches:  (1)  The  opthalmic  going  to  the  parts  about  the 
eyes  and  nose,  a  nerve  of  common  sensation.  (2)  The  superior 
maxillary,  to  the  upper  part  of  the  face  a  nerve  of  common  sensa- 
tion. (3)  A  branch  which  unites  with  the  motor  root  of  the  main 
nerve  and  forms  the  inferior  maxillary  which  is  distributed  to  parts 
of  the  face  and  tongue.  One  branch,  the  gustatory,  is  a  nerve  of 
taste.  The  other  branches  are  nerves  of  common  sensation  with 
motor  filaments. 

6th.  Abducens. — A  nerve  of  motion  which  is  distributed  to 
the  external  rectus  muscle  of  the  eye. 

7th.  Portio-dura,  or  Facial,  and  Portio-mollis,  or  Audi- 
tory.— This  nerve  is  considered  as  two  by  many  anatomists,  although 
it  begins  as  one  nerve  in  the  brain.  The  first  portion,  the  facial, 
is  the  nerve  of  motion  of  the  muscles  of  expression  in  the  face;  the 
second  portion,  the  auditory,  is  the  nerve  of  hearing  and  is  dis- 
tributed to  the  internal  ear. 


188  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

8th.  Glossopharyngeal ;  Pneumogastric,  or  Parvagum; 
and  Spinal  Accessory. — The  first  part  glosso-pharyngeal  is  dis- 
tributed to  the  tongue  and  pharynx,  a  nerve  of  motion  to  the 
muscles  of  the  pharynx,  of  common  sensation  to  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  pharynx  and  hack  part  of  the  mouth,  and  a  nerve  of 
taste  to  part  of  the  tongue.  The  second  part,  pneumogastric 
passes  through  the  neck  and  thorax  to  the  abdomen,  composed  of 
both  motor  and  sensitive  filaments.  It  supplies  the  organs  of  voice 
and  respiration  with  motor  and  sensitive  filaments  and  the  stomach, 
oesophagus  and  heart  with  motor  influence.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
important  nerves  on  account  of  the  vital  organs  which  it  controls, 
and  has  a  more  extensive  distribution  than  any  of  the  other  cranial 
nerves.  The  third  part,  the  spina/  accessory,  arises  from  the  spinal 
cord,  enters  the  skull  and  is  connected  with  the   pneumogastric. 

9th.     Hypoglossal. — This  is  the  motor  nerve  of'  the    tongue* 
It  passes  out  at  the  hack  part  of  the  cranium. 

113.  "  All  the  cranial  nerves  are  connected  to  some  part  of  the 
surface  of  the  brain.  This  is  termed  their  superficial,  or  apparent 
origin.  But  their  fibers  may,  in  all  cases,  he  traced  deeply  into  the 
substance  of  the  organ.  This  part  is  called  their  deep,  or  real 
origin." 

114.  Spinal  nerves  originate  from  the  spinal  cord  and  pass  out 
of  the  spinal  canal  through  openings  called  intervertebral  foramina, 
on  either  side  of  the  spinal  column.  There  are  31  pairs  and  they 
have  been  arranged  in  groups  and  named  according  to  the  divisions 
of  the  spinal  column  through  which  they  pass.  Thus  there  are  8 
pairsof  cervical  nerves,  12  dorsal,  5  lumbar,  5  sacra/  and  1  coccy- 
geal. They  are  distributed  throughout  the  trunk  and  limbs.  Many 
of  the  branches  after  leaving  the  spinal  column  reunite  to  form  net- 
works, called  plexuses.  Thus  there  are  the  cervical  plexus,  the 
lumbar  plexus  and  so  on,  named  from  the  region  in  which  found. 

115.  The  spinal  nerves  each  arise  by  two  roots,  the  posterior, 
or  sensory,  and  the  anterior,  or  motor  root.  The  first  so  named  be- 
cause it  arises  from  the  hack  part  of  the  spinal  cord  and  conveys 
sensation  from  the  parts  to  which  distributed;  the  second  is  so  named 
because  it  arises  from  the  front  part  of  the  cord  and  conveys  motor 
influences  to  the  muscles.  There  is  n  ganglion  upon  the  posterior 
root  of  each  spinal  nerve. 

116.  "The  Sympathetic  nerve  (127)  is  so  called  from  the 
opinion  entertained  that  through  it  is  produced  a  sympathy  between 
the  affections  of  dilfcrenl  organs.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  ganglia, 
connected  together  In"  intervening  cords,  extending  on  each  side  of 
the  vertebral  column  from  the  base  of  the  skull  to  the  COCCyx.  It 
may  moreover  be  traced  up  into  the  head,  where  the  ganglia  (  which 
are  all  in  connection  with  the  5th  cranial  nerve)  occupy  spaces  be- 
tween the  cranial  and  facial  bones.  These  two  gangliated  cords  lie 
parallel  with  one  another  as  far  as  the  sacrum,  on  which  hone  they 


PHYSIOLOGY.  189 

converge,    communicating    together     through    a     single     ganglion 
(ganglion  impar.),  placed  in  front  of  the  coccyx." 

The  ganglia  are  connected  with  the  adjacent  ganglia  and  with 
the  cerebro-spinal  axis  by  nervous  cords.  The  nerves  are  dis- 
tributed to  the  organs  of  the  thorax,  abdomen  and  pelvis. 

117.  Structure. —  Nervous  matter  is  of  two  kinds : —  Vesicular, 
or  gray,  consisting  of  a  collection  of  vesicles,  called  ganglionic,  or 
nerve  corpuscles,  which  arc  each  composed  of  a  delicate  wall  in- 
closing granular  pigment  matter  with  nuclei.  The  ganglia  and 
gray  matter  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  composed  of  these 
nerve  corpuscles  imbedded  in  a  granular  material  and  intermingled 
with  some  fibrous  matter.  (2)  Fibrous,  or  white  composing  "the 
nerve-fibers  forming  the  cranial  and  spinal  nerves  and  the  white 
strands  of  nervous  matter  which  are  found  in  the  cerebro-spinal 
axis.  The  nerves  are  composed  of  bundles  of  fibers,  which  are 
called  funiculi,  and  are  inclosed  in  a  fibrous  sheath,  the  peri- 
neurium;  the  funiculi  being  separated  from  each  other  by  an  in- 
vesting fibrous  membrane  formed  by  reflections  inward  of  the  peri- 
neurium. YLach  funiculus  is  formed  of  a  number  of.  fibers, ox  tubules. 
If  these  tubules  are  separated  and  individually  examined  during 
life  they  will  appear  to  consist  of  a  simple  homogeneous  transpar- 
ent investment,  which  incloses  a  soft  transparent  structureless  sub- 
stance." After  removal  from  the  body,  changes  take  place  and  the 
tubule  appears  to  consist  of  a  sheath  called  the  neurilemma  enclos- 
ing the  medullary  substance,  (white  substance  of  Schwann,)  in 
the  center  of  which  is  a  gray,  flattened,  threadlike  filament,  called 
the  axis  cylinder. 

118.  The  function  of  the  nervous  system  as  a  whole  seems  to 
be  to  exercise  guidance  and  control  over  the  other  parts  of  the 
body.  Its  true  nature  and  function,  however,  are  not  yet  thoroughly 
understood.  Many  experiments  have  been  made  upon  living  and 
dead  animals  to  determine  the  functions  of  every  part,  and  though 
much  has  been  learned,  we  are  still  in  the  dark  on  some  points. 
For  example,  in  the  base  of  the  brain  there  is  a  curious  arrange- 
ment of  parts,  distinct  and  definite  in  form,  and  while  the  anatomist 
has  accurately  described  and  named  them,  the  physiologist  fails  to 
define  definitely  their  uses. 

119.  When  impressions,  as  by  blows,  pricks,  heat,  etc.,  are 
made  from  without  upon  parts  of  the  body  containing  nerves  (and 
there  is  scarcely  a  point  on  the  surface  which  does  not  contain  them), 
in  some  mysterious  manner  the  impressions  are  eon, eyed  to  the 
brain,  or  central  organ.  These  impressions  we  call  sensations. 
They  may  he  pleasurable  or  painful.  Again,  we  will  to  move  a 
limb  and  the  muscles  contract  and  the  part  moves.  The  brain  is 
the  seat  of  volition,  or  will,  and  an  impression  is  conveyed  along 
the  nerves  to  the  part  moved,  and,  as  it  were,  tells  it  to  move.  The 
impression  of  sensation  is  conveyed  by  the  sensory,  or  afferent  nerve 


1!hi  TEACHERS   AND   STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

filaments  and  the  impression  which  causes  motion  hy  the  motor,  or 
efferent  nerve  filaments.  These  facts  we  learn  by  experiment.  If 
certain  nerve  filaments  which  are  distributed  t«>  a  part  he  severed, 
the  power  of  motion  will  be  lost  in  that  part,  hence  we  infer  that 
the  impression  which  produces  motion  is  conveyed  by  those  fila- 
ments. So  also  if  certain  other  filaments  he  severed,  the  sensation 
is  lost  and  the  part  may  he  pricked,  or  burned,  and  no  feeling  result, 
and  we  infer  that  the  sensory  impression  is  conveyed  hy  these  fila- 
ments. 

120.  The  vesicular,  or  gray  matter,  seems  to  be  the  originator 
of  nerve  power,  and  hence  the  brain,  spinal  cord  and  ganglia  which 
contain  it  arc  called  nerve  centers.  In  fact,  the  spinal  cord  may  be 
considered  as  an  elongated  brain  and  the  ganglia  as  so  many  little 
brains;  or  the  brain  may  be  considered  as  a  large  ganglion  or  an 
expansion  of  the  spinal  cord.  In  the  fish  the  brain  is  but  little 
broader  than  the  spinal  cord  and  does  not  weigh  as  much.  In  the 
articulates  the  nervous  system  is  composed  of  ganglia  and  nerves 
only. 

121.  There  are  certain  actions  of  the  body  which  take  place 
without  the  exercise  of  the  will.  If  a  person  be  tickled  during 
sleep  his  muscles  will  act  while  he  is  unconscious  of  it.  One  invol- 
untarily withdraws  his  hand  from  the  fire  or  when  pricked  with  a 
pin.  This  is  called  reflex  action.  The  impression  is  sent  along  a 
sensory  nerve  to  the  gray  matter  of  the  spinal  cord  and  another 
impression  sent  along  a  motor  nerve  to  the  part,  causing  the  con- 
traction of  the  muscles.  Spasms,  or  convulsions,  are  only  intense 
reflex  actions  caused  by  some  irritation  of  the  nerves. 

122.  The  spinal  cord  not  only  originates  impressions  but  is  a 
medium  of  communication  between  the  distant  parts  of  the  body 
and  the  brain.  Note  that  it  is  composed  of gray  and  zvhitc  matter; 
the  former  may  originate  impressions  (reflex  action)  and  the  latter 
transmit  impressions.  It  is,  however,  an  unsettled  question  whether 
the  transmission  of  impressions  is  always  direct,  or  whether  it  is  by 
aid  of  the  gray  matter  of  the  cord  acting  as  relays,  or  aids  to  the 
nerve  force. 

123.  The  motor  nerve  fibers  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  spinal 
cord  decussate,  or  cross  each  other  at  the  lower  part  of  the  me- 
dulla oblongata.  As  a  result  of  this  fact  an  injury  to  one  side  of 
the  brain  results  in  paralysis,  or  loss  of  motion  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  body.  The  sensory  nerve  fibers  cross  each  other  through 
the  entire  length  of  the  spinal  cord,  hence  an  injury  to  one  side  of 
the  brain  or  to  our  si. k-  of  the  cord  will  produce  loss  of  sensation 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body  below  the  injury. 

124.  The  medulla  oblongata  is  a  kind  of  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  It  transmits  and  originates  im- 
pressions. It  appears  to  be  the  center  of  the  force  which  controls 
respiration  and  deglutition.      The  brain    of    an    animal    may  be  cut 


PHTSIOLOGT  L91 

away  down  to  the  medulla  oblongata  and  nearly  all  the  spinal  cord 
removed  without  producing  death,  as  breathing  still  goes  on.  When 
the  phrenic  nerve,  which  arises  from  the  upper  part  of  the  spinal 
cord  and  is  distributed  to  the  diaphragm,  is  severed,  breathing  he- 
comes  much  labored  because  the  action  of  the  diaphragm  ceases, 
but  when  the  medulla  oblongata  is  destroyed  respiration  stops  at 
once  and  life  is  extinct.  Indeed,  there  is  a  small  portion  of  the  me- 
dulla which,  if  injured,  death  results  at  once.  This  was  called  by 
Flourens  the -.vital  knot,  or  ganglia  of  life.  It  is  also  called  the 
respiratory  center. 

125.  The  functions  of  the  cerebellum  appear  to  be  that  of  a 
regulator  of  muscular  movements.  In  experiments  on  pigeons, 
when  the  cerebellum  was  removed,  the  bird  does  not  lose  conscious- 
ness, but  is  unable  to  control  its  actions  and  staggers  as  though  in- 
toxicated. 

126.  The  cerebrum  is  the  great  organ  of  consciousness,  and 
controls  voluntary  motion.  It  is  the  seat  of  will,  judgment,  intelli- 
gence and  reasoning  power.  If  the  cerebrum  be  removed  from  a 
frog  it  will  act  exactly  as  a  machine,  capable  of  performing  all  the 
actions  of  a  sound  frog,  but  only  by  some  external  stimulus.  Thus, 
if  thrown  into  the  water,  it  will  swim  until  exhausted  unless  it 
comes  in  contact  with  something  on  which  it  can  rest;  when  it  does 
it  will  climb  upon  it  and  remain  at  rest  until  some  new  stimulus  is 
applied.  If  its  sides  are  stroked  it  will  croak,  and  the  croaks  follow 
regularly  with  each  stroke,  so  that  it  may  be  played  upon  like  a 
musical  instrument.  If  a  birti  be  deprived  of  its  cerebrum  it  will 
in  like  manner  remain  stupid  and  passive  until  acted  on  by  some 
stimulus.  If  food  be  placed  in  its  mouth  it  will  swallow,  digestion 
will  go  on,  and  it  may  be  kept  alive  for  a  long  time.  If  thrown 
into  the  air  it  will  fly  for  some  distance  before  it  comes  to  rest. 

127.  The  sympathetic  system  has  been  termed  the  system  of 
organic  life,  as  it  appears  to  be  intimately  connected  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  organs  of  nutrition  and  growth,  or  with  what  might  be 
called  the  vegetative  life,  as  distinct  from  the  animal  life,  which  is 
characterized  by  sensation,  volition,  etc.  The  cerebro-spinal  sys- 
tem, looking  at  it  in  this  light,  has  been  called  the  system  of  animal 
life. 

128.  In  the  outline  we  have  arranged  the  nervous  system  as  to 
originating,  transmitting  and  distributing  organs.  The  originat- 
ing have  been  described  as  the  nerve  centers,  or  the  gray  matter  of 
the  brain,  spinal  cord  and  ganglia.  The-  transmitting  as  the  white 
matter  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  and  the  nerves.  The  distribut- 
ing organs  are  (i)  the  tactile  corpuscles  of  Wagner  and  the  end- 
bulbs  of  Krause,  which  were  regarded  by  their  discoverers  as  spe- 
cific organs  of  touch,  and  which  arc  found  in  the  sensitive  papillae 
of  the  skin;  (2)  the  motorial  c?id-platcs  of  Kuchne,  regarded  as 
the  terminations  of  the  motor  nerves  of  the  voluntary  muscles;  (3) 


192  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRARY. 

taste  buds  or  gustatory  bulbs,  supposeVl  to  be  the  terminations  of 
the  nerves  of  taste;  (4)  the  olfactory  celts  of  Schultze,  regarded  as 
the  terminations  of  the  olfactory  nerve;  (5)  the  auditory  hairs,'\r\ 
the  internal  car,  the  vibrations  of  which  arc  supposed  to  create 
the  sensation  of  hearing;  (<'>)  the  rods  and  cones  of  Jacob,  the 
termination  of  the  optic  nerve  and  having  something  to  do  with 
the  sensation  of  vision. 

129.  The  organs  which  are  specially  designed  to  aid  the  nerves 
which  transmit  certain  impressions  are  called  the  organs  of  special 
sense  and  we  have  classed  them  as  accessory  organs  of  sensation, 
They  are  the  eye,  the  ear,  the  sensitive  papillae  of  the  skin,  the 
tongue  and  the  nose. 

130.  The  Eye.  —The  cavity  in  which  the  eye  is  located  is  called 
the  orbit,  and  is  formed  by  hones  of  the  cranium  and  face.  The 
eyeball  is  in  the  form  of  a  sphere  which  lias  a  segment  of  another 
sphere  engrafted  upon  it,  making  its  antero-posterior  diameter 
longer  than  its  transverse  diameter,  the  latter  being  about  one  inch, 
the  former  a  line  longer. 

131.  The  eyeball  is  composed  of  several  coats,  or  tunics  which 
inclose  certain  refracting  media,  or  humors.  The  first,  or  outer 
tunic,  is  composed  of  the  sclerotic  and  cornea.  The  second,  or  mid- 
dle tunic  ikcomposcd  of  the  choroid, iris  and  ciliary  processes.  The 
third  tunic  is  the  retina.  The  humors  are  the  aqueous,  the  crystal- 
line lens  and  its  capsule  and  the  vitreous. 

132.  The  sclerotic  coat  is    linn  and  unyielding  and   serves  t< 
maintain  the   form  of  the  eyeball,      it  is  of  a  white  color  and    ver\ 
smooth  outside  except  where  the  muscles  arc    inserted.     Behind  it 
is  pierced  with  the  optic  nerve  and    in  front  is   continuous    with    tin. 
cornea.      Il  occupies  about  live-sixths  of  t  he  external    tunic. 

133.  The  cornea  is  the  transparent  part  of  the  external  tunic 
which  projects  from  the  main  part  of  the  eyeball  and  forms  about 
one-sixth  of  the  surface  of  the  glbbe.  It  appears  to  lit  into  the 
sclerotic  coat  as  a  watch  crystal  does  in  its  case.  It  is  more  convex 
as  a  rule  in  voting  individuals  than  in  old  and  varies  also  in  different 
individuals. 

134.  The  choroid  coat  is  a  thin,  vascular,  dark-colored  mem- 
brane, which  lines  the  inside  of  the  sclerotic  coat.  It  is  pierced  be- 
hind b\  the  optic  nerve  and  extends  forward  as  far  as  the  cornea. 
Tile  ciliary  processes  are  foldings  of  the  choroid  at  its  anterior 
margin,  "They  consist  of  about  60  to  So  somewhat  conical-shaped 
bodies,  situated  with  their  bases  internally.'"  The  iris  is  a  libro- 
muscular  curtain  with  a  circular  perforation  in  its  center,  called  the 
pupil,  which  is  susceptible  "f  great  variations  in  size.  This  cur- 
tain is  suspended  between  the  cornea  in  front  and  the  crystalline 
lens  behind,  the  space  in  front  and  behind  ii  being  tilled  with  the 
aqueOUS  humor.  The  muscular  libers  of  the  iris  are  of  two  kind-, 
circular  and  radiating,  and  by  their  alternate  contractions  and  relax- 


PHrSIOLOGT.  1<j3 

ation  the  pupil  is  diminished  and  enlarged.      The    iris   is  of  various 
colors  in  different  individuals.     It  is  what  gives  color  to  the  eye. 

135.  The  retina  or  third  tunic,  is  really  an  expansion  of  the 
optic  nerve.  It  is  composed  of  three  layers :  (i)  the  external  or 
columnar,  or  Jacob's  membrane,  composed  of  columnar  rods,  ar- 
ranged perpendicular  to  the  surface  among  which  are  interspersed 
cone-like  bodies,  (128);  (2)  the  middle,  or  granular  layer;  (3)  the 
internal,  or  nervous  layer.  In  the  center  of  the  retina  is  the  yellow 
spot,  or  macula  lutea.  The  point  where  the  optic  nerve  enters  the 
coats  projects  a  little  beyond  the  surface  of  the  retina  and  is  destitute 
of  nerve  elements  and  is  called  the  blind  spot. 

136.  The  aqueous  humor  is  a  clear,  colorless  fluid  contained  in 
the  space  between  the  crystalline  lens  and  cornea.  The  space  is 
divided  into  chambers  by  the  iris,  the  pupil  forming  a  door  in  the 
partition. 

137.  The  crystalline  lens  is  a  transparent  body,  convex  on 
both  sides  but  flatter  on  the  anterior  side.  It  is  about  ^  of  an  inch 
transversely  and  \A  an  inch  antero-posteriorly  and  is  made  up  of  lay- 
ers arranged  like  the  coats  of  an  onion.  It  is  inclosed  in  a  thin, 
transparent  membrane,  called  the  capsule,  and  is  held  in  place  by 
the    suspensory  ligament    which  attaches  it  to    the  coats  of  the  eye. 

138.  The  vitreous  humor  is  a  clear,  colorless  fluid,  albumin- 
ous and  of  the  consistence  of  thin  jelly.  It  composes  about  \  of  the 
eyeball,  and  fills  the  space    between  the  retina  and    crystalline  lens. 

139.  The  appendages  of  the  eye  are  the  eyelids,  the  eyebrows, 
the  conjunctiva  and  the  lachrymal  apparatus.  The  conjunctiva  is 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  eye,  lining  the  eyelids  and  reflected 
over  the  front  part  of  eyeball.  The  lachrymal  apparatus  consists 
of  (1)  the  lachrymal  gland,  which  secretes  the  tears  and  is  located 
in  the  upper  and  outer  corner  of  the  orbit;  (  2)  the  excretory  ducts 
which  cany  the  tears  from  the  gland  to  the  .surface  of  the  eyeball; 
(3)  the  lachrymal  canals  which  collect  the  tears  at  the  inner  corner 
of  the  eve  and  empties  them  into  (4  )  the  lachrymal  sac,  from  which 
they  are  conducted  into  the  nose  through  the  (5)  nasal  duct. 

140.  The  cornea,  and  humors  of  the  eye  are  for  the  purpose  of 
converging  the  light  from  an  object  upon  the  retina  where  a  picture 
of  the  object  is  formed  as  in  the  camera  used  by  the  photographers. 
The  optic  nerve  conveys  the  sensation  to  the  brain.  The  iris  regu- 
lates the  amount  of  light  which  enters  the  eyeball.  If  you  stand 
before  a  mirror  and  shade  your  eye  with  your  hand  you  will  ob- 
serve that  the  pupil  enlarges  when  the  light  is  diminished  and  con- 
tracts when  the  light  is  increased.  The  eyelids,  eyelashes  and  eye- 
brows protect  the  eve  from  dust,  excessive  light,"  etc.  The  tear- 
lubricate  the  surface  of  the  eye  and  keep  it  clean.  They  flow  con- 
stai#ly  and  are  distributed  over  the  eyeball  by  the  constant  winking. 
When  we  weep  there  is  an  excess  of  tears  and  they  overflow  upon 
the  face. 


194  TEACHERS1  AND  STUDENTS'  L1BRART. 

141.  Tin.'  conjunctiva  is  extremely  sensitive  and  protects  the 
eye  by  causing  an  effort  to  remove  any  foreign  body.  Nearly  all 
cases  of  "  sore  eyes  "  are  inflammations  of  the  conjunctiva.  "  Granu- 
lar lids  "  are  caused  by  an  enlargement  of  numerous  papillae  which 
are  found  in  that  part  which  lines  the  eyelids. 

142.  The  dark  color  of  the  choroid  coat  is  necessary  to  absorb 
the  superfluous  rays  of  light  which  otherwise  would  be  reflected 
and  cause  confusion  of  the  image.  In  those  abnormal  races  called 
albinos  the  coloring  matter  is  absent  and  their  sight  is  consequently 
defective. 

143.  If  the  eyeball  is  too  much  rounded  the  rays  of  light  are 
brought  to  a  focus  too  soon  and  the  person  is  said  to  be  short-sighted, 
or  near-sighted.  If  too  much  flattened  the  rays  are  not  brought 
to  a  focus  soon  enough  and  the  person  is  far-sighted.  Near-sight- 
edness (myopia)  prevails  among  young  persons  and  far-sightedness 
(presbyopia)  among  old  persons.  Spectacles  correct  the  de- 
fects by  changing  the  focus  of  the  rays   of  light. 

144.  The  eyeball  is  moved  by  certain  muscles.  If  those  which 
turn  the  eye  inward  are  too  short,  the  person  is  "  cross-eyed,"  or  has 
convergent  strabismus.  If  the  muscles  which  turn  the  eye  out- 
ward are  too  short  he  is  "  wall-eyed,"  or  has  divergent  strabismus. 
The  defects  are  remedied  by  cutting  the  shortened  muscle,  which  is 
done  by  an  instrument  of  the  proper  shape. 

145.  Cataract  is  an  opacity  of  the  crystalline  lens  or  its  cap- 
sule, shutting  out  the  rays  of  light.  It  is  cured  by  removing  the 
crystalline  lens  by  making  an  incision  at  the  upper  part  of  the  cor- 
nea and  lifting  it  out.  The  other  parts  of  the  eye  usually  accommo- 
date themselves  to  the  new  condition,  and  sight  is  restored.  Quack 
doctors  pretend  to  cure  a  cataract  by  putting  medicine  in  the  eye, 
the  effect  of  which  is  to  enlarge  the  pupil  and  allow  a  little  light 
to  pass  beyond  the  lens.  The  patient  sees  light  and  is  encouraged, 
the  doctor  gets  his  fee  and  departs.  If  the  aqueous  humor  be  lost 
by  accident,  it  will  be  replaced  by  nature,  but  this  is  not  true  of  the 
other  humors. 

146.  The  eye  is  a  very  delicate  organ  and  requires  especial 
care.  Exposure  to  dust,  excessive  light,  or  the  use  of  the  eyes  in 
an  insufficient  light,  long  continued  use  of  the  eyes  upon  objects  at 
the  same  distance,  as  in  reading,  sewing,  etc,  all  tend  to  weaken 
and  injure  these  organs.  If  foreign  objects  get  into  the  eyes  avoid 
rubbing  them,  but  have  some  one  roll  the  eyelid  over  a  pencil 
placed  upon  the  outside  of  the  lid  and  use  a  silk  handkerchief  to  re- 
move the  object.  Frequently  if  the  eyelid  be  held  open  a  few  sec- 
onds the  tears  will  wash  the  object  out.  Avoid  the  use  of  medicines 
about  tlu-  eves  unless  under  the  direction  of  a  skillful  physician. 
Nothing  hut  sod,  tepid,  or  cool  water  should  ever  be  used  without 
the  advice  of  a  competent  physician.  All  eye-salves  and  eye-waters 
should  be  avoided. 


PHTSIOLOCr.  105 

147.  The  Ear. — It  is  composed  of  the  external,  middle  and  in- 
ternal ear.  The  external  ear  consists  of:  (i  )  a  projecting  portion 
composed  of  cartilage  and  skin  called  the  pinna,  or  auricle  /  (2)  the 
meatus  auditor/us,  or  tube  which  leads  to  the  middle  ear.  The 
walls  of  the  meatus  in  the  outer  part  are  cartilage  and  in  the  inner 
part  are  formed  by  the  temporal  bone  and  the  whole  is  lined  with 
a  membrane  which  is  continuous  with  the  skin  of  the  pinna.  In 
the  outer  part  are  found  numerous  hairs  and  sebaceous  glands,  in 
the  inner  part  are  the  ceruminous  glands  which  secrete  the  ear- 
wax. 

148.  The  middle  car,  cr  tympa?tzim  is  a  small  irregular  cavity 
in  the  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  is  lined  with  mucous 
membrane,  communicates  with  the  pharynx  by  means  of  the  Eusta- 
chian tube,  and  is  separated  from  the  external  ear  by  the  mcmbra?ia 
tympani,  or  drum  of  the  car.  This  membrane  is  stretched  across 
somewhat  like  the  head  of  a  drum  and  communicates  with  the  in- 
ternal ear  across  the  tympanum  by  means  of  a  chain  of  bones,  the 
mallctis,  the  incus  and  the  stapes. 

149.  The  internal  ear,  or  labryrinth  consists  of:  (1)  the  vesti- 
bule, a  cavity  which  communicates  with  the  other  parts  of  the  in- 
ternal ear  and  with  the  tympanum:  (2)  the  semi-circtdar  canals, 
three  bony  channels  which  communicate  with  the  vestibule;  (3) 
the  cochlea  a  cavity  in  the  form  ot  a  snail  shell  and  filled  with  a 
fluid.  The  vestibule  and  semi-circular  canals  contain  a  membra- 
nous sac  filled  with  a  fluid.  The  auditory  nerve  sends  one  branch 
to  the  cochlea  and  one  to  the  vestibule  and  semi-circular  canals. 

150.  The  use  of  the  pinna  is  to  collect  the  waves  of  air  from  a 
sonorous  body  and  direct  them  into  the  meatus  auditorius  where 
impinging  upon  the  membrana  tympani  they  set  it  into  vibrations. 
The  vibrations  of  this  membrane  are  transmitted  through  the  chain 
of  bones  to  the  internal  ear  where  the  auditory  nerve  receives  the 
impression  and  translates  it  to  the  brain  as  sound.  This  is  in  gene- 
ral the  explanation  of  the  phenomena  of  hearing.  The  precise 
function  of  all  the  parts  of  the  complicated  structure  of  the  internal 
ear  are  not  definitely  known.  "The  Eustachian  tube  serves  to 
maintain  an  equilibrium  of  pressure  between  the  external  air  and 
that  within  the  tympanum, and  to  serve  as  an  exit  for  the  secretions 
ot  that  cavity.  It  is  undoubtedly  open  during  swallowing,  but  it  is 
still  disputed  whether  it  remains  permanently  open,  or  is  opened 
only  at   intervals.1' 

151.  Nothing  smaller  than  the  finger  should  ever  be  inserted 
into  the  ear  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  it.  The  carwax  not  only 
prevents  the  voluntary  entrance  of  injects  but  serves  to  keep  the  ear 
clean  by  catching  the  dust  and  by  drying  up  at  the  outer  part  and  fall- 
ing off  in  scales  taking  the  dirt  along  with  it.  In  cleaning  the  ex- 
ternal ear  use  a  soft  cloth  over  the  end  of  the  finger.  Medicine 
should  not  be  poured   into   the   ear,  at   least,  not  without  the  advice 


190  TEA(  /ZEES'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRAJRT. 

of  a  physician.  Persons  are  frequently  unnecessarilj  alarmed  when 
foreign  objects,  as  cherry  stones,  mains  <.f  coin,  etc.,  get  into  the 
meatus  and  the  efforts  to  extract  them  result  in  pushing  them  fur- 
ther in.  Syringing  with  tepid  water  with  that  side  of  the  head 
downward  is  about  all  that  can  be  done  in  most  cases  to  remove  it. 
There  are  cases  where  foreign  bodies  have  remained  for  years  in 
the  meatus  and  no  serious  result  occurring. 

152.  Persons  going  down  into  the  sea  in  a  diving  bell  or  to 
the  top  of  a  high  mountain  will  find  it  advantageous  to  frequently 
-wallow,  that  the  air  may  enter  the  Eustachian  tube  and  thus  main- 
tain the  equilibrium  on  both  sides  of  the  membrana  tvmpani.  In 
the  former  case  the  air  outside  of  the  membrane  is  very  dense  and 
the  membrane  will  be  pushed  inward  and  in  the  latter  case  the  air 
outside  is  very  rare  and  the  membrane  will  be  pushed  outward.  By 
making  the  effort  to  swallow,  air  enters  the  Eustachian  tube  and 
maintains  the  equilibrium.  To  prove  that  air  enters  the  Eustachian 
tube,  close  the  nose  with  the  thumb  and  finger  and  make  the  effort 
to  swallow.  A  distinct  sensation  will  be  felt  in  the  ear.  The  firing 
of  a  cannon  and  other  loud  and  sudden  sounds  sometimes  injure  the 
hearing  by  rupturing  the  membrane. 

153.  The  tongue  is  the  organ  of  taste.  It  is  a  muscular  organ 
covered  with  a  mucous  membrane  analagous  to  the  skin.  It  con- 
tains numerous  papillae,  covered  with  epithelium.  (161.)  Branches 
from  the  nerves  of  taste  pass  into  those  papilla;  but  the  ultimate  ter- 
minations of  the  nerves  have  not  been  satisfactorily  determined. 

(i  The  word  taste  is  frequently  used  when  the  word  smell  ought  to  he  em- 
ployed. We  speak  of '  tasting  '  odoriferous  substances,  such  as  an  onion,  wines, 
etc.,  when  in  reality  we  only  smell  them  as  we  hold  them  in  our  mouth;  this 
is  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  so-called  taste  of  these  things  is  lost  when  the  nose 
is  held,  or  the  nasal  membrane  rendered  inert  by  a  catarrh." — Foster's  Physiology 

154.  The  nose  is  the  organ  of  smell  and  is  also  concerned  in 
respiration.  What  is  termed  the  bridge  of  the  nose  is  formed  by 
the  two  nasal  bones,  but  the  larger  part  of  the  frame  work  is  made 
up  of  cartilage.  The  cartilage  which  separates  the  nostrils  in  front 
is  called  the  septum.  The  vomer  forms  part  of  the  partition  be- 
tween the  nostrils  which  terminate  in  the  pharynx  behind.  The 
whole  of  the  interior  of  the  nasal  cavities,  or  passages  is  covered 
with  a  mucous  membrane  called  the  Schneiderian  membrane.  This 
membrane  also  lines  the  large  cavity,  or  sinus  in  the  superior  maxil- 
lary bone  and  the  sinuses  in  the  frontal  bone  just  over  the  eyes. 
Schneider  was  the  first  to  show  that  the  mucus  from  the  nose  came 
from  this  membrane  and  not  from  the  brain  a-  was  formerly  im- 
agined. When  this  membrane  is  inflamed  we  have  a  "cold  in  the 
head  "  and  when  the  inflamation  becomes  chronic  it  is  called  nasal 
catarrh. 

155.  The  olfactory  nerve  ramifies  in  that  pari  of  the  Schnei- 
derian   membrane    lining    the    nasal    passages.       If   the    air   drawn 


pursioLour  197 

through  these  passages  to  the  lungs  contain  odoriferous  particles  the 
impression  is  conveyed  to  the  hrain. 

156.  The  sense  of  smell  is  in  some  persons  very  acute.  Some 
physicians  are  ahle  to  recognize  certain  diseases, as  small-pox, typhus 
fever,  scarlet  fever,  etc.,  by  the  peculiar  odor.  This  sense  is  also 
very  acute  in  many  animals.  The  dog  tracks  game  and  recognizes 
his  master  by  this  sense.  As  nearly  all  noxious  gases  are  odorifer- 
ous the  sense  of  smell  is  useful  as  a  warning  to  keep  us  away  from 
their  source. 

157.  Persons  afflicted  with  nasal  catarrh,  which  is  an  almost 
incurable  disease,  are  at  the  mercy  of  quacks  who  recommend  medi- 
cines in  the  form  of  snuffs  and  washes,  all  of  which  are  injurious  to 
the  delicate  mucus  membrane  and  though  they  may  give  tempo- 
rary relief  by  helping  discharge  the  mucus,  always  in  the  end  in- 
crease the  difficulty.  If  treatment  is  used  at  all  it  should  hedirected 
toward  improving  the  general  condition  of  the  system. 

158.  The  sense  of  sight,  hearing,  taste  anil  smell  may  be  called 
specific  senses  because  the  impressions  conveyed  to  the  brain  are  of 
a  special  nature;  thus  the  eye  gives  only  sensations  produced  by 
light,  the  ear  by  sound,  the  tongue  bv  certain  liquid  substances,  and 
the  nose  by  certain  gaseous  substances;  in  other  words  we  cannot 
see  with  our  ears,  nor  taste  with  our  eyes,  etc.  The  sense  generally 
designated  as  the  sense  of  feeling  is  not  so  well  defined.  Thus,  we 
have  the  impression  of  pain  when  the  nerves  of  common  sensation 
are  stimulated  to  a  certain  degree;  bv  means  of  the  fingers  we  can 
tell  to  a  certain  extent  the  form  of  objects;  there  is  a  sensation 
caused  by  pressure  and  another  by  heat  which  are  not  painful ;  and 
there  is  what  is  called  the  muscular  sense,  or  the  consciousness  of 
the  pressure,  or  muscular  force  we  exert  on  an  object. 

159.  The  special  sense  of  touch,  however,  resides  more  partic- 
ularly in  the  papillae  of  the  skin  which  are  most  numerous  on  the 
palmar  sides  of  the  fingers.  This  sense  maybe  educated  to  a  great 
degree  and  is  more  particularly  acute  in  those  who  have  lost  their 
sight. 

160.  All  the  senses  are  capable  of  cultivation  and  all  may  be 
injured  by  excessive  or  improper  use.  They  arc  the  mediums  by 
which  we  communicate  with  the  outer  world.  When  one  sense  is 
lost  one  or  more  of  the  others  in  part  make  up  for  it  by  becoming 
more  acute.  This  is  probably  from  the  fact  that  the  persons  who 
have  lost  one  sense  are  compelled  to  cultivate  another. 

161.  The  following  outline  will  explain  some  points  in  an- 
atomy not  previously  treated:  — 

TISSUES     (HISTOLOGY). 

I.     Simple. 

1.  Simple  membrane,  thin,  transparent,  structureless  to  all  appearance  but 
possessing  pores,  as  liquids  pass  through  it  readily.  Examples. — Walls  of  cells, 
posterior  laver  of  cornea,  >.ircolemma  of  muscles. 


198  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  UJiliAli)'. 

2 .  Fibrous. 

a.  White,  bundles  of  fibers  interlaced  with  each  other,  each  composed 
of  minute  fibrillae.     Ex. — Tendons  and  most  of  the  ligaments. 

b.  Yellow  elastic,  fibrillae  larger  and  curling  up  at  their  broken  ends. 
Ex. — Certain  ligaments,  as  the  ligamentum  subfiava  of  the  vertebrae. 

c.  Areolar,  or  connective,  composed  of  meshes  or  net-work.    Ex. — The 
subcutaneous  tissue.  . 

3.  Cellular,  composed  of  cells  more  or  less  distinct. 

a.  ( 'art t'lti gt . 

1.  Permanent,  remaining  as  such  through    life.     Ex. — External  ear, 
and  nose. 

2.  Temporary,  afterward  converted  into  bone. 

b.  .1  iipose,   small  cells  filled  with  fat  and  connected  by  areolar  tissue. 
It  occupies  spaces  not  otherwise  filled  up  and  varies  exceedingly  in  quantity. 

C.     Pigmentary,  cells  which    contain    a   coloring   matter.     Ex. — Skin, 
hair,  choroid  coat,  lungs. 

d.  dray  nervous  matter,  or  the  nerve  cells. 

4.  Sclerous,     a.      Bone.     b.     Teeth. 

5.  Epithelium,  membrane  made  up  of  cells. 

a.  Tessellated,  or  pavement,  cells  in  the  shape  of  flattened  scales,  many 
sided.      Ex. — Epidermis  and  in  serous  membranes. 

b.  Columnar,  cylindrical    cells.     Ex. — In    mucus    membrane   of   ali- 
mentary canal. 

c.  Spheroidal,  or  glandular,  globular  cells  with  granular  contents.  Ex. 
-Kidneys  and  secreting  glands. 

d.  Ciliated,  has  minute  processes  like  hairs.     Ex. — In  ventricles  of  the 
brain  and  respiratory  passages. 

II.     Compound. 

1.  Tubular.     Ex. — Nerves  and  muscles. 

2.  Fibro-cartilage,  a  mixture  of  white  fibrous  and  cartilaginous  tissue. 
Found  about  the  joints. 

t).  Serous  membranes,  composed,  of  a  structureless  membrane  called  the 
basement  membrane  and  epithelium.  They  are  always  shut  sacs  and  secrete  a 
fluid,  serum,  which  is  the  water  of  part  of  the  blood  transuded  through  the 
basement  membrane.  All  cavities  of  the  body  not  accessible  to  air  are  lined 
with  serous  membrane.  The  peritoneum  lines  the  abdomen,  and  covers  its 
organs,  the  pleura  lines  the  thorax  and  covers  the  lungs,  the  pericardium  covers 
the  heart,  the  arachnoid,  the  brain,  etc. 

.).  Mucus  membranes,  consist  of  basement  membrane,  areolar  tissue  and 
epithelium  and  contains  various  glands,  among  which  the  mucus  glands 
secrete  mucus.  Mucus  membranes  line  all  cavities  exposed  to  the  air,  as  the 
respiratory  passages  and  alimentary  canal. 

5.  Synovial  membranes,  similar  to  the  serous  membranes  in  structure,  but 
secret     a  fluid  resembling  mucus. 

HINTS    TO    THE    TEACHER. 

162.  There  is  no  study  more  important  than  Physiology  and 
none  more  interesting.  If  the  teacher  he  enthusiastic  in  his  work 
he  will  have  no  trouble  to  maintain  an  interest  in  his  classes.  The 
subject  is  one  rather  easy  to  outline  and  it  is  hoped  the  teacher  will 
profit  by  the  aids  presented  in  that  line. 

163.  Specimens  may  be  procured  from  the  hutcher  which  will 
illustrate  main  parts  of  the  human  anatomy.  The  eye  of  a  hog  is 
very  nearly  the  same  in  size  and  structure  as  the  human  eye.  The 
lungs,  trachea,  larynx,  stomach,  heart  and  brains  of  animals  may  he 
pro   lired  and  will  illustrate  the  corresponding  parts   in    the    human 


PHYSIOLOGY.  199 

system.  If  a  bone  be  immersed  for  a  day  or  two  in  a  mixture  of  6 
parts  water  to  one  of  sulphuric,  or  hydro-chloric  acid,  the  mineral 
matter  will  be  dissolved  out  and  the  bone  may  be  tied  in  a  knot. 
These  acids  may  be  obtained  at  any  drug  store  for  a  few  cents. 
The  cancellous  and  compact  tissues  of  bone  may  be  seen  by  sawing 
a  beef  bone  longitudinally.  The  structure  of  joints  may  be  shown 
also  by  specimens  to  be  procured  from  the  slaughter  house. 

QUESTIONS    ON     PHYSIOLOGY. 

i.  Define  Anatomy ;  Physiology;  Hygiene.  2.  How  many  bones  in  the 
human  body?  How  are  they  classified?  3.  What  terms  are  used  in  describing 
bones?     What  are  the    uses  of  elevations   and   depressions  on    the  surface  of 

bones? 

4.  Name  and  locate  the  bones  of  the  cranium.  What  bone  forms  the  "  key- 
stone "  of  the  skull?  5.  Bones  of  the  face?  6.  How  is  the  trunk  divided? 
What  is  the  use  of  the  clavicle?  What  bone  is  most  liable  to  fracture?  7.  De- 
scribe the  spinal  column.  What  bones  glide  upon  each  other  when  you  "  make 
a  bow?"  What  when  you  "shake  your  head?"  8.  Name  and  locate  the  bones 
of  the  pelvis. 

9.  Name  and  locate  the  bones  of  the  upper  extremity.  How  tell  the  radius 
from  the  ulna?  What  is  the  "crazy  bone?"  10.  Describe  the  bones  of  the 
lower  extremity.  What  is  the  longest  bone  of  the  body?  What  is  the  technical 
name  of  the  "shin  bone?  "  11.  What  bone  is  in  the  shape  of  a  letter  U  and 
what  is  its  use?     What  bone  has  no  articulation  with  other  bones? 

12.  What  are  sesamoid  bones?  Wormian  bones?  13.  Make  an  outline  of 
the  kinds  of  articulations.  14.  What  are  the  ligaments?  Synovial  membranes? 
Synovia?  Bursae?  16.  Describe  the  mechanical  structure  of  bone.  17.  Mi- 
croscopic structure?  18.  Chemical  stiucture?  Why  are  old  persons  more 
liable  to  receive  fractures?  19.  Why  is  tight-lacing  injurious?  Why  is  it  in- 
jurious for  children  to  begin  walking  loo  soon?  Why  should  we  sit  erect  when 
reading  or  writing? 

20.  Ossification?  21.  Define  muscles;  tendons;  aponeuroses;  fascia?  22. 
Forms  of  muscles?  23.  Kinds  as  to  mode  of  action?  24.  As  to  position?  As 
to  volition?  As  to  structure?  25.  Terms  used  in  describing  a  muscle?  26. 
How  are  muscles  named? 

27.  Mechanical  construction  of  muscles?  Microscopic  structure?  Chem- 
ical structure?  2S.  Name  and  locate  12  important  muscles  and  give  tneir  uses. 
29.  What  is  necessary  to  a  healthy  condition  of  muscles? 

30.  Name  the  general  divisions  of  the  digestive  system.  31.  Describe  the 
mouth.  32.  The  pharynx.  33.  The  oesophagus.  34.  Stomach.  What  is  the 
pylorus?  Where  does  the  gastric  juice  come  from?  35.  How  are  the  intes- 
tines divided?  Describe  the  duodenum.  36.  The  jejunum.  37.  What  is  the 
length  of  the  large  intestine?  38.  Describe  the  colon  and  rectum.  39.  Struc- 
ture of  intestine? 

40.  How  many  permanent  teeth?  Temporary?  When  does  each  set  make 
its  appearance?  Parts  of  a  tooth?  Kinds  of  teeth?  41.  Structure  of  teeth? 
42.  How  preserve  the  teeth?  43.  Salivary  glands?  Saliva?  44.  Location  and 
form  of  the  liver?     Structure?    45.  Pancreas?    40.  Spleen? 

47.  Describe  the  processes  the  food  undergoes  from  the  time  it  enters  the 
mouth  until  it  is  ready  for  circulation  through  the  blood-vessels  Name  the 
fluids  used  in  digestion  ?  4S.  Define  food.  Classes  as  to  nutritive  value.  49 
Arguments  for  a  vegetable  diet  ?  Kind  of  food  in  winter?  Why  a  variety  in 
our  food?     Why  use  coarse  food? 

50.  What  conditions  should  regulate  the  amount  of  food?  51.  How  should 
food  be  prepared  and  served ?  Win  eat  slowly?  How  does  the  state  of  the 
mind  affect  digestion  ?     Why  not  too  much  liquid    with    the   food?       Why    not 


200  TEACHERS    AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

work  immediately  before  or  after  meals  ?  Why  not  eat  just  before  going  to 
sleep?    Time  and  frequency  of  eating? 

52.  Organsof  circulation  ?  Give  form,  size,  divisions  and  location  of  heart. 
Pericardium?     53.   Describe  the    right    auricle.     54.  The    right    ventricle.     56. 

The  left  auricle.  57.  The  left  ventricle.  57.  The  endocardium?  Describe 
structure  of  the  heart.  58.  Give  a  general  description  of  the  arteries.  Anas- 
tomoses? 59.  The  aorta?  60.  Branches  of  the  aorta?  What  artery  mav  be 
felt  at  the  wrist  ?  What  one  below  the  angle  of  the  jaw?  What  one  in  front 
of  the  ears?  61.  The  principal  arteries  of  the  lower  extremities?  62.  Princi- 
pal arteries  of  the  internal  organs? 

63.  Give  a  general  description  of  the  veins.  Sinuses?  64.  Vena  comites? 
Portal  vein  ?  Trace  the  blood  from  the  walls  of  the  stomach  to  the  heart.  65. 
Capillaries?  66.  Structure  of  arteries  and  veins?  67.  Trace  the  blood  the 
round  of  the  circulation,  naming  all  the  parts  it  passes  through.  What  is  the 
portal  circulation  ?  6S.  Cause  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  ?  69.  Motions  of 
the  heart? 

70.  Amount  of  blood?  Structure  and  composition  of  blood?  Cause  of 
coagulation?  ft.  Function  of  the  red  corpuscles?  72.  Lymphatic  vessels? 
73.  Lacteals?  Thoracic  duct?  Right  lymphatic  duct?  74.  Lymphatic  glands? 
Mesenteries? 

75  Composition  of  chyle  and  lymph ?  What  office  do  the  lymphatics  per- 
form besides  conveying  lvmph  ?  What  hygienic  inference  from  the  functions 
of  the  lymphatics?     76.  How  does  medicine  get  into  the  blood? 

77.  Name  the  organs  of  the  respiratory  system.  Describe  the  lungs.  78. 
How  does  the  right  lung  differ  from  the  left?  79.  What  is  the  structure  of  the 
lungs?  80.  The  trachea?  Si.  The  larynx?  82.  Describe  the  epiglottis  and 
sjive  its  function. 

82.  What  is  the  epiglottis  and  its  use?  83.  Vocal  cords  and  their  use?  84. 
The  diaphragm  and  its  use?  85.  Describe  the  process  of  respiration.  86.  How 
many  respirations  per  minute  on  an  average  in  a  healthy  adult?  87.  What  is 
the  cause  of  animal  heat? 

88.  What  is  the  difference  between  secretion  and  excretion?  Is  the  bile  a 
secretion  or  an  excretion?  S9.  What  organs  secrete  and  what  excrete.  90. 
What  are  transuding  organs ?  91.  Describe  the  kidneys.  92.  Descrioe  the 
skin. 

93.  What  are  the  little  ridges  we  see  on  the  palm  of  the  hand?  94.  Why 
is  the  negro  black  ?  95.  What  are  the  appendages  of  the  skin?  96.  Describe 
the  sebaceous  and  sudoriferous  glands.     What  are  pores?    97.  Describe  a  hair. 

98.  What  is  the  nature  of  the  nails?  90.  Whv  should  clothing  be  worn 
loosely?  What  would  you  do  in  case  an  artery  were  injured  ?  A  vein  ?  When 
is  a  room  properly  ventilated?  Explain  "taking  cold."  What  is  yawning? 
Why  the  necessity  of  a  frequent  change  of  clothing?     Is  hair  oil  necessary  ? 

100.  What  are  the  general  divisions  of  th  nervous  system?  101.  Name 
the  parts  of  the  brain.  102.  Size  and  weight  of  the  brain?  [03.  Cerebrum? 
104.  Cerebellum?  105.  Pons  Varolii?  106.  Medulla  oblongata?  107.  Struc- 
ture of  the  brain  ? 

108.  Coverings  of  the  brain?     109.  Spinal  cord? 

io</.  Describe  the  spinal  cord.  no.  What  are  the  cranial  nerves?  The 
spinal  nerves?  III.  How  many  cranial  nerves?  112.  Mark  out  an  outline  of 
the  names,  distributions  and  uses  of  the  cranial  nerves.  113.  What  is  the  real 
origin  of  the  cranial  nerves? 

1 1  (,  lis.  How  do  the  spinal  nerves  originate  and  how  named?  116.  De- 
scribe the  sympathetic  nerve.  117.  Structure  of  nervous  matter.  11S.  Function 
of  the  nervous  system  as  a  whole.  1 1<;.  How  do  we  know  that  nerves  convey 
impressions? 

120.  What  are  the  nerve  centers ?  121  What  is  reflex  action?  122.  What 
is  the  function  of  the  spinal  cord?  123.  If  one  side  of  the  brain  be  injured  why 
does  it  result  in  a  paralysis  of  the  Opposite  side  of  the  body?  121.  What  is  the 
function  of  the  medulla  oblongata3     Where  is  the  "  vital  knot"  ? 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY.  201 

125.  The  functions  of  the  cerebellum?  126.  Functions  of  the  cerebrum? 
127.  Of  the  sympathetic  system?  128.  What  are  the  originating  organs?  The 
transmitting?     The  distributing? 

129.  What  are  the  organs  of  special  sense?  130.  Give  the  location  and 
describe  the  form  of  the  eyeball.  131.  Name  the  coats  and  humors  of  the  eye. 
132.  The  sclerotic  coat?  133.  The  cornea?  134.  The  choroid?  Theiris?  The 
pupil?     135.  The  retina? 

136.  The  aqueous  humor?  137.  The  crystalline  lens?  13S.  The  vitreous 
humoi  ?  139.  The  appendages  of  the  eye?  140.  Use  of  the  cornea  and  humors? 
Use  of  the  iris?  Use  of  tears.  What  is  weeping?  1^1.  What  is  the  use  of 
the  conjunction?  The  cause  of  "  granular  lids"  ?  142.  The  use  of  the  pig- 
ment in  the  choroid  coat. 

143.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  eyes  of  a  near  sighted  person?  How  do 
spectacles  aid  ?  144.  How  are  "  cross  eyes  "  cured?  145.  What  is  a  "  cataract  " 
and  how  cured?  What  would  result  if  the  aqueous  humor  were  lost?  The 
vitreous  humor?  146.  What  hints  can  you  give  in  regard  to  caring  for  the 
eyes? 

147.  Describe  the  external  ear.  14S.  What  is  the  tympanum?  149.  The 
labyrinth?  150.  How  do  we  hear?  151.  What  should  be  observed  in  regard  to 
the  care  of  the  ear?  152.  What  effect  is  produced  in  the  tympanum  when  a 
person  descends  in  a  diving  bell?     153.  What  is  the  organ  of  taste? 

154.  Describe  the  nose?  What  is  the  Schneiderian  membrane?  Why  so 
named?  What  is  nasal  catarrh?  155.  How  do  we  smell?  156.  What  is  the 
use  of  the  sense  of  smell?  157.  Is  snuff  injurious?  158.  What  are  the  specific 
senses?     The  muscular  sense?     159.  The  sense  of  touch? 

160.  What  is  true  in  regard  to  the  cultivation  of  the  senses?  161.  Describe 
the  kinds  of  tissue.  What  is  the  name  of  the  science  which  treats  of  the  tis- 
sues ? 

NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY. 


OUTLINE    OF    NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

This  outline,  it  is  hoped,  will  prove  sug-gestive  to  the  teacher  and  student  of  something 
better  in  this  line.  The  subject  is  one  difficult  of  classification.  The  numbers  in  parentheses 
refer  to  sections  of  the  text.  The  outline  comprises  much  more  than  is  discussed  in  the  text 
and  the  pupil  is  referred  to  larger  works  on  the  subject  for  full  discussion.  *  *  *  •  indi- 
cate where  the  subject  may  easily  be  amplified  by  the  pupil. 

Existence.  32     Divisions.     (2). 

i1     Matter.     (2).  i3     Masses. 

i2     Forms.  23     Molecules. 

I3     Organic.  33     Atoms.     (Chemistry). 

i4     Vegetable.     (Botany).  42     History.     (Geology). 

24     Animal.     (Zoology).  21     Force.     (29). 

23     Inorganic.  I2     Kinds. 

22     Properties.  i3     As  to  Direction. 

i3     Universal.     (5).  i4     Centrifugal.     (37). 

*  *     *     *  24     Centripetal.     (37)- 
23     Specific.     (6).  34     Component.     (64). 

*  *     *     *  44     Resultant.     (65). 

32     States.  23     As  to  Mode  of  Action 
I3     Solid.     (24).  i'     Attractive. 

23     Licpiid       )  „.    ..  24     Repel lant.    136). 

33     Gaseous.    (rluia  3»      Unduh.tory. 


202 


J EALUER&  AND  STUDENTS  LlliRAJiT. 


3a    As  to  Time. 
I*     Continuous. 
2*     Impulsive. 
34     Uniform. 
i*     Varied. 

i6     Accelerated. 
25     Retarded. 
43     As  to  Divisions  of  Matter 
i*     Massic  or  Molar. 
[«     Kinds. 

t*     Gravitation.     (38). 
il     Kinds. 
18     Celestial. 
28     Terrestrial. 
2'     Law-.     (39). 

*  *     *     * 

y     Results. 

1 '     Heavenly  Bodiet 
move  in  their  orbits. 

2s     Bodies  near  the  earth 
are  attracted  toward  its  center. 

19     Laws     of    Falling 

Bodies.     (45.'. 

*  *     *     * 

4'     Measure.     (40). 


*  *     *     * 
(Hydraulics).     (90). 

Is     Flowing     from    ori- 
fices. 

*  *     *     * 


pipes 


28     Flowing  through 


38     Water  Power. 
*     *     *     * 


of     Gases. 


I  a     Weight. 
>9     Absolute. 


1- 


fic  gravity.     (41 ) 


* 


29     Relative.      (Speci- 

39     Equilibrium.  (49). 

*  *     *     * 

y     Applications 

Is     Moving    Machinery. 
28     Pendulum.     (53). 
19     Kinds. 

*  *     *     * 

j9     Laws. 

*  *     *     * 

^     Uses. 

*     *     * 

26     Muscular. 
36    Elasticity. 

25     Applications. 

if'    Mechanical  Powers.  (68) 

•c     *     *     * 

z1'     Mechanics  of  Liquids. 
1'      Liquids  at  Re6t.     (Hy- 
drostatics.    (84' 

Is     Pressure. 

i9     Transmission 

*  *     *     * 

29     Amount. 

*  *     *     * 

39     Applications. 

*  *     *     * 

28     Equilibrium. 
38     Buoyancy. 
48    Compressibility. 
2T     Liquids      in       Motion. 


3*     Mechanics 
(Pneumatics).     (95). 

I7      Pressure. 

*  *     *     * 

2'     Tension. 

37     Buoyancy. 

47     Compressibility 

*  *     *     * 

57     Elasticity. 

*  *     *     * 

c;7     Friction. 

*  *     *     * 

3'     Results. 
Is     Motion. 
I7     Irregular. 
27     Regular. 

I8     Oscillations. 
19     Of  Pendulums. 
29     Of  Elastic  Bodies. 
2*     Undulations. 
I9      Kinds. 

Ilu     Of  Liquids. 
210     Of  Gases. 
29     Result. 

i10     Sound.  (Acous- 

I11    Transmission. 

*  *     *     * 

2"  Quality. 

311  Intensity. 

4"  Pitch. 

511  Reflection. 

*  *     *     * 

C11     Refraction. 

*  *     *     * 

711     Interference. 

*  *     *     * 

S"     Music. 

*  *     *     * 


tics.)    (105). 


2*     Molecular. 
I*     Kinds. 
1*    Attractive. 

17     Cohesion.     (78'. 
27     Adhesion.     (79). 
[See  Norton's  l'lnlosophyj. 
37    Electricity . 
2*     Repellant. 

1"     Heat.     (Pyronomics.) 
(125). 


NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY. 


203 


i8     Sources.     (126). 

1 

*     *     #     * 

28     Communication. 

(X3*>; 

i9     Conduction. 

*     *     *     * 

29     Radiation. 

*     *     *     * 

39     Connection. 

*     *     *     * 

38     Transmission.  (131). 

i9     Absorption. 

29     Reflection. 

39     Refraction. 

48     Amount.     (127). 
i9     Relative.   (Specific 
Heat). 

29     Absolute. 

i10     Latent. 

2* 

*     *     *     * 

I3 

210     Sensible. 

*     *     *     * 

39     Fixed  Points. 

*     *     *     * 

5*     Phenomena. 

i9     Evaporation.  (130)- 
*     *     *     * 

2°     Expansion.    (128). 

*         *         V        * 

23 

39     Ebullition.     (130). 
*     *     *     * 

33 

68     Measures. 


Thermometers. 


(129). 


78     Applications. 
I9     Steam  Engines. 

79     *     *     *     * 
36     Undulatory. 

17     Light  (Optics).     (117). 
[Outline  similar  to  Heat]. 
27     Electricity.     (132). 
i8     Kinds. 
*     *     *     * 

2s     Phenomena. 

*P  "f"  T>  ^ 

38     Applications. 


2a     Applications. 


Energy.     (33). 
«     Kinds. 
i5     Visible  or  Mechanical. 

i6     Of  Position — Potential. 

26     Of  Motion — Kinetic. 
25     Invisible  or  Molecular. 

i°     Heat. 

26     Light. 

36     Electricity. 
Conservation.  /  ,     % 
Correlation.      p3*;- 


NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

1.  Natural  Philosophy,  or  Physics,  is  the  systematic  study  of 
matter  and  the  forces  which  act  upon  it,  without  destroying  its  iden- 
tity.     (4). 

2.  Matter  is  whatever  occupies  space.  Existence  includes 
matter  and  force  (29).  A  body  is  any  single  mass,  or  portion  of 
matter,  whether  great  or  small.  A  molecule  is  the  smallest  portion 
of  a  body  which  we  can  conceive  of  as  retaining  its  identity.  An 
atom  is  a  division  of  a  molecule. 

3.  Suppose  we  take  any  quantity  of  water  and  conceive  it 
to  be  divided  until  we  reach  a  limit.  The  last  particle  which  we 
could  call  water  would  be  a  molecule.  Now  let  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity be  passed  through  a  quantity  of  water,  and  it  is  separated 
into  two  gases,  essentially  different  from  each  other,  and  differenl 
from  water.  A  given  quantity  of  water  will  produce  a  certain  quantity 
of  gas,  the  proportion  in  volume  of  the  two  kinds  being  as  1  to  2. 
If  one  pint,  say  of  water,  produces  one  volume  of  one  gas,  and 
two  of  the  other,  one-half  pint  would  produce  one-half  the  amount 
of  one  gas  and  one-half  the  amount  of  the  other,  and  so  on  down 
until  we  have  made  the  ultimate  division  which  for  convenience  we 
call  a   molecule,    then  we  can  truly    say  that  the   molecule    is    com- 


31 1  |  IE.  I  (  HERS '  .  [\/>  .s  /  I  'DEJSI  7V  LIBRAR  ) '. 

posed  of  two   parts  of  one  gas  and  one  part  of  the  other,  and   for 

convenience  we  call  these  parts  of  the  molecules,  atoms. 

4.  Natural  Philosophy  deals  only  with  masses  and  molecules. 
Chemistry  deals  with  atoms.  When  we  tear  a  piece  of  paper  in 
pieces  or  grind  it  to  a  pulp,  we  separate  molecules  and  have  affected 
a  -physical change  only.  When  we  burn  the  paper  in  the  fire  we 
separate  atoms  and  have  affected  a  chemical  change.  In  the  first 
case  we  have  effected  a  change  of  form  but  the  matter  is  identically 
the  same.  In  the  second  case,  the  gases  and  ashes  produced  by  the 
burning  are  totally  different,  and  the  paper  has  lost  its  identity  (1). 

5.  The  universal  properties  of  matter,  or  those  which  are 
common  to  all  bodies  are,  weight,  impenetrability,  mobility,  iner- 
tia, divisibility,  porosity,  compressibility,  expansibility,  and  inde- 
structibility. 

6.  The  specific  properties  of  matter,  or  those  which  serve  to 
distinguish  one  kind  of  matter  from  another  are,  tenacity,  hardness, 
brittleness,  ductility,  malleability,  flexibility  and  elasticity. 

REMARK. — The  properties  of  matter  are  somewhat  variously  classified  by  authors.  It  is 
thought  all  bodies  have  elasticity,  yet  some  have  it  in  such  a  degree  that  it  serves  to  distinguish 
them  from  other  bodies,  hence  is  classed  among  both  universal  and  specific  properties.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  flexibility,  which  may  be  also  regarded  as  a  variety  of  compressibility. 

7.  By  magnitude  is  meant  the  size  of  a  body,  or  that  it 
occupies  a  certain  amount  of  space.  Matter  has  three  dimensions: 
length,     breadth,  thickness. 

8.  Weight  is  the  measure  of  the  force  which   tends  to  draw  all 
bodies  on  or  near  the  earth  to  its  center.      The  mere  measure  of  the 
attraction  may  he  called  absolute  weight,   and  when  the   weight  of 
one  body  is  compared  with  another  it  is  specific  weight.     (40). 

9.  By  impenetrability  we  mean  that  no  two  bodies  can  occupv 
the  same  space  at  the  same  time. 

10.  By  mobility  we  mean  the  property  of  being  moved,  or 
having  the  position  changed.  In  one  sense  all  bodies  are  in  motion. 
The  earth,  and  all  heavenly  bodies  are  in  motion,  but  their  parts 
may  be  at  rest  in  relation  to  each  other.  Thus  we  may  have 
absolute  motion  and  relative  motion.  We  are  all  in  absolute  motion, 
being  carried  around  the  axis  of  the  earth  and  also  around  the  sun, 
but  we  may  be  at  rest  in  relation  to  other  bodies  on  the  earth's 
surface. 

11.  Inertia  is  that  property  of  matter  by  virtue  of  which  it  tends 
to  remain  at  rest  when  in  a  state  of  rest,  or  move  on  when  in  motion. 

12.  By  divisibility  we  mean  that  matter  is  capable  of  being 
separated  into  distinct  parts.  Theoretically,  there  is  no  limit  to  the 
division  of  matter  until  we  reach  the  atom,  but  practically,  there  is 
a  limit  long  before  we  reach  the  molecule.  Nevertheless,  wonder- 
fullv  small  divisions  may  be  made. 

13.  The  molecules  of  a  body  do  not  touch  each  other,  but  spaces 
exist  between    them.      These   spaces   are    called    pores.     There  are 


NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY.  205 

also  larger  spaces  between  aggregations  of  molecules  which  may  be 
seen  with  the  eye  or  with  the  microscope.  These  are  also  called 
pores,  but  improperly.  The  latter  are  sometimes  called  sensible 
pores  and  the  former  physical  pores.  The  property  of  possessing 
pores  is  called  porosity. 

14.  Compressibility  is  that  property  of  matter  by  virtue  of 
which  it  mav  be  made  to  occupy  less  space.  It  is  a  result  of  poros- 
ity.     The  molecules  are  forced  nearer    together. 

15.  Expansibility  is  the  opposite  of  compressibility.  The 
molecules  are  forced  farther  apart,  and  the  body  occupies  more 
space. 

16.  Matter  cannot  be  annihilated.  The  form  may  be  changed, 
but  the  same  number  of  atoms  exists.  A  substance  is  consumed, 
we  say,  in  the  fire,  but  the  gases  and  smoke  and  ashes  will  weigh 
as  much  as  the  substance  did  before;  in  fact  more,  as  it  gains  some- 
thing from  the  atmosphere.  Matter,  then,  has  the  property  of 
Indestructibility. 

17.  Tenacity  is  that  property  of  some  bodies  by  virtue  of 
which  they  resist  a  force  tending  to  pull  the  particles  apart. 

18.  Hardness  is  the  resistance  some  bodies  offer  to  an  attempt 
to  force  a  passage  between  their  particles,  and  is  measured  by  the 
readiness  with  which  one  body  scratches  another.  We  give  below 
a  Scale  of  Hardness  in  which  each  substance  will  scratch  the  one 
above  it.  Any  body  which  will  not  scratch  or  be  scratched  by  one 
of  these  substances,  is  of  the  same  degree  of  hardness. 

i.     Talc.  4.     Fluor-spar.  7.  Quartz. 

2.  Gvpsum.  5.     Apatite.  8.  Topaz. 
2.5  Mica.  6.5  Scapolite.  9.  Sapphire. 

3.  Calc-spar.  6.     Feldspar.  10.  Diamond. 

19.  Bodies  that  are  easily  broken  by  a  blow  are  said  to  possess 
the  property  of  Brittleness.     Glass  is  a  good  example. 

20.  Ductility  is  that  property  by  virtue  of  which  a  body  may 
be  drawn  out  into  a  wire.  Platinum  is  one  of  the  most  ductile  of 
substances.  It  has  been  drawn  into  wire  suhm  part  of  an  inch  in 
thickness. 

21.  Malleability  is  that  property  by  virtue  of  which  a  body  may 
be  hammered  or  rolled  into  thin  sheets.    Gold  is  the  most  malleable 

of  substances  and  has  been   beaten    into  sheets    _,.,J ,  of  an   inch  in 

thickness. 

22.  Flexibility  is  that  property  of  a  body  by  virtue  of  which  it 
may  be  bent  or  folded  upon  itself.  It  is  one  variety  of  compressi- 
bility', the  particles  on  the  side  to  which  the  bodv  is  bent  being 
compressed.  Very  brittle  bodies  may  lie  bent  if  a  thin  and  long 
piece  be  taken,  as  a  strip  of  glass. 

23.  Elasticity  is  that  property  by  virtue  of  which  a  bodv  being 
compressed  returns  to  its  original    form  and  bulk. 


20G  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

Rf.makk. — A  body  which,  when  Hent,  returns  to  its  original  state,  is  both  flexible  and 
elastic,      it   it  remains  bent  it  is  flexible,  but  not  elastic. 

24.  Matter  may  be  a  solid,  a  liquid  or  a  gas.  The-  term  fluid 
includes  both  liquids  and  gases.  Quite  recently  claim  lias  been  laid 
to  the  existence  of  a  fourth  state  of  matter. 

25.  A  body  is,  in  a  solid  state  when  its  molecules  cohere  so  that 
their  relative  positions  cannot  be  changed  without  the  application 
of  considerable  force.     A  solid  will  retain  any  shape  given  it. 

26.  A  body  is  in  a  liquid   state    when  its   molecules  cohere  so 
. slightly  that  their  relative    positions  may  be  changed  on  the  appli- 
cation of  a  slight  force.      A    liquid  always  assumes  the  form  of  the 
vessel   containing    it   with  its   free  surface    horizontal,   the   force  of 
Efravity  causing  each  molecule  to  seek  its  lowest  level. 

27.  A  hotly  is  in  the  gaseous  state  when  its  molecules  tend  to 
separate  almost  indefinitely  from  each  other. 

Essentially  there  is  no  difference  between  a  gas  and  a  vapor. 
The  term  gas  is  generally  applied  to  those  bodies  which  are  ordi- 
narily in  a  gaseous  state,  and  the  term  vapor  to  that  which  is  formed 
by  heating  a  liquid  or  solid.  Steam  is  the  vapor  of  water,  but  it  is 
a  gas  as  much  as  oxygen  or  hydrogen. 

28.  Heat  seems  to  be  the  great  repellant  force  in  nature. 
(36).  Most  solitl  bodies  have  been  Liquified  and  vaporized  by  the 
application  of  heat,  and  it  is  probable  that  could  we  obtain  the 
requisite  degree  of  heat,  all  bodies  could  be  made  to  assume  the 
solid,  liquid  or  gaseous  form  according  as  we  increase  or  diminish 
the  amount  of  heat.  For  example,  water  when  frozen  is  solid. 
We  apply  heat  and  it  becomes  liquid,  and  still  more  heat  and  it 
becomes  gas.  Many  of  the  metals  can  be  made  to  pass  through 
the  same  stages. 

29.  Force  is  whatever  produces,  destroys  or  modifies  motion. 
The  terms  motion  and  force  are  sometimes  used  interchangeably. 
For  example,  heat  is  considered  one  of  the  great  forces  of  nature, 
yet  it  is  called  a  mode  of  motion,  or  a  vibration  of  the  molecules. 

30.  We  can  change  but  cannot  annihilate  force.  Thus  a 
stone  being  elevated  falls  to  the  ground.  The  force  of  gravity  is 
expended  and  its  motion  stops,  we  say.  Rut  not  so.  If  we  examine 
closely  we  will  find  that  it  is  warmer  than  before.  The  molecules 
which  compose  it  have  been  set  in  motion  and  we  have  heat, 
another  kind  of  force.  This  heat  might  be  applied  in  producing 
Steam,  which  on  expanding  will  move  whatever  is  before  it  and  we 
have  a  mass  motion  again  similar  to  that  produced  by  the  force  of 
gravity.  The  body  moved  by  the  force  of  steam  when  stopped  or 
retarded,  produces  heat  again,  and  so  on. 

31.  Again,  the  sun's  light  and  heat  are  forces  which  cause 
plants  to  grow.  The  tissues  of  the  plant  thus  formed,  supply  fuel 
for  the  action  of  chemical  force  in  the  process  of  combustion  which 
again  produces  heat  and  light.      Animals  consume  vegetable  tissue 


NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY.  207 

and  the  force  is  exhibited  in  muscular  power  which  may  be  applied 
to  moving  objects.  This  subject  is  frequently  discussed  under  the 
head  of  correlation  and  conservation  of  forces. 

32.  Gravitation  is  the  great  force  which  acts  upon  matter  in 
the  mass  but  we  apply  the  term  massic  force  to  whatever  produces 
visible  mechanical  motion,  as  the  muscular  power  of  animals,  the 
flowing  of  water,  the  elasticity  of  a  spring,  the  expansibility  of 
steam,  etc.  These  forces  are  applied  to  the  production  of  work  by 
means  of  machinery.  This  power  of  d-oing  work  is  called  energy. 
This  energy  may  be  produced  by  molecular  changes  as  in  the  case 
of  the  expansibility  of  the  steam  ami  the  elasticity  of  the  spring  or 
by  atomic  changes  as  in  the  contraction  of  the  muscle,  or  by  the 
force  of  gravit\ ,  as  in  the  flowing  stream. 

33.  A  stone  elevated  above  the  level  of  the  earth  has  what  we 
may  call  energy  of  position  for  although  it  remains  passive  it  pos- 
sesses the  power  of  performing  work,  or  overcoming  resistance  if 
allowed  to  fall.  A  stone  falling  has  energy  of  motion.  The 
former  is  called  potential  energy,  the  latter,  kinetic  energy.  The 
water  of  a  mill-pond  or  lake  which  is  elevated  above  the  surround- 
ing country  has  energy  of  position.  If  the  water  flows  over  a 
dam  its  weight  and  velocity  give  it  power  to  move  machines  and 
we  call  it  energy   of  motion. 

34.  The  forces  which  act  on  the  molecules  of  matter  are : 
cohesion,  adhesion,  heat,  light,  electricity,  magnetism. 

35.  Chemism,  or  chemical  affinity,  is  that  force  which  holds 
the  atoms  of  a  molecule  together. 

36.  Heat  is  the  great  repellant  force  (28).  The  molecules  of 
a  solid  body  are  held  together  by  a  force  we  call  cohesion  (78). 
One  kind  of  solid  is  held  to  another  kind  by  a  force  we  call  ad- 
hesion (79).  We  subject  a  solid  body  to  heat  and  its  molecules 
are  separated,  or  the  cohesive  force  is  partially  overcome  and  the 
separate  molecules  being  subject  to  the  force  of  gravitation  seek 
the  lowest  level  and  we  have  what  we  call  a  liquid.  Still  more 
heat  causes  a  further  separation  of  the  molecules  and  the  body  as- 
sumes the  gaseous  form,  the  repellant  force  overcoming  both  cohe- 
sion and   gravitation. 

37.  It  is  one  of  the  laws  of  motion  that  a  body  once  set  in 
motion  will  continue  to  move  on  in  a  straight  line  unless  stopped 
by  some  other  force.  When  a  ball  is  whirled  in  a  circle  by  means 
of  a  string  the  tendency  the  ball  has  to  fly  off  in  a  straight  line  by 
virtue  of  the  force  imparted  to  it  by  the  hand,  is  called  centrifugal 
force.  The  strings  holds  it  or  tends  to  draw  it  toward  the  hand 
and  this  force  is  called  centripetal  force.  The  result  of  the  com- 
bined forces  is  to  make  the  ball  move  in  a  circle.  These  are  only 
convenient  terms  to  represent  these  laws  of  motion  and  are  not 
properly  forces. 

38.  All  separate   portions   of  matter   in    the  universe   have    an 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS"  LIBRARY. 

attraction  for  all  other  portions.  This  attraction  we  call  gravita- 
tion. The  attraction  which  the  earth  exerts  on  bodies  on  and  near 
its  surface  \vc  call  terrestrial  gravitation.  The  attraction  between 
distant  bodies,  as  the  earth,  sun,  moon  and  planets  we  call  univer- 
sal gravitation. 

39.  Gravitation  varies  directly  as  the  /miss  and  inversely  as 
the  square  of   the  distance. 

This  is  the  great  law  of  gravitation.  To  illustrate:  (i)  If 
one  body  has  twice  the  amount  of  matter  that  another  body  has  it 
will  attract  a  third  hotly  with  twice  the  force.  If  the  amount  of 
matter  be  doubled  the  force  of  attraction  is  doubled,  and  so  on.  (2) 
If  one  body  be  twice  as  far  from  another 'body  at  one  time  as  it 
is  at  another  time,  its  attraction  in  the  first  case  will  he  only  one- 
fourth  as  great  as  in  the  second  case.  If  the  distance  be  three  times 
as  great,  the  attraction  will  he  only  one-ninth  and  so  on. 

40.  The  measure  of  the  force  of  gravitation  is  weight.  A 
body  weighs  most  at  the  surface  of  the  earth  because  it  is  then  at- 
tracted by  the  entire  mass  of  the  earth  acting  at  a  short  distance. 
Below  the  surface  it  weighs  less  because  the  entire  mass  does  not 
act  upon  it  in  the  same  direction.  Away  from  the  surface  it  weighs 
less  because  the  force  decreases  according  to  the   law   stated   above. 

41.  Specific  gravity  is  the  ratio  between  the  weight  of  a 
body  and  the  weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  another  body  taken  as 
a  standard.  The  standard  for  solids  and  liquids  is  distilled  water  at 
a  temperature  of  39.2°F.  or  4°C.  For  gases  the  standard  is  air  or 
hydrogen. 

42.  To  find  the  specific  gravity  of  solids:  Weigh  the  body 
in  air.  Then  weigh  it  suspended  in  water.  It  will  lose  in  weight, 
according  to  the  principle  of  Archimedes,  as  much  as  the  weight 
of  the  water  it  displaces.  It  will  displace  its  own  hulk  of  water. 
Its  loss  of  weight  in  water  then  will  equal  the  weight  of  an  equal 
hulk  of  water.  If  the  weight  in  air  be  divided  by  the  loss  of 
weight  in  water  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  times  the  body 
is  heavier  than  an  equal  bulk  of  water  or  in  other  words  its  specific 
gravity.  To  put  it  as  a  formula  let  xv  be  its  weight  in  air  and  iv' 
its  weight  in  water,  then  we  have: 

w 

Specific  gravity ,--= 

w — TV ' 
If  the  body  is  lighter  than  water  attach  it  to  a  body  heavy 
enough  to  sink  it.  Find  the  loss  of  weight  of  the  two  combined, 
also  for  the  heavier  body.  The  difference  between  the  loss  of  the 
two  combined  and  the  loss  of  the  heavy  body  divided  into  the  given 
body,  will  equal  the  specific  gravity. 

43.  There  are  several  ways  of  finding  the  specific  gravity  of 
liquids.  The  mosl  convenient  way  is  by  means  of  the  hydrometer, 
an  instrument  which  can  be  constructed  so  as  to  represent  the  prin- 


.V.  I  TURA  L    PHIL OSOl'li  ) ".  209 

ciple  as  follows :  Take  a  long  narrow  test  tube  and  fill  witli  sand 
until  it  will  just  sink  to  a  depth  of  100  degrees  as  shown  by  a  scale 
marked  on  a  strip  of  paper  pasted  on  the  outside  of  the  tuhe.  If 
this  tuhe  sink  to  exactly  ioo  degrees  in  distilled  water  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  39.2cF.,it  will  if  immersed  in  other  liquids  sink  to  a  greater  or 
less  depth  according  as  they  arc  lighter  or  heavier  than  water. 
Thus  in  alcohol  it  will  sink  125  degrees.  100 -s-  125  =  .80,  the 
specific  gravity  of  alcohol.  If  immersed  in  milk  it  will  sink  to  90 
degrees.      100  -^-90  =  1.  11  J,  the  specific  gravity  of  milk. 

44.  To  find  the  specific  gravity  of  gases :  Fill  a  vessel  with  the 
gas  and  weigh  it.  Then  weigh  the  same  vessel  filled  with  air  or 
hydrogen,  whichever  is  to  he  taken  as  the  standard.  The  weights 
of  equal  volumes  are  then  known,  and  the  comparison  can  be  made. 

45.  The  following  are  general  laws  of  falling  bodies: — 

1.  All  bodies  fall  with  equal  rapidity,  or  traverse  the  same 
distance  in  the  same  time,  irrespective  of  weight  or  size,  provided 
there  be  no  resistance  of  air. 

2.  A  body  falls  16  ft.  in  the  first  second,  and  attains  a  ve- 
locity of  32  ft.  at  the  end  of  the  second.  The  velocity  attained  at 
the  end  of  each  succeeding  second  is  found  by  multiplying  16  by 
the  respective  even  numbers  4,  6,  S,  10,  etc.,  and  the  distance 
traversed  in  each  second  by  the  respective  odd  numbers  3,  5,  7,  9, 
etc. 

3.  The  whole  distance  traversed  in  a  given  number  of  sec- 
onds is  found  by  multiplying  16  ft.  by  the  square  of  the  number  of 
seconds. 

46.  The  same  principles  apply,  in  a  reverse  order,  to  bodies 
thrown  upward. 

47.  The  center  of  gravity  is  that  point  in  a  body  about  which 
all  the  matter  is  evenly  balanced. 

48.  To  find  the  center  of  gravity:  Suspend  a  body  from  any 
point.  Drop  a  plumb  line  from  the  point  of  suspension  and  mark 
its  direction.  Suspend  the  body  from  any  other  point  not  in  line 
with  the  first,  and  mark  the  plumb  line  as  before.  The  center  of 
gravity  will  lie  directly  under  the  point  of  intersection  of  these 
lines. 

49.  When  the  center  of  gravity  of  a  body  tails  within  the  base 
of  support,  the  body  will  return  to  its  position  when  slightly  dis- 
placed, and  is  said  to  be  in  stable  equilibrium. 

50.  "When  a  body  is  supported  so  that  when  slightly  displaced 
it  falls  further  from  its  position,  it  is  said  to  he  in  unstable  equilib- 
rium. In  this  case  the  center  of  gravity  is  above  the  point  ofsuo- 
port. 

51.  When  a  body  is  supported  so  that  when  slightly  displaced 
it  tends  neither  to  return  nor  fall  further  from  its  position,  it  is  said 
to  be  in  neutral  or  indifferent  equilibrium.  The  center  of  gravity 
in  this  case  is  neither  raised  nor  lowered. 


210  TEACHERS'   AND   STUDENTS'   UBRART. 

52.  A  plumb  line  let  fall  from  the  center  of  gravity  is  called 
the  line  of  direction.  When  this  line  falls  within  the  base,  or  that 
part  of  the  body  on  which  it  rests,  the  body  st.nuK.  When  this 
line  falls  outside  the  base,  it  falls. 

53.  A  simple  pendulum  exists  in  theory  only,  and  is  defined 
to  he  a  single  material  particle  supported  by  a  line  without  weight, 
and  capable  of  oscillating  ahout  a  fixed  point.  The  physical,  or 
compound  pendulum  consists  of  a  weight  suspended  so  ;is  to  swing 
freely  to  and  fro. 

54.  When  the  weight  is  drawn  up  so  that  the  bar  or  String  is 
no  longer  in  a  vertical  position,  the  force  of  gravity  brings  the 
weight  to  the  lowest  point  and  inertia  carries  it  onward  until 
stopped  by  gravity,  when  it  returns  ami  passes  beyond  the  lowest 
point  again  on  the  other  side,  each  oscillation,  as  it  is  called,  be- 
coming shorter  until  it  is  finally  brought  to  rest  by  friction  and  re- 
sistance of  the  air.  The  path  which  the  weight  traverses  is  called 
the  arc,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  travels  on  either  side  is  called 
its  amplitude. 

55.  The  pendulum  is  subject  to  the  following  laws: — 

1.  The  oscillations,  or  vibrations  of  the  same  pendulum  in 
the  same  place  on  the  earth  will  he  performed  in  the  same  time, 
irrespective  of  the  length  of  the  arc.  The  vibrations  are  said 
to  be  isochronous.  This  is  strictly  true  only  of  a  cycloidal 
pendulum. 

2.  The  weight  or  material  of  which  the  pendulum  is  com- 
posed does  not  affect  its  vibration. 

3.  The  times  of  vibrations  of  different  pendulums  are  pro- 
portional to  the  square  roots  of  their  respective  lengths. 

4.  The  same  pendulum  will  vibrate  in  different  times  at 
different  places  on  the  surface  of  the  earth;  slowest  at  the  equator, 
most  rapidly  at  the  poles. 

56.  The  upper  part  of  a  pendulum  tends  to  move  faster  than 
the  lower  part.  There  is  a  point  in  its  length  which  tends  to  move 
at  an  average  rate,  the  particle  of  matter  at  this  point  oscillating  as 
if  it  were  suspended  by  a  string  without  weight,  thus  fulfilling  the 
conditions  of  a  simple  pendulum.  This  point  lies  a  little  below  the 
center  of  gravity,  and  is  called  the  center  of  oscillation.  The  real 
length  of  the  pendulum  then  is  the  distance  from  the  point  of  sus- 
pension to  the  center  of  oscillation. 

57.  Uses  of  the  pendulum:  1.  It  regulates  our  clocks.  2.  It 
is  used  in  ascertaining  the  dimensions  of  the  earth.  3.  To  measure 
the  velocity  of  falling  bodies.  4.  To  prove  the  revolution  of  the 
earth  (sec  Foucault's  Experiment). 

58.  The  product  of  the  mass  and  velocity  of  a  body  is  called 
its  momentum.  It  is  sometimes  called  its  quantity  of  motion.  For 
example,  a  body  moving  at  the  rate  of  2  feet  per  second  and 
weighing  4  lbs.  will   have  a   momentum   of  8,  which    will   be   the 


NATURAL    PlllLOHOPUr.  211 

same  as  if  the  body  weighed  2   lbs.  and  was  moving  at  the  rate  of 
4  feet  per  second. 

59.  The  momentum  of  a  body  must  not  be  confounded  with 
its  vis  viva,  or  striking  force.  The  former  denotes  the  amount  of 
force  necessary  to  bring  the  body  to  a  state  of  rest,  if  applied  for 
one  unit  of  time.  The  latter  denotes  the  force  required  to  keep  a 
body  in  motion  with  a  constant  velocity,  or  to  overcome  resistance 
through  a  unit  of  space. 

60.  Illustration. — In  the  case  of  the  balls  above  mentioned 
(58),  the  4  lb.  ball  with  a  velocity  of  2  ft.  per  second  will  have  the 
same  momentum  as  the  2  lb.  ball  with  a  velocity  of  4  ft.  per  sec- 
ond, but  the  latter  will  penetrate  farther  into  any  body  which  it 
may  strike.  In  the  case  of  a  rifle,  the  velocity  of  the  ball  multi- 
plied by  its  weight  represents  its  momentum.  The  force  of  the 
powder  acts  as  powerfully  against  the  gun  as  against  the  ball,  but 
the  gun  is  not  sent  backward  with  the  same  velocity  that  the  ball 
is  sent  forward.  Its  velocity,  however,  multiplied  by  its  weight, 
will  equal  the  velocity  of  the  ball  multiplied  by  its  weight.  In 
other  words,  the  ?nome?ztzim  is  the  same.  But  no  one  will  say  that 
the  power  of  overcoming  resistance  in  a  given  space  is  the  same. 
The  mome?itum  of  the  ball  is  the  same  as  the  momentum  of  the 
gun,  but  the  vis  viva  of  the  ball  is  the  greatest. 

61.  The  vis  viva  equals  %  the  square  of  the  velocity,  multi- 
plied by  the  mass. 

62.  The  principal  resistances  to  motion  are:  Resistance  of 
the  air ;  Friction ;  Gravity. 

63.  Friction  is  that  resistance  which  one  body  meets  when 
made  to  move  on  the  surface  of  another.  It  is  of  two  kinds,  sliding 
and  rolling.  Were  a  body  perfectly  smooth,  there  would  be  no 
friction,  but  every  body,  even  the  most  highly  polished,  contains 
on  its  surface  minute  projections  and  indentations.  The  projections 
of  one  body  fall  into  the  indentations  of  another,  and  thus  lock 
them  so  that  force  is  necessary  to  move  them.  Grease,  oil 
and  other  substances,  by  filling  up  these  indentations,  diminish 
friction. 

64.  If  a  ball  at  A  be  met  by  a  force 
sufficient  to  carry  it  to  B,  and  by  another 
force  sufficient  to  carry  it  to  C,  the  ball 
will  move  in  the  direction  of  A  D,  or 
in  the  diagonal  of  the  figure,  which  is 
called  the  parallelogram  of  forces. 

65.  The  line  A  D  is  called  the  resultant  of  the  two  forces 
represented  by  the  lines  A  B  and  C  D. 

66.  Circular  motion  is  the  resultant  of  centrifugal  and 
centripetal  forces. 

67.  When  one  body  is  thrown  against  another,  if  one  or  both 
bodies   are  elastic,  the    projected    body  will   rebound   or   fly    back 


812  TEACHERS  AND  sir  DENTS'   LIBRARY. 

a<  cording  to  the  law ;  the  angle  of  incidence  is  equal     c 
to  the  angle  of  reflection.     To  illustrate,  let  a  ball  be 
thrown    in   the    direction    A    15   against  the   surface 

CD.      It  will   rebound  in  the   direction  R  E.       H  F  c 
is  a  line  perpendicular  to   the   surface  C  D,  and  the 
angle  of  incidence,  A   1>  F  is  equal  to   the  angle  of 

reflection,  F  B  E. 

68.  Machines  do  not  create  force  hut  enable  us  to  apply  and 
direct  the  forces  of  nature,  as  muscular  power,  wind,  falling  water, 
Steam,  etc.  The  simple,  or  elementary  forms  of  machines  are  gen- 
erally considered  as  six  in  number,  the  lever,  the  inclined  plane, 
the  screw,  the  wedge,  the  wheel  and  axle  and  the  pulley,  but  there 
arc  really  only  two  elementary  forms,  the  lever  and  the  inclined 
plane.,  the  others  being  but  modifications  of  these  two. 

69.  The  power  or  energy  multiplied  by  the  distance  through 
which  it  moves  equals  the  weight,  load  or  resistance  multiplied  by 
the  distance  through  which  it  moves.  Two  lbs.  of  power  moving 
through  8  ft.  equals  16  lbs.  moving  through  i  ft.  What  is  gained 
in  power  is  lost  in  time  or  distance.  This  is  the  fundamental  law 
of  all  machinery. 

70.  A  lever  is  an  inflexible  bar  capable  of  turning  on  a  fixed 
point.  The  force  used  is  called  the  power,  the  object  to  be  moved, 
the  weight,  and  the  fixed  point  or  pivot,  the  fulcrum. 

71.  The  following  are  the  kinds  of  levers: — 

1.  Lever  of  the  1st  class.      Power  at  one  end,  weight  at  the 
other,  fulcrum  between  them. 

2.  Lever  of  the  2d  class.      Power  at  one  end,  fulcrum  at  the 
other,  and  weight  between  them. 

3.  Lever  of  the  3d   class.       Fulcrum   at   one  end,  weight  at 
the  other,  and  power  between  them. 

72.  Let  pd  =  distance  of  power  from  fulcrum  and  wd  dis- 
tance of  weight  from  fulcrum ;  p  =  power  and  w  =  weight. 
Then  we  have  the  proportion: 

p:  w::  wd:  pd. 

73.  The  compound  lever  consists  of  several  levers  connected 
together  in  such  a  way  that  the  short  arm  of  one  acts  upon  the 
long  arm  of  the  next  and  so  on. 

74.  The  wheel  and  axle  is  a  modification  of  the  lever  in 
which  the  center  of  the  axis  of  the  wheel  is  the  fulcrum,  the  dis- 
tance from  the  rim  of  the  wheel  to  the  axis  or  the  length  of  the 
crank,  the  long  arm,  and  the  distance  from  the  circumference  of  the 
axis  to  its  center  its  short  arm. 

75.  The  pulley  is  a  modification  of  the  lever,  where  the  dis- 
tances from  the  axis  to  the  circumference  represent  equal  arms  of 
the  lever.  No  advantage  is  gained  in  a  fixed  pulley  except  change 
of  direction.      By  means  of  a  number  of  movable  pulleys  the  pow- 


NATURAL    PUILOSOPHT.  o1;( 

er  distance  is  increased,  the   cord  having  to  pass   through  a  greater 
distance  to  gain  greater  power. 

76.  An  inclined  plane  is  a  smooth,  hard  surface  inclined  so  as 
to  make  an  angle  with  direction  of  the  force  to  be  overcome,  p: 
w::  height  of  inclined  plane:  length  of  inclined  plane.  Compar- 
ing it  with  the  lever,  the  length  corresponds  to  the  long  arm  and 
the  height  to  the  short  arm. 

77.  The  wedge  is  simply  a  movable  inclined  plane,  its  power 
depending  upon  friction  as  well  as  upon  its  form. 

The  screw  is  an  inclined  plane  wound  around* a  cylinder. 

78.  Cohesion  is  the  force  which  hinds  together  molecules 
of  the  same  kind.  As  before  stated,  the  solid  condition  of  matter 
depends  on  the  cohesion  of  its  molecules.  Cohesive  force  acts  at 
insensible  distances.  The  process  of  welding  metals  illustrates  the 
principle  of  cohesion.  Two  pieces  of  lead  if  the  surfaces  are  made 
smooth  and  clean,  may  be  made  to  cohere  by  pressing  them  togeth- 
er with  a  twisting  motion.  Oil,  water,  quicksilver,  etc.,  collect  in 
drops  by  virtue  of  the  cohesion  of  their  molecules.  The  phenomena 
of  crystallization  depend  also  upon  this  principle. 

79.  Adhesion  is  the  force  which  binds  molecules  of  one  kind 
to  the  molecules  of  another  kind.  On  this  principle  glue  fastens 
wood  together,  mucilage  fastens  paper,  mortar  cements  bricks, 
solder  fastens  tinware,  dust  clings  to  the  wall,  paint  to  objects, 
liquids  to  solids,  etc. 

80.  The  principal  varieties  of  adhesion  are:  capillarity,  dif- 
fusion of  liquids,  diffusion  of  gases,  osmose. 

81.  Capillarity,  or  capillary  attraction,  is  that  form  of  adhe- 
sion by  virtue  of  which  liquids  tend  to  rise  upon  the  surface  of 
solids.  When  the  vertical  sides  of  two  solids  are  brought  very  near 
together  as  in  the  case  of  fine  tubes,  or  when  two  plates  of  glass 
are  placed  together,  or  as  in  the  fibers  of  cloth  or  paper,  liquids  will 
rise  to  a  considerable  height  upon  the  principle  of  capillary  attrac- 
tion. Blotting  paper  absorbs  ink,  the  wick  of  the  lamp  draws  up 
the  oil,  the  earth  absorbs  water,  and  many  other  phenomena  are 
explained  on  this  principle. 

82.  Liquids  of  different  densities  will  gradually  mix.  by  virtue 
of  the  adhesion  of  their  molecule-,.  This  is  called  diffusion  of 
liquids.      The  same  is  true  of  ^ases. 

83.  When  liquids  or  g:ises  of  different  densities  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  thin  porous  membrane  or  by  a  porous  sub- 
stance like  plaster  of  Paris,  they  will  mingle,  not  uniformly,  hut 
varying  with  the  nature  of  the  substances.  Thus  if  a  bladder  be 
filled  with  alcohol  and  immersed  in  a  vessel  of  water,  there  will  be 
a  current  of  alcohol  passing  out  and  a  current  of  water  passing  into 
the  bladder.  The  current  which  passes  to  the  liquid  which  increases 
in  volume  is  called  endosmose  and  the  other  exoswosc.  Both  oper- 
ations are  called  osmose. 


214  TEACHERS-  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

84.  Hydrostatics  treats  of  liquids  in  a  state  of  rest. 

85.  Liquids  transmit  pressure  equally  in  all  directions.  Fill 
an  oyster  can  provided  with  holes  in  sides,  bottom  and  top,  by 
pouring  water  from  a  long  tube.  The  water  will  spurt  out  in 
every  dii  ection. 

80.  Pressure  exerted  anywhere  upon  a  mass  of  liquid  is  trans- 
mitted undiminished  in  all  directions  and  acts  with  the  same  force 
upon  equal  surfaces  and  in  a  direction  atright  angles  to  those  sur- 
faces. A  necessary  deduction  from  this  law  is  that  surfaces  of  ves- 
sels sustain  a  pressure  proportional  to  their  area.  This  is  called 
PascaPs  Law. 

87.  The  hydrostatic  press  is  a  very  powerful  machine,  by 
means  of  which  a  pressure  of  two  or  three  hundred  tons  may  be 
obtained.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  hydraulic  press.  (See  Desch- 
ancPs Nat.  Philosophy.)  It  is  a  practical  application  of  Pascal's 
Law. 

88.  An  Artesian  Well  acts  upon  the  principle  that  liquids 
press  equally  in  all  directions,  that  water  as  it  is  said,  "  always 
seeks  its  level."  By  boring  through  strata  of  rocks  or  earth  imper- 
vious to  water  and  striking  a  basin  of  water  which  has  descended 
from  a  greater  height  through  a  porous  strata,  a  well  is  formed 
which  sometimes  will  throw  the  water  to  a  great  height.  The 
water  will  be  thrown  nearly  as  high  as  the  fountain  head,  being  re- 
tarded somewhat  by  friction  and  resistance  of  the  air.  Such  bor- 
ings have  for  a  long  time  been  in  existence  in  the  Province  of  Ar- 
tois,  France,  hence  the  name  "  Artesian    Well." 

89.  If  a  glass  tube  be  idled  with  any  liquid  so  that  it  holds 
only  a  bubble  of  air,  and  placed  in  a  horizontal  position,  the  bubble 
will  stand  at  the  center  of  the  tube,  explained  on  the  principle 
above  stated.  A-  alcohol,  which  will  not  freeze,  is  the  fluid  gener- 
ally used,  it  is  called  the  spirit  level. 

90.  Hydraulics  treats  of  liquids  in  motion. 

91.  The  velocity  of  a  jet  of  water  is  equal  to  the  velocity  of  a 
body  falling  from  the  same  height. 

To  find  the  quantity  of  water  discharged  in  a  given  time,  mul- 
tiply the  velocity  bv  the  area  of  the  orifice  and  that  product  by  the 
time. 

92.  A  stream  runs  more  swiftly  in  the  center  and  at  the  surface 
than  near  the  banks  or  at  the  bottom,  because  the  friction  of  the 
shores  and  bottom  retard  it. 

93.  Barker's  Mill  consists  of  an  upright  cylinder  with  horizon- 
tal arms,  with  apertures  in  the  opposite  sides,  the  cylinder  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  turn  easily.  When  water  is  poured  into  the  cylinder, 
the  pressure  being  equal  in  all  directions,  it  would  remain  at  rest 
did  not  the  water  flow  out  at  these  orifices,  which,  relieving  the 
pressure  on  the  one  side,  causes  the  arm  to  move  in  the  contrary 
direction,  and    thus  the  cylinder  is  made   to   revolve.      The  experi- 


NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY.  215 

ment  may  be  performed  in  a  very  simple  maimer  with  a  flat  oyster 
can  by  making  small  holes  in  the  broad  sides  near  the  diagonally  op- 
posite corners  and  suspending  with  a  string.  [See  Easy  Experi- 
ments in  Chemistry  and  Philosophy.} 

94.  The  Turbine  Water  Wheel  is  a  practical  application  of 
the  principle  of  Barker's  Mill. 

95.  Pneumatics  treats  of  the  physical  properties  of  gaseous 
bodies.  The  principles  of  transmission  of  pressure,  specific  grav- 
ity and  buoyancy  of  liquids  apply  also  to  gases. 

96.  The  air  pump  is  a  machine  for  removing  the  air  from 
within  a  vessel.  It  consists  of  a  cylinder  supplied  with  a  valve 
opening  inward  and  one  outward,  and  a  piston  fitting  accurately. 
When  the  piston  is  raised  the  air  rushes  into  the  cylinder  through 
the  first  valve  to  fill  the  vacuum;  as  the  cylinder  descends  the  air 
closes  the  first  valve  and  opens  the  second  and  is  driven  out.  Every 
stroke  of  the  piston  thus  removes  a  portion  of  air.  The  second,  or 
escape  valve,  may  be  in  the  side  of  the  cylinder  or  in  the  piston  it- 
self. 

97.  Gases  have  weight,  compressibility,  expansibility,  and  elas- 
ticity. 

98.  Torrieelli  took  a  glass  tube  about  a  yard  in  length,  closed 
at  one  end  and  filled  it  with  mercury.  Placing  his  thumb  over  the 
closed  end  he  immersed  it  in  a  vessel  of  mercury.  Removing 
his  thumb  the  mercury  sank  until  it  stood  at  the  height  of  30  inches. 
The  space  above  the  mercury  was  as  nearly  a  complete  vacuum  as 
has  ever  been  attained.  By  this  experiment  he  proved  that  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  a  column  of 
liquid  which  it  will  sustain. 

99.  The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  equal  to  about  15  lbs. 
to  the  square  inch  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  being  the  weight  of  a 
column  of  mercury  one  inch  in  area,  and  about  30  inches  in  height 
which  will  be  sustained  by  a  column  of  air  one  inch  in  area. 

100.  The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  sea  level  will  sustain 
a  column  of  water  about  34  ft.  in  height. 

The  common  pump  is  an  application  of  this  fact.  The  piston, 
or  sucker,  being  raised  the  water  is  forced  up  the  tube  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  well,  there  being 
no  resistance  in  the  tube,  for  the  piston  lifts  the  air  out.  As  the  pis- 
ton descends,  the  valve  in  it  opens  upward  and  allows  the  water  to 
pass  through  above  the  valve,  which,  closing  as  it  rises  again,  the 
water  is  lifted  out  and  more  is  forced  into  the  tube  below.  Owing 
to  the  necessary  imperfection  of  the  parts,  water  cannot  be  raised  by 
atmospheric  pressure  more  than  about  27  ft. 

101.  The  barometer  is  an  instrument   for  the   measurement  of 
atmospheric  pressure.    It  is  useful  in  ascertaining  heights  above  sea 
level  and  for  estimating  the  condition  of  the  weather.     It  consists  es- 
sentially of  the    apparatus   used   in    Torricelli's   experiment,  with  ;. 


316  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

graduated  scale  affixed  to  the  glass  tube.  As  the  instrument  is  car- 
ried up  a  height,  the  mercury  falls,  being  subject  to  less  pressure  and 
vice  versa. 

102.  The  siphon  consists  of  a  tube  benl  in  the  Bhape  of  a  lettei 
U  with  unequal  arms. 

103.  Fill  the  siphon  with  water  closing  both  ends  with  the 
ringers.  Insert  the  short  arm  in  a  vessel  of  water  with  the  long  arm 
on  the  outside  with  its  end  lower  than  the  end  of  the  short  arm. 
The  column  of  water  in  the  long  arm  will  run  out  by  its  own 
weight  and  the  tendency  would  be  to  produce  a  vacuum  in  the  bend 
of  the  tube,  but  the  water  is  forced  up  by  the  pressure  of  air  through 
the  short  arm  and  thus  the  stream  is  kept  up  so  long  as  the  outside 
arm  is  lower  at  its  orifice  than  the  orifice  of  the  inside  arm.  The 
flow  may  be  started  by  exhausting  the  air  from  the  long  arm  by 
suction,  then  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  fill  the    siphon    with    water. 

104.  Acoustics  treats  of  sound. 

105.  Sound  is  the  sensation  produced  in  the  brain  through  the 
auditory  nerve  from  vibrations  of  matter.  According  to  this  defini- 
tion there  can  be  no  sound  without  an  organ  of  hearing,  but  there 
may  be  vibrations  of  matter  which  would  produce  sound  were  there 
an  organ  to  transmit  it  and  a  brain  to  receive  it. 

106.  The  velocity  of  sound  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
medium  through  which  the  vibrations  are  transmitted.  Sound  travels 
through  air  (at  the  freezing  point)  at  the  rate  of  1,090  ft.  per  sec; 
through  water  at  the  rate  of  4,700  ft.  per  sec. 

107.  As  sound  is  transmitted  to  the  ear  through  a  medium  like 
air  or  water,  it  travels  in  waves,  the  molecules  swinging  back  and 
forth.  The  amplitude,  or  distance  the  molecules  move  back  and 
forth,  determines  the  intensity  of  the  sound.  Wn-  intensity  dimin- 
ishes as  the  square  of  the  distance. 

108.  When  sound  waves  strike  the  surface  of  an  opposing 
medium  a  part  of  them  are  reflected  or  thrown  back.  The  angle 
of  incidence  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  reflection  as  in  reflected  motion. 

109.  If  sound  waxes  strike  a  medium  of  different  density  those 
waves  which  are  transmitted  are  refracted,  or  bent  out  of  their 
course. 

110.  The  effect  of  a  direct  sound  joined  by  one  or  more  re- 
flected sounds  so  as  to  increase  the  intensity,  is  called  resonance. 
It  is  because  of  the  resonance  that  a  speaker  can  be  heard  more 
easily  in  a  room  than  in  the  open  air.  When  we  can  distinguish 
the  reflected  sound  from  the  direct  one  it  is  called  an  echo.  This 
is  the  ease  when  sounds  arc  reflected  from  a    distance. 

111.  Regular  vibrations  when  produced  with  sufficient  rapidity 
blend  into  one  sound.  This  is  a  musical  note.  A  succession  of 
musical  notes  so  modulated  as  to  please  the  ear  constitutes  music. 

112.  The  Telephone  is  .hi  instrument  which  reproduces  articu- 
late speech  or  other  sounds  at  a  distance.      In  the  acoustic,  or   string 


NATURAL   PHILOSOl'J/1'.  217 

telephone  it  is  only  necessary  to  have  a  membrane  which  can  be  set 
in  vibration  by  the  impulses  of  the  air  made  by  the  voice  on  an  in- 
strument, and  a  string  or  wire  attached  to  it  to  carry  the  vibrations 
to  a  similar  membrane  at  the  other  end.  This  second  membrane 
•rives  back  to  the  air  the  same  kind  of  vibration  received  at  the 
other  end.  In  the  electric  telephone,  the  vibrations  of  the  mem- 
brane cause  changes  in  the  electric  current  produced  by  a  battery, 
these  changes  being  capable  of  reproducing  the  same  kind  of  vibra- 
tions in  the  membrane  at  the  opposite  end. 

113.  The  Microphone  is  an  instrument  for  increasing  the  in- 
tensity of  sound.  It  consists  of  an  upright  piece  of  carbon,  held 
between  two  horizontal  carbon  plates,  which  are  attached  to  a  light 
sounding  board,  or  box.  The  horizontal  pieces  of  carbon  are  with- 
in the  circuit  of  an  electric  telephone.  The  upright  carbon  is 
thrown  into  vibrations  by  the  impulse  of  the  sound,  which  alter- 
nately lengthens  and  shortens  it.  This  by  impairing  or  strengthen- 
ing the  connection  of  the  circuit,  alternately  lessens  and  strengthens 
the  force  of  the  current.  Corresponding  to  these  electric  changes, 
the  membrane  of  the  telephone  vibrates  and  gives  out  sound.  It  is 
so  sensitive  that  the  walking  of  a  fly  on  the  sounding  board,  may 
be  distinctly  heard  at  the  telephone,  and  the  ticking  of  a  watch 
sounds  like  blows  of  a  hammer. 

114.  The  Phonograph  is  a  machine  which  writes  sounds  on  a 
strip  of  tin  foil  and  reproduces  them  again  with  great  distinctness. 
It  consists  of  a  mouth-piece  and  vibrating  membrane  the  same  as 
the  telephone,  with  a  needle  attached  to  the  center  of  the  membrane 
the  vibrations  of  which  cause  the  needle  to  make  impressions  in  the 
tin  foil  which  is  rolled  on  a  grooved  cylinder  made  to  revolve.  By 
so  adjusting  the  machine  that  the  needle  may  retrace  its  path  on 
the  tin  foil  the  membrane  is  set  in  vibration  again  and  the  sounds 
are  given  back  exactly  as  they  were  received.  Articulate  speech 
as  well  as  all  other  noises  are  reproduced  with  wonderful   accuracy. 

115.  The  Photophone  is  an  invention  of  quite  recent  date. 
With  it  sounds  mav  be  heard  at  a  distance  by  means  of  light. 
Changes  are  produced  in  the  electric  current  by  means  of  the  light 
falling  on  a  plate  of  "  selenium.'1''  With  this  exception  the  princi- 
ple is  the  same  as  in  the  ordinary  telephone. 

116.  Optics  treats  of  light. 

117.  Light  is  that  mode  of  wave  motion  which  affects  the 
optic  nerve  producing  the  sensation  of  vision.      (125). 

118.  When  light  passes  through  a  body  so  as  to  enable  objects 
to  be   seen   distinctly    beyond    it,  the  body    is   transparent;  when 
light  passes  through  but  not  sufficient    to   allow   the    perception   of 
objects,   it    is    translucent;  when    no    light    passes    through,    it    is 
opaque. 

119.  We  see  all  objects  by  the  light  which  is  reflected  from 
them.     Li'dit  always  moves  in  straight  lines.     The  angle  formed 


218  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARr. 

at  the  eye  by  the  rays  coming  from  the  extremities  of  an  object  is 
called  the  visual  angle.  The  size  of  the  angle  varies,  of  course, 
with  the  distance  of  the  object. 

120.  Light  passes  from  a  luminous  body  equally  in  every  direc- 
tion and  travels  through  a  medium  of  uniform  density  in  straight 
lines.  The  intensity  decreases  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
distance  . 

121.  Light  moves  at  the  rate  of  about  185,000  miles  per  second, 
or  about  10,000  times  faster  than  the  earth  moves  in  its  orbit. 

122.  When  a  beam  of  light  from -a  luminous  body  falls  upon 
the  surface  of  an  opaque  bod}'  a  portion  is  reflected,  and  a  portion 
absorbed.  The  law  of  reflection  is  the  same  as  that  of  reflected 
motion  i.  e.,  the  angle  of  incidence  is  equal  to  the  angle  of  reflec- 
tion. When  liglit  passes  from  ()|lL>  medium  to  another  of  different 
density  it  is  refracted,  or  bent  out  of  its  regular  course. 

123.  A  lens  is  a  transparent  body,  generally  of  glass,  having 
one  or  two  curved  surfaces.  Lenses  are  of  two  principal  kinds, 
convex  and  concave.  A  convex  lens  converges  the  rays  of  light, 
or  brings  them  to  a  focus  at  a  point  varying  in  distance  according 
to  the  degree  of  convexity.  A  concave  lens  causes  the  rays  of 
light  to  diverge.  If  the  eye  be  placed  at  the  point  where  the  rays 
from  an  object  are  brought  to  a  focus  by  a  convex  lens,  the  object 
will  appear  magnified.  The  convex  lens  may  be  used  to  converge 
the  rays  of  the  sun,  thus  becoming  a  burning  glass.  An  object  seen 
through  a  concave  lens  appears  diminished. 

124.  If  a  sunbeam  be  passed  through  a  prism  the  light  is  de- 
composed and  appears  as  a  band  of  seven  colors,  viz  :  violet,  indigo, 
blue,  green,  yellow,  orange,  red.  (If  you  can  remember  the 
meaningless  word  vib-gy-or  the  letters  of  which  form  the  initials  of 
the  colors  in  their  order  from  top  to  bottom,  you  will  always  rc- 
member  the  colors  of  the  solar  spectrum,  as  it  is  called).  There 
are  three  classes  of  rays  in  the  solar  spectrum,  calorific,  or  heat 
rays,  colorific,  or  color  rays,  and  aclinic,  or  chemical  rays.  The 
heat  is  the  greatest  in  the  red  rays,  the  actinic  power  in    the   violet. 

125.  Heat  is  a  form  of  vibratory  molecular  motion.  Cold  is 
properly  the  absence  of  heat.  The  molecules  of  matter  are  in 
constant  vibration,  perhaps  revolving  around  each  other  in  minute 
orbits.  If  this  motion  be  increased,  the  body,  we  say,  is  heated,  if 
decreased,  it  is  cooled.  All  space,  even  that  between  the  molecules 
of  bodies  is  supposed  to  be  tilled  with  a  substance  called  ether.  We 
are  obliged  to  assume  (he  existence  of  this  medium  to  carry  out  our 
theory  of  heat  and  liglit.  The  heat  and  light  come  to  us  from  the 
sun  in  wave  motions  of  this  ether  the  molecules  impinging  on  each 
other  ;.s  a  row  of  bricks  falling  one  against  the  other.  Many  facts 
lead  us  to  the  conclusion  that  heat  and  light  are  but  variations  of 
the  game  motion, the  longer  undulations  producing  the  sensation  of 
heat  and  the  more  rapid  one's  the  sensation  of  light. 


NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY.  219 

126.  The  sources  of  heat  are:  the  sun,  moon  and  stars; 
mechanical  action;  chemical  action.  The  greater  part  of  the  heat 
of  our  globe  comes  from  the  sun,  a  very  minute  quantity  fronf  the 
other  heavenly  bodies.  Great  heat  may  be  developed  by  mechani- 
cal action,  as  friction  and  combustion.  Count  Rumford  caused 
water  to  boil  by  the  friction  of  metals.  A  blacksmith  can  make  a 
piece  of  iron  red  hot  by  hammering,  the  Hint  strikes  lire  from  the 
steel,  particles  of  the  metal  being  torn  off  and  heated  to  redness. 
Chemical  action  is  seen  in  the  combustion  of  fuel,  the  union  of 
oxygen  with  carbon  and  hydrogen. 

127.  When  a  solid  body  is  subjected  to  heat  a  part  of  the  force- 
is  expended  in  overcoming  the  force  of  cohesion  and  is  not  sensible 
to  the  touch.  This  is  called  latent  heat.  The  other  portion  ele- 
vates the  temperature  and  is  called  sensible  heat.  The  amount  of 
heat  necessary  to  raise  a  given  body  one  degree  in  temperature 
compared  to  that  required  to  raise  the  same  quantity  of  water  one- 
degree,  is  called  specific  heat.  It  expresses  the  relation  between 
latent  and  sensible  heat. 

128.  All  bodies  expand  under  the  effects  of  heat.  The  degree 
of  expansion  is  directly  as  the  amount  of  heat  but  different  substan- 
ces expand  in  different  degrees.     All  bodies  contract  by  cold. 

129.  The  thermometer  is  an  instrument  to  measure  the  temper- 
ature by  means  of  the  expansion  of  mercury.  Mercury  freezes  at 
40°F., below  zero;  alcohol  is  used  for  very  low  temperatures,.  The 
principal  scales  used  are:  Fahrenheit's,  in  which  the  space  between 
the  two  fixed  points,  boiling  and  freezing  is  divided  into  180  de- 
grees; the  Centigrade,  in  which  this  space  is  divided  into  ioo 
degrees;  Reaumer's,  in  which  it  is  divided  into  So  degrees. 

130.  Water  changes  from  the  liquid  to  the  gaseous  state,  or 
boils  at  the  level  of  the  sea  at  a  temperature  of  2i2°F.  As  we 
ascend  above  this  level  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  less  and  it 
boils  at  a  lower  degree.     (See  Geysers  in  Phys.  Geog). 

131.  Heat  is  communicated  in  three  ways:  by  conduction; 
convection;  radiation.  When  a  solid  body  is  heated,  as  a  poker  in 
the  fire,  the  heat  is  conveyed  from  one  molecule  to  another  until  it 
has  pervaded  the  entire  mass.  This  is  called  conduction.  Different 
bodies  have  different  powers  of  conductibiliiy.  the  metals  being  the 
best  conductors.  When  gases  or  liquids  come  in  contact  with  a 
heated  body  they  become  heated  and  rise  while  their  places  are 
filled  by  other  particles  until  the  whole  mass  is  heated.  This  is 
called  convection.  Radiation  is  the  process  of  heating  by  the 
transmission  of  rays  which  proceed  from  the  heated  body  in  straight 
lines.  These  ruys  like  those  of  light  may  be  absorbed,  reflected 
or  refracted. 

132.  Electricity  is  a  molecular  force  which   manifests  itself  by 
the  phenomena  of  attraction  and  repulsion. 


220  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

Authors  -litlVr  very  much  in  their  plan  of  treatment  of  this  subject.  We  have  followed  the 
classification  in<l  general  plan  fjiven  in  Baker's  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy,  a  iCxt-book 
recently  issued. 

133.  Electricity  manifests  itself  in  two  general  ways:  (i)  on 
the  surface  of  bodies  and  capable  of  sudden  and  intense  effects, 
called  statical  electricity;  (2)  as  a  continuous  current,  or  moving 
energy,  called  current  electricity. 

134.  "  Statical  electricity  is  generally  developed  by  friction. 
It  is  also  produced  by  pressure,  evaporation,  and  other  agencies." 
It  may  be  considered  under  two  heads:  frictional  and  atmospheric. 

135.  If  a  rubber  comb,  a  lamp  chimney,  or  a  stick  of  sealing 
wax  be  rubbed  vigorously  with  a  piece  of  cloth  and  held  over  small 
bits  of  paper  they  will  be  attracted  and  then  repelled.  In  cold,  dry 
weather,  peculiar  phenomena  are  noticed,  such  as  a  crackling  sound 
when  the  hair  is  combed  with  a  rubber  comb,  sparks  produced 
when  a  cat's  back  is  rubbed  in  the  dark,  etc.  These  phenomena 
are  due  to  frictional  electricity. 

136.  Substances  which  allow  the  electricitv  to  pass  through 
them,  are  called  conductors.  Those  which  do  not  allow  the  elec- 
tricity to  pass  through,  are  called  fion-conductors  or  insulators. 
Metals,  charcoal,  liquids,  moist  leather  and  animal  and  vegetable 
tissue  are  good  conductors.  Glass,  silk,  India  rubber,  dry  wood, 
wool,  feathers,  dry  air  and  gases  are  non-conductors. 

137.  As  to  mode  of  action,  there  seems  to  be  two  kinds  of 
electricities,  or  two  opposite  conditions,  one  like  that  produced  by 
rubbing  glass,  called  positive  electricity,  the  other  like  that  produced 
by  rubbing  sealing  wax,  called  negative  electrity.  The  following  is 
the  law  of  action: — 

The  positive  attracts  the  negative  and  the  negative  attracts  the 
positive;  the  positive  repels  the  positive  and  the  negative  repels  the 
negative;  or,  in  other  words,  bodies  charged  with  like  electricities 
repel  and  bodies  charged  with  unlike  electricities  attract. 

138.  An  electrical  machine  is  an  instrument  for  developing 
frictional  electricity.  There  are  several  kinds  in  use.  The  essen- 
tial parts  of  one  kind,  the  friction  machine,  may  be  briefly  described 
as  follows:  A  glass  plate  or  cylinder  is  arranged  so  that  it  can  be 
turned  with  a  crank  and  caused  to  rub  against  cushions  of  leather 
on  which  is  spread  an  amalgam  of  tin,  zinc  and  mercury.  As  the 
glass  is  revolved  the  rubbing  of  the  cushion  develops  positive  elec- 
tricity on  the  glass  and  negative  on  the  rubber.  To  collect  and 
concentrate  these  electricities,  conductors  are  necessary.  They  con- 
sist simply  of  hollow  cylinders  of  metal  as  brass,  or  common  tin 
ware.  These  conductors  are  insulated  b\  glass  posts  and  the  one 
for  the  positive  electricity,  called  the  prime  conductor,  is  provided 
with  a  rod  containing  several  sharp  points  which  come  very  near 
the  glass  plate  and  cylinder.  The  negative  conductor  is  also  in- 
sulated and  connected  by  pieces  of  metal  with  the  rubbing  cushion 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHT.  221 

A  piece  of  silk  in  the  form  of  a  bag  is  suspended  under  the  plate 
or  cylinder  to  prevent  the  escape  of  electricity  to  the  ground. 

139.  To  get  an  effect  from  the  machine,  connect  the  negative 
conductor  by  a  chain  or  wire  with  the  floor  or  earth  and  turning 
the  crank  bring  the  hand  near  the  end  of  the  prime  conductor  far- 
thest from  the  glass.  A  spark  will  be  seen  and  a  shock  felt. 
The  greatest  effects  can  be  obtained  when  the  air  is  very  dry,  as 
moist  air  is  a  conductor  and  the  electricity  is  conveyed  away  nearly 
as  fast  as  produced.  Generally,  the  coldest  weather  in  winter  is  the 
best  time  to  perform  experiments. 

140.  An  experimental  machine  may  be  made  very  cheaply  by 
using  a  large  bottle  for  a  glass  cylinder,  pieces  of  wood  covered 
with  tin  foil  such  as  is  used  to  cover  tobacco,  for  a  conductor,  and 
glass  bottles  for  insulating  the  parts. 

141.  The  Leyden  jar,  or  condenser,  consists  of  a  glass  jar 
covered  on  the  inside  and  outside  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the 
top  with  tin  foil,  and  having  a  cover  of  dry  wood  through  which  a 
metal  rod  passes  ending  above  in  a  knob  and  connected  below 
with  the  inner  coat.  If  the  outer  coat  is  in  connection  with  the 
earth  and  the  knob  be  brought  to  the  prime  conductor  of  the  elec- 
trical machine,  the  jar  becomes  charged  with  electricity.  The  coat 
on  the  inside  has  positive  electricity  and  that  on  the  outside  nega- 
tive, the  latter  produced  by  what  is  called  induction,  which  means 
the  development  of  electricity  by  a  charged  body  through  an  insu- 
lating medium. 

142.  The  jar  is  discharged  by  making  connection  between  the 
inside  and  outside  by  some  conducting  substance.  If  you  hold  the  jar 
so  that  one  hand  touches  the  outside  and  bring  the  other  hand  to  the 
rod  communicating  with  the  inside,  your  body  is  the  conducting 
medium  and  you  receive  a  shock,  dangerous  if  the  jar  is  heavily 
charged.  The  jar  may  be  so  heavily  charged  as  to  shock  a  hundred 
persons  who  form  a  circuit  by  joining  hands. 

143.  Lightning  is  the  effect  of  atmospheric  electricity.  It  is 
the  passage  of  the  electricity  from  one  cloud  to  another,  and  is 
similar  to  the  discharge  of  a  Leyden  jar.  The  famous  kite  experi- 
ment of  Franklin  established  the  identity  of  atmospheric  electricity 
with  that  produced  by  the  electrical  machine.  The  Aurora 
Borealis,  or  northern  light,  is  caused  by  the  passage  of  currents  of 
electricity  through  the  rarified  air  of  the  upper  regions. 

144.  "Lightning  Rods  protect  from  the  effects  of  lightning  by 
enabling  the  opposite  electricities  of  the  earth  and  cloud  gradually 
to  neutralize  each  other;  also  by  affording  a  passage  for  electrical 
discharges." 

145.  Current  electricity  may  be  considered  as  of  four  kinds: 
Magnetism,  Voltaic  electricity,  induced  currents,  thermo-electricity. 

146.  Magnetism  is  that  form  of  electric  energy  exhibited  by 
the  magnet,  a  body  which  has  the  property  of  attracting   iron,  and 


882  TMACHBRST  A.VD  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

if  suspended  so  as  to  turn  freely,  assumes  a  north-and-south  direc- 
tion. The  natural  magnet,  or  loadstone,  is  an  ore  of  iron.  An 
artificial  magnet   is  a  magnetized  piece  of  steel,  either    straight  or 

bent  in  the  form  of  a  horseshoe.  The  needle  of  the  mariner's 
compass  is  a  straight  magnet  balanced  so  as  to  turn  freely. 

147.  The  greatest  electrical  power  of  a  magnet  is  at  its  ends, 
which  arc  called  poles.  The  end  which  points  to  the  north  when 
suspended  is  called  the  north  pole,  or  positive  pole.  The  other  is 
called  the  south,  or  negative  pole.  Like  poles  repel  each  other 
and  unlike  poles  attract  each  other  (137).  If  a  magnet  be  broken 
each  piece  is  a  perfect  magnet.  An  armature  is  a  piece  of  soft 
iron  placed  in  contact  with  the  poles  of  a  horseshoe  magnet  to  pre- 
serve its  power. 

148.  The  earth  is  itself  a  great  magnet,  and  this  explains  why 
the  needle  points  north  and  south.  A  dipping  needle  is  one  which 
is  free  to  turn  in  a  vertical  plane.  At  the  equator  it  is  horizontal, 
but  as  it  is  carried  toward  the  north  it  dips,  or  inclines  toward  the 
center  of  the  earth.  At  a  place  near  Hudson's  Bay  it  stands  vertical. 
This  is  called  the  north  magnetic  pole.  It  does  not  coincide  with  the 
geographical  pole.  It  is  really  the  south  magnetic  pole,  if  we  con- 
sider the  earth  .is  a  magnet,  for  unlike  poles  attract,  or  else  we  must 
call  that  part  of  the  needle  which  points  to  the;  north,  the  south  pole. 

149.  If  a  piece  of  copper  and  a  piece  of  zinc  be  placed  in 
water  containing  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  ends  of  the  copper 
and  zinc  be  brought  together  or  connected  by  wires,  a  current  of 
electricity  will  be  established  between  them.  A  spark  may  be  seen 
in  the  dark,  if  the  two  wires  are  brought  near  together,  but  not  in 
actual  contact.  This  electricity  is  produced  by  the  chemical  action 
of  the  acid  on  the  metal  and  is  called  Voltaic,  or  galvanic  electricity. 
A  glass  vessel  containing  the  metals  and  acid  is  called  a  cell,  and 
several  cells  connected  together  constitute  a  galvanic  battery.  The 
metal  plate  in  which  the  che/nical  action  is  greatest  is  called  the 
positive  plate  and  the  other  the  negative  plate.  The  free  ends  of 
the  wires  are  called  electrodes,  the  one  attached  to  the  positive  plate 
is  the  negative  electrode  and  vice  versa. 

150.  "If  two  pieces  of  different  metals  he  soldered  together  and 
heated  at  their  junction,  an  electric  current  will  he  started.  If  they 
be  cooled,  the  current  will  pass  in  the  opposite  direction.  These  are 
called  thermo-electric  currents." 

151.  Currents  of  electricity  may  be  produced  by  induction, 
that  is  by  the  influence  of  magnets,  other  currents,  or  by  a  combi- 
nation of  magnets  and  currents.  The  magneto-electric  machine 
consists  of  two  coils  of  insulated  copper  wire  wrapped  on  cores  of 
soft  iron  and  made  to  revolve  near  the  poles  of  a  horseshoe  magnet. 
Each  time  they  come  near  the  poles  they  receive  an  impulse,  and 
these-  impulse^  succeeding  each  other  rapidly,  a  current  is  produced 
in  the  coils. 


NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY.  223 

152.  Among  the  numerous  important  applications  of  electricity 
may  be  mentioned  the  telegraph,  the  teleph  me  (112),  electrolysis, 
the  processes  of  electroplating  and  electrotyping  and  the  electric  light. 
Of  late  considerable  attention  is  being  paid  to  the  application  of 
electricity  as  a  motive  power.  The  applications  are  already  won- 
derful, and  what  the  future  may  develop  we  can  only  conjecture. 

153.  The  electric  telegraph  is  an  arrangement  for  sending 
messages  by  means  of  signals  made  by  breaking  and  closing  a  vol- 
taic circuit.    The  electric  telephone  has  been  explained.    (Sec.  112.) 

154.  Electrolysis  is  the  operation  of  effecting  the  decomposition 
of  chemical  compounds  by  means  of  a  current  of  electricity.  Water 
may  be  decomposed  and  separated  into  two  gases,  oxygen  and 
hydrogen.  (3).     (See  Chemistry.) 

155.  Electroplating  (sometimes  called  galvanizing),  is  the 
process  of  depositing  one  metal  on  the  surface  of  another  by  means 
of  a  voltaic  battery.  The  articles  to  be  plated  are  hung  on  a  rod 
connected  with  the  negative  electrode  and  suspended  in  a  solution 
of  a  compound  of  the  metal  to  be  deposited.  Plates  of  the  metal 
to  be  deposited  are  hung  in  the  solution  on  a  rod  connected  with 
positive  electrode.  The  thickness  of  the  deposit  depends  on  the 
time  the  operation  lasts.  Gold  and  silver  are  most  frequently  used 
to  plate  brass  and  copper.  Iron  and  steel  are  frequently  plated 
with  nickel. 

156.  Electrotyping  is  the  process  of  making  perfect  copies  of 
surfaces  by  means  of  a  removable  metallic  deposit.  Nearly  all  books 
are  printed  from  electrotype  plates.  A  mould  of  wax  or  similar 
substance,  is  first  made  of  the  object.  This  mould  is  rubbed  over 
with  plumbago  to  make  it  a  conductor.  It  is  then  hung  in  a  solu- 
tion of  sulphate  of  copper  from  the  negative  rod  and  a  plate  of 
copper  hung  suspended  from  the  positive  rod,  and  the  process  is  the 
same  as  in  electroplating,  the  copper  being  deposited  on  the  mould. 
The  wax  can  then  be  melted  off  and  a  perfect  facsimile  of  the 
object  is  obtained.     This  book  is  printed  from  plates  so  made. 

157.  Electric  Light  which  is  now  attracting  so  much  attention 
promises  to  supersede  all  other  kinds  of  artificial  light.  It  is  briefly 
described  in  Bakers  Philosophy  as  follows:  "On  breaking  and 
closing  a  voltaic  circuit  a  spark  usually  appears,  which  varies  in 
size  with  the  strength  of  the  battery.  When  the  current  of  a 
powerful  battery  passes  through  a  circuit,  interrupted  by  carbon 
rods  placed  a  short  distance  apart,  a  brilliant  light  of  very  high 
temperature  is  produced.  It  is  partly  due  to  combustion,  but  mainly 
to  incandescent  particles  of  carbon  moving  between  the  points  of 
the  rods,  chiefly  toward  the  negative  electrode." 

METHODS    OF    TEACHING   NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY. 

158.  Little  need  be  said  on  this  suhject,  if  the  reader  has  observed 
the    points    on    teaching  other     branches.     The    topic   method    of 


224  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  Bit  ART. 

instruction  can  be  carried  out  here    to  its    full  extent.      (See   School 
Management  and  General  Hints  on  Teaching.) 

159.  The  pupil ^  may  use  different  text-books.  Two  or  three 
Leading  points  of  the  outline  may  he  placed  on  the  blackboard  by 
the  teacher,  and  the  pupils  he  expected  to  attempt  to  elaborate  thein. 
Then  as  the  points  are  brought  out  in  the  class  discussion,  let  them 
be  written  on  the  hoard  and  copied  hy  the  pupils.  At  the  end  of 
a  term  of  study,  they  will  have  a  pretty  complete  outline  of  the 
whole  subject.  As  an  example  the  teacher  assigns  as  a  lesson,'^2 
Properties,"  and  suggests  the  general  divisions  "  Universal  and 
Specific,"  and  the  pupils  are  expected  to  write  the  proper  terms 
under  these  heads  and  he  able  to  define  and  illustrate  each. 

160.  A  thorough  understanding  of  the  subject  cannot  be  ob- 
tained unless  the  pupils  perform  experiments  illustrating  the  suhject 
matter.  Pupils  may  construct  much  of  their  own  apparatus  at  a 
slight  cost  of  time  and  in  most  cases  without  any  outlay  of  money. 
Where  apparatus  is  provided,  the  teacher  should  place  it  in  the 
hands  of  the  pupils  and  allow  them  to  perform  the  experiments 
under  his  guidance. 

161.  One  or  two  experiments  may  he  performed  each  day 
before  the  class,  the  pupils  taking  their  turns.  The  pupils  should 
come  before  the  class  prepared  to  perform  the  experiment  success- 
fully and  explain  it  satisfactorily,  answering  any  question  which 
may  he  asked  by  the  class  or  teacher.  That  he  may  he  prepared 
for  this,  he  should  have  time  previous  to  the  recitation  hour,  to  per- 
form the  experiment  in  private  and  study  his  apparatus  thoroughly. 

162.  Where  Nat.  Philosophy  is  taught  in  schools  as  a  drill  or 
recreation  to  young  pupils,  of  course  the  teacher  will  he  ohliged  to 
perform  most  of  the  experiments.  The  above  instructions  apply  to 
the  higher  grades  of  teaching  as  in  high  schools,  normal  schools  and 
colleges.     (vSee  Land's  Easy  Experiments  in  Natural  Philosophy-). 

QUKSTIONS    ON     NATURAL     PHILOSOPHY. 

i.  Define  Nat.  Philosophy.  2.  Define  matter;  body;  molecule;  atom.  3. 
Illustrate  the  theory  of  atoms  and  molecules.  4.  What  is  the  difference  be- 
tween Nat.  Phi.  and  Chemistry?  Illustrate.  5.  Universal  properties  of  mat- 
ter? 6.  Specific  properties?  "7 — 23.  Define  each.  Write  out  the  scale  of 
hardness. 

24.  What  are  the  states  of  matter?  25 — 27.  Define  each.  28.  What  is 
the  great  repellant  force?  29.  Define  force.  30.  Can  we  annihilate  force?  Il- 
lustrate. 32.  Define  massic  force.  33.  What  i-  energy?  Kinds?  34.  What 
are  the  molecular  forces?     35.   What  is  atomic  force? 

30.  Define  cohesion;  adhesion.  37.  Define  centrifugal  and  centripetal 
forces.  38.  What  is  gravitation?  Kinds?  39.  Law?  40.  Measure?  41.  Specific 
gravity?     42.   How  find   the   sj..  gr.  of  solids?     43.  Of  liquids?     44.  Of  gases? 

45.   What   are  the   general   laws  of  falling    bodies;      40.   Of  bodies  thrown 

upward?    47.  What    is  the  center  of  gravity  ?    48.  How  found?    49.  What  Is 
staple  equilibrium  ?     50.  Unstable?     51.  Neutral?     52.  Line  of  direction? 

What  is  a  simple  pendulum?    Compound  pendulum  ?    54.  Oscillation? 
Amplitude?     ■  -.  Laws  of  the  pendulum  ?    56.  Whatisthe   center  of  Oscilla- 


NATURAL   PHILOSOPHY.  22o 

tion?     Real  length?     57.  Uses?     5S.  Define  momentum?     59.  Vis  viva?    60. 
Illustrate.     61.  How  obtain  the  vis  viva? 

62.  What  are  the  resistances  to  motion?  63.  Define  friction.  Kinds?  64. 
Parallelogram  of  forces?  65.  Resultant?  66.  Circular  motion?  67.  Angles 
of  incidence  and  reflection?  68.  What  is  a  machine  ?  What  are  the  elements 
of  machinerv  ? 

69.  What  is  the  fundamental  law  of  all  machinery?  70.  Define  lever; 
power;  weight;  fulcrum.  71.  Kinds  of  levers?  72.  Law  of  the  lever?  73. 
Compound  lever?  74.  What  is  the  wheel  and  axle?  75.  Pulley?  76.  In- 
clined plane?     77.  Wedge?     Screw? 

78.  Define  welding?  Why  do  drops  of  oil  assume  a  globular  form?  79. 
Why  does  the  paper  stick  to  the  wall?  81.  Define  capillary  attraction.  82. 
What  is  meant  by  the  difiusion  oi  liquids  and  gases?     S3.  What  is  osmose? 

84.  Define  hvdrostatics.  85.  What  is  the  law  of  the  transmission  of  pres- 
sure in  licpuds?  "86.  What  is  Pascal's  law?  S7.  The  hydrostatic  press?  88. 
Explain  the  Artesian  well.  89.  Spirit  level?  90.  Define  hydraulics.  91.  How 
find  the  quantity  of  water  discharged  in  a  given  time  from  a  given  orifice? 

92.  Whv  does  a  stream  run  more  rapidly  in  the  center  than  at  the  margins? 
93.  Explain  "Barker's  Mill.  94.  What  practical  application  of  the  same  prin- 
ciple? 

95.  Define  pneumatics.  96.  Describe  the  air  pump?  98.  Torricelli's  ex- 
periment? 99.  What  is  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  equal  to?  100.  How- 
high  can  water  be  raised  by  atmospheric  pressure?  Explain  the  action  of  the 
common  pump.  101.  What  is  the  barometer?  102.  The  siphon?  103.  Ex- 
plain its  action. 

104.  Define  acoustics.  105.  Sound?  106.  Velocity  of  sound?  107.  Medi- 
um? Amplitude?  Intensity?  108.  Laws  of  reflection?  109.  What  is  refrac- 
tion? no.  Resonance?  III.  Define  music.  112.  Describe  the  telephone. 
113.  The  microphone.     114.  The  phonograph.     115.  The  photophone. 

116.  Define  optics.  117.  Light.  118.  When  is  a  body  transparent?  Trans- 
lucent? Opaque?  119.  What  is  the  visual  angle?  120.  What  is  the  law  of 
intensity?  121.  Velocity  of  light?  122.  What  is  true  of  light  falling  on  an 
opaque  bodv  ?     123.  What  is  a  lens?     Kinds? 

124.  What  is  the  composition  of  light?  125.  Define  heat;  cold.  126. 
What  are  the  sources  of  heat ?  127.  Latent  heat?  Sensible  heat?  Specific 
heat?  128.  Effects  of  heat?  129.  The  thermometer?  130.  What  is  the  boil- 
ing point  of  water? 

131.  In  how  many  ways  is  heat  communicated?  132.  What  is  electricity  ? 
133.  What  is  statical  electricity?  Current  electricity?  134.  How  is  statical 
electricity  developed?     135.  Why  does  a  cat's  back  give  sparks  when  rubbed? 

136." What  are  conductors?"  Non-conductors?  137.  What  is  the  law  of 
positive  and  negative  electricities?  138.  Describe  the  electrical  machine.  141— 
142.  The  Levdenjar?  143.  What  is  lightning?  144.  How  do  lightning-rods 
protect?  146.  What  is  a  magnet?  147.  The  poles  of  a  magnet?  14S.  What 
is  a  dipping  needle  ?  Why  does  it  point  north  and  south  ?  Where  is  the  north 
magnetic  pole  ?  149.  What  is  galvanic  electricity?  What  is  an  electrode  ?  150. 
What  is  thermo-electricitv  ? 

151.  What  is  induction?  152.  What  important  applications  of  electricity  V 
153.  Descrbe  the  telegraph.  154.  Electrolysis?  155.  Electroplating?  156. 
Electrotvping?     157.  What  is  the  electric  light? 

159."  Do  you  require  a  uniformity  of  text-books  in  your  class  in  Nat. 
Philosophy?"  160.  Do  you  perform  the  experiments  yourself  or  do  you  require 
the  pupils  to  perform  them  ?  Do  you  occasionally  give  a  drill  or  lecture  on  some 
subject  of  Nat.  Philosophy  and  illustrate  it  with  experiments  as  a  general  exer- 
cise for  the  whole  school? 


15 


GEOLOGY. 


3a 

Metamorphic. 

i 

As  to  Time  of  Formation 

i2 

Archaean  Time. 
i3     Divisions. 

(17) 

2s     Kinds  of  Rock 

33     Fossils. 

43     Location. 

53     Duration. 

22 

Paleozoic  Time. 

(21). 

32 

Mesozoic  Time. 

(25)- 

42 

Cenozoic  Time. 

(26). 

GENERAL    OUTLINE    OF    GEOLOGY. 
Each  point  may  be  elaborated  by  the  pupils.     See  note  to  Outline  on  Physiology 

Rocks. 

i1     As  to  Composition.     (6). 

i2     Silica  Series.    (7). 

22     Alumina  Series.     (9). 

33     Calcia  Series.     (10). 

42     Silicate  Series.     (11). 
21     As  to  Structure.     (17). 

i2     Stratified  Condition. 

22     Unstratified  Condition. 
31     As  to  Modes  of  Formation.     (13). 

i2     Igneous. 

22     Sedimentary. 

[In  outlining  and   discussing  any  Time,    Age  or   Period   the   same  subordinates   may  be 
used  as  given  above  under  I2      Archaean  Time. ''] 

GEOLOGY. 

1.  Geology  is  the  history  of  the  earth,  or  more  properly  of  the 
earth's  crust,  as  we  know  nothing  certain  of  its  interior.  It  in- 
cludes a  discussion  of  progress  in  the  development  of  the  solid 
structures  which  make  up  its  crust,  the  changes  in  all  physical  con- 
ditions, as  light,  heat  and  moisture,  and  the  development  of  life  as 
shown  by  the  fossil  remains. 

2.  The  word  rock  in  Geology  signifies  any  lifeless  constituent 
of  the  earth's  crust,  whether  of  organic  or  inorganic  origin.  A 
fossil  is  literallv  anything  dug  out  of  the  earth,  but  the  term  is 
usually  applied  to  the  petrified  remains  of  plants  and  animals.  Pet- 
rifaction means  literallv  converting  to  stone,  but  it  must  not  be 
supposed  that  the  tissues  of  a  plant  or  animal  actually  turn  to  stone, 
but  that  stony  or  earthy  material  has  simply  taken  the  place  of  the 
organic  matter  wholly  or  in  part,  and  preserved  the  form  and  struc- 
ture more  or  less  perfect. 

3.  In  Geology  we  need  pay  but  little  attention  to  the  ultimate 
constitution  of  rocks,  a  subject  which  belongs  properly  to  chemistry, 
but  we  need  to  know  something  of  their  proximate  elements,  as  upon 
this  we  base  a  classification.  When  we  speak  of  ultimate  constitu- 
tion we  mean  the  simple  or  ultimate  elements  as  carbon,  oxyjren, 
si/icon,  etc.,  to  which  they  can  be  reduced  by  chemical  analysis. 
By  proximate  elements  we  mean  the  various  stable  compounds  of 
the  simple  elements,  as  silicon,  or  quartz,  calcium,  carbonate,  or  lime- 
stone, etc. 


GEO LOG  i\  227 

4.  Of  the  64  simple  elements  which  are  generally  recognized 
as  making  up  the  matter  of  the  globe,  only  about  20  exist  in  any 
abundance  or  are  of  much  importance,  while  of  this  number  four 
or  five  by  their  various  combinations  with  each  other  and  with  the 
rest,  make  up  the  greater  part  of  the  bulk  of  the  matter  of  the  earth. 
Oxygen  is  the  most  abundant  of  all,  forming  about  one-half  of  the 
entire  matter  of  the  globe.  Silicon  is  probably  next  in  abundance. 
A  union  of  oxygen  and  silicon  forms  silica  or  quartz,  and  this  again 
unites  with  other  elements  and  forms  a  class  of  compounds  called 
silicates. 

5.  Quartz  and  silicates  make  up  a  large  share  of  the  solid 
parts  of  the  earth.  Oxygen  in  combination  with  hydrogen  pro- 
duces water,  and  in  combination  with  hydrogen  and  carbon  forms 
the  greater  part  of  all  the  matter  of  plants  and  animals.  Carbon, 
calcium  and  oxygen  form  limestone,  another  abundant  rock. 

6.  The  composition  of  rocks  in  general  may  be  considered 
uuder  four  series  according  to  their  principal  proximate  elements: 
1.  Silica.  2.  Alumina.  3.  Calcia.  4.  Silicates.  There  are  a  few 
other  important  minerals  which  cannot  be  referred  to  this  classifica- 
tion, as  metals  with  their  ores,  sulphides,  chlorides,  etc. 

7.  Silica  is  a  combination  of  silicon  (one  of  the  ultimate  ele- 
ments never  found  existing  free  or  uncombined) ,  and  oxygen. 
Quartz  is  only  another  name  for  silica,  yet  the  term  is  also  applied 
with  various  qualifying  adjectives  to  denote  some  of  the  varieties  of 
silica  produced  by  the  various  impurities  and  by  differences  in  struc- 
ture. Silica  is  the  most  abundant  of  rocks  and  comprises  nearly 
one-half  of  the  matter  of  the  crust  of  the  earth.  It  may  be  known 
by  the  following  general  characteristics: — 

1.  Hard  enough  to  scratch- glass — cannot  be  scratched  with  a  knife. 

2.  Strikes  fire  with  steel. 

3  Has  no  cleavage  (the  property  of  breaking  into  regular  fragments  in 
certain  fixed  directions,  leaving  smooth  lustrous  surfaces),  but  breaks  irregularly. 

4.  Insoluble  in  any  acid  except  hydro-fluoric. 

5.  Will  not  melt  in  an  ordinary  fire,  requiring  the  heat  of  the  compound 
blow  pipe. 

6.  Color,  various,  generally  due  to  mixture    with  compounds  of  iron. 

7.  When  perfect  crystals  are  formed  they  are  of  the  form  of  six  sided 
prisms  with  six  faces  at  the  ends. 

8.  The  following  are  the  most  important  of  the  many  varieties 
of  silica: — 

1.  Bock  Crystal,  pure  silica  in  a  crystalline  form,  cut  for  jewelry  and 
sold  as  "  Alaska  Diamonds,"  used  for  lenses  and  formerly  cut  into  vases  and 
cups,  which  were  of  great  value. 

2.  Rose  Quartz,  with  rose-colored  spots  or  with  a  pink  or  rose-red  color 
diffused  throughout  the  mass  and  of  a  semi-transparent  appearance. 

3.  Smokv,  milkv,  greasy,  glassy,  granular,  jasfxrv,  amethystine,  limpid, 
etc.,  are  terms  applied  "to  Varieties  of  quartz  differing  in  color  or  appearance. 
(See  Dana's  Mineralogy?) 

4.  Chalcedony,  waxy  or  horn  like  in  appearance,  of  which  there  are 
several  varieties,  as  agate,  cornelian,  etc. 


328  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

v     Amethyst,  purple  or  violet  crystals. 

6.  Jas/>rr,  dull,  opaque,  massive,  red,  yellow  or  brown  in  color.  Blood- 
stone and  touchstone  are  varieties. 

7.  Flint,  various  colors,  breaking  with  aconchoidal  or  shell-like  fracture. 

8.  Hornstoue,  nearly  like  flint  but  breaking  with  a  splintering  fracture. 

9.  Chert,  dull  looking,  with  lime  as  an  impurity. 

10.  Opal,  contains  water  in  combination,  little  softer  than  other    varieties 
of  silica  and  soluble  in  a  heated  solution  of  potash,  color  white  with  reflections. 

11.  Bukrstone,  a  cellular  variety,  the  cells  formed  by  the  partial  dissolving 
out  of  the  limestone,  which  forms  a  part  of  it. 

12.  Sand,  and  much  of  the  gravel  are  composed  of  fragments  of  quartz 
of  varying  size  and  appearance. 

9.  Alumina  is  a  compound  of  the  simple  element  aluminum 
and  oxygen.  It  is  harder  than  quartz  and  when  pure  and  crystal- 
line and  blue  it  is  the  sapphire,  when  red  the  oriental  ruby.  Cor- 
undum and  emery  are  dull  colored  varieties. 

10.  To  the  calcia  or  lime  series  belong  the  various  combina- 
tions of  the  simple  element  calcium  with  other  elements.  Thus  we 
have  the  carbonate  of  calcium  of  which  there  are  the  following 
varieties : — 

1.  Limestone,  of  various  colors  caused  by  impurities,  but  easily  distin- 
guished by  its  being  easily  scratched  with  a  knife,  effervescing  with  an  acid  and 
by  its  peculiar  odor  when  two  pieces  are  struck  together.  There  are  many 
varieties  generally  named  from  the  locality  where  found. 

2.  Iceland-spar  which  has  the  power  of  double  refraction;  dogtooth-spar 
and  ncaUiead-spar  are  varieties  of  the  crystalline  form. 

3.  Chalk  is  a  porous,  light  variety,  generally  white  but  sometimes  of  va- 
rious colors. 

4.  Stalactites  and  stalagmites,  formed  by  dripping  water,  holding  a 
carbonate  of  calcium  in  solution  from  roofs  of  caves;  calcareous  tufa  and  petrified 
moss  formed  by  deposit  of  the  same  on  growing  moss  or  other  vegetation. 

5.  Oolite,  in  the  form  of  small  rounded  grains  compacted  together,  resem- 
bling the  roe  of  a  fish. 

6.  Marl,  mixed  with  clay  and  in  a  loose,  friable  condition. 

7.  Dolomite  and  rhomb-spar  are  varieties  containing  magnesia,  sometimes 
called  magnesian  limestone. 

The  sulphate  of  calcium  or  gypsum  is  softer  than  the  carbonate,  may  be 
scratched  bv  the  finger  nail,  and  does  not  effervesce  with  acids.  When  burned 
it  forms  "  plaster  •■/'Paris."     The  varieties  are  satin-spar,  sclenilc  and   alabaster. 

11.  Silicates  are  compounds  of  silica  with  other  compounds. 
We  have  the  following  principal  varieties: — 

1.  Fi  Id -spar,  not  so  hard  as  quartz,  with  regular  cleavage  in  two 
directions  nearly  at  right  angles  with  each  other,  and  does  not  dissolve  in  acids. 
It  is  a  silicate  of  alumina  with  either  potassium,  sodium  or  calcium.  When 
potassium  is  an  ingredient  it  is  orthoclase,  when  sodium,  albite,  when  calcium, 
labradoriti . 

2.  Hornblende,  black  or  greenish  black  generally.  Asbestos  is  a  fibrous 
variety  remarkable  from  the  fact  that  it  may  be  woven  into  cloth  which  is  fire- 
proof. 

3.  Talc,  one  of  the  softest  of  rocks,  can  be  easily  scratched  with  the  fin- 
ger nail — has  usual!  v  a  greasy  or  soapy  feel.  "French  cha/h,"  soapstone,  or 
steatite  serpentine  are  varieties. 

4.  Mica,  erroneously  called  isinglass  by  some,  is  readily  distinguished  by 
its  quality  of  splitting  into  exceedingly  thin  elastic  plates  which  are  transparent 
generally,  but  in  a  mass  of  considerable  thickness  the  whole  is  opaque. 


GEOLOGT.  229 

5.  Tourmaline,  black,  red,  green  or  white  in  long  prisms  which  are  1 ,  6, 
9  or  12  sided  and  usually  furrowed. 

6.  Clay  is  a  mixture  of  finely  pulverized  feld-spar  and  quartz  with  some 
limestone,  magnesia  and  oxide  of  iron.  The  presence  of  the  latter  causes  the 
bricks  burned  from  clay  to  be  red. 

12.  Varieties  ot"  rocks  arc  distinguished  ordinarily  by  the  fol- 
lowing characters: — 

1.  Relative  hardness  ascertained  by  scratching  one  with 
another  or  with  the  finger  nail  or  knife.  2.  Specific  gravity.  3. 
Cleavage.  4.  Fusibility.  5.  Action  of  acids.  6.  Crystalline  form. 
7.  Color  and  luster.     8.  Chemical  composition.     (6). 

13.  As  to  manner  of  formation,  or  origin,  rocks  may  be  clas- 
sified as:  1.  Sedimentary, or  those  which  have  been  formed  by  the 
deposit  of  solid  material  in  water,  and  usually  is  in  layers.  2.  Igne- 
ous, those  which  have  been  thrown  to  the  surface  in  a  melted  state, 
not  usually  in  layers;  3.  Metamorphic,  which  have  been  originally 
sedimentary  but  have  been  altered  by  heat  and  great  pressure. 

14.  Of  sedimentary  rocks  we  may  have  the  following  divi- 
sions : — 

1.  Sandstone,  simply  consolidated  sand  (8)  sometimes  mixed  with  ime- 
stone  or  clay  when  it  may  be  :  ( 1)  siliceous,  nearly  all  quartz  sand ;  (2)  argilla- 
ceous, mixed  with  clay  ;'(3)  calcareous,  mixed  with  limestone. 

2.  Conglomerate,  gravel  consolidated.  As  to  nature  of  the  pebbles  it 
maybe:  (1)  pudding  stone,  rounded  pebbles;  (2)  breccia,  angular  fragments.  As 
to  nature  of  cementing  material  it  may  be:  (1)  calcareous ;  (2)  siliceous;  (3) 
ferruginous. 

3.  Shale,  consolidated  clay  with  other  ingredients  mixed,  separated  into 
thin  layers,  very  fragile. 

"4.  Limestone,  frequently  containing  many  fossils  when  called  fossilifcr- 
ous;  sometimes  almost  made  up  of  a  certain  kind  of  fossil  as  crinoids,  when 
called  crinoided. 

15.  Igneous  rocks  are  variously  classified  by  authors.  We 
will  here  mention  only  a  few  kinds:  (1)  basalt  which  is  principally 
horneblende  and  feld-spar;  (2)  dolorite,  almost  the  same  but  more 
granular,  often  in  columns ;  (3)  porphyry,  consisting  of  compact  feld- 
spar with  crystals  of  the  same  through  it;  (4)  amygdaloid, cellular, 
resembling  almonds;  (5)  trachyte,  rough,  porous;  (6)  lava,  matter 
from  volcanoes,  with  following  varieties:  (1)  scoria,  very  porous 
and  light;  (2)  pumice  stone  lengthened  cavities  caused  by  running 
of  the  lava  stream;  (3)   obsidian,  glassy  and  solid.     (See  Physical 

Geography). 

16.  The  most  important  metamorphic  rocks  are: — 

1.  Granite,  which  is  composed  of  feld-spar  quartz  and  mica  in  varying 
proportions.  When  feld-spar  predominates  it  is  called  feldsfathxc  granite,  when 
quartz,  quartzose,  and  when  mica,  micaceous.  Sometimes  the  different  ingredi- 
ents are  in  large  masses  so  that  while  the  entire  rock  would  be  called  granite, 
small  fragments  could  be  broken  out  representing  pure  specimens  respectively 
of  quartz,  feld  spar  and  mica.  Again  the  fragments  of  each  may  be  so  small 
and  so  intimately  mixed  as  to  seem  almost  a  homogeneous  mass. 


•230  TEACHERS1  AND   STUDENTS'  LIU  MART. 

i.  Gneiss  is  similar  to  granite  except  that  the  ingredients  are  arranged  in 
layers,  giving  it  stratification.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  between 
them,  however,  as  they  grade  into  each  other  insensibly. 

3.  Syenite  differs  from  granite  in  that  horneblende  takes  the  place  of 
mica.  Much  of  that  which  is  called  granite  by  builders  is  really  syenite, 
"Quincv  granite  "  being  an  example. 

.(.  Mica  Schist  is  composed  mostly  of  mica  in  small  scales,  with  some 
quartz  and  sometimes  feld-spar.  Mica  schist  and  micaceous  granite  thus  grade 
into  each  01  her. 

5.  Marble  is  limestone  changed  by  heat  and  pressure.  It  isoften  colored 
bv  oxides  of  iron  and  presents  a  beautiful,  mottled  appearance.  Such  is  the 
'•  Tennessee  marble" 

6.  Slate  is  metamorphosed  clay  or  shale.  Talcosc  schist,  chlorite  schist 
are  also  metamorphic  rocks  of  the  slaty  variety. 

17.  As  to  structure,  rocks  are  stratified  or  unstratified.  A  few 
definitions  are  here  necessary.  A  stratum  is  a  collection  of  layers 
of  one  kind  of  rock,  varying  in  thickness  from  a  few  inches  to 
hundreds  of  feet.  A  number  of  strata  which  were  formed  at  the 
same  time  and  having  a  general  similarity  as  to  fossil  remains,  is 
called  a  formation.  Geologists,  however,  are  not  uniform  in  their 
use  of  this  term.  Strata  are  horizontal,  vertical,  inclined  or  con- 
torted. The  angle  which  an  inclined  strata  makes  with  the  horizon 
is  called  the  dip.  It  is  by  means  of  this  angle  and  the  extent  along 
the  surface  that  the  thickness  of  inclined  strata  may  be  calculated. 
Vertical  cracks  or  fissures  in  rocks  often  occur  and  the  strata  on  one 
side  may  slip  down  so  that  the  twosidesdo  not  correspond.  This  is 
called  a  fault.  Concretions  are  rounded  masses  of  rock  sometimes 
with  layers  like  the  coats  of  an  onion.  They  are  formed  by  the 
tendency  of  matter  to  collect  around  a  center,  the  nucleus  some- 
times being  a  fossil  plant  or  animal.  Geodes  are  peculiar  concre- 
tions containing  crystals  generally  of  quartz,  sometimes  hollow  con- 
taining loose  grains  or  crystals,  and  sometimes  the  cavity  contains 
water.  Veins  and  dikes  are  fissures  in  rocks  which  have  been  filled 
with  material  in  a  melted  state.  Veins  are  filled  with  quartz, 
metallic  ores,  calcareous  spar,  etc.  Dikes  are  filled  with  volcanic 
matter  or  other  igneous  rocks.  Veins  containing  metallic  ores  are 
called  lodes. 

18.  As  we  may  divide  the  history  of  the  U.  S.  into  periods  or 
divisions  based  upon  certain  great  events  or  changes,  so  we  may 
divide  the  history  of  the  earth's  crust.  Thus  we  may  classify  rocks 
as  to  time  of  formation.  The  first  grand  divisions  of  Geologic 
history  are  called  Times.  Times  arc  divided  again  into  Ages, 
ages  into  Periods,  and  periods  into  Epochs,  epochs  sometimes  into 
Groups.  These  are  all  marked  by  differences  in  animal  and  vege- 
table remains,  and  by  difference  in  kinds  of  rocks.  This  book  of 
Nature  is  a  hard  one  to  read.  The  lines  are  not  plainly  drawn 
between  these  divisions.  Strata  were  not  formed  over  the  earth  at 
the  same  time  nor  under  the  same  conditions  and  great  convulsions 
have  from  time  to  time  disturbed  the  order,  as  shown  by  the   strata 


GEOLOGY.  231 

being  inclined,  set  up  vertically  and  even  turned  completely  over  so 
that  the  oldest  rocks  lie  on  top  of  the  later  formations.  A  number 
of  facts  must  be  considered  in  determining  the  age  of  rocks,  but  the 
principal  one  to  be  relied  upon  is  the  nature  of  the  fossil  remains. 
The  study  of  Paleontology  then,  is  necessary  to  the  study  of  Geology. 

19.  We  have  not  space  here  to  discuss  the  Nebular  Hypothe- 
sis but  according  to  its  demands  there  was  a  time  when  the  earth 
was  in  a  gaseous  state,  then  cooled  to  a  liquid  and  finally  to  a  solid 
shell  or  crust  enclosing  a  molten  mass  and  covered  with  an  ocean 
of  water  too  warm  for  animal  or  vegetable  life.  By  further  cool- 
ing and  contracting,  portions  of  the  solid  nucleus  beneath  were 
elevated  above  the  water.  This  first  land  was  of  course  without 
life.  So  the  oldest  rocks  have  been  called  Azoic,  without  life. 
New  discoveries  are  almost  constantly  being  made  and  life  has  been 
traced  much  further  than  was  formerly  supposed,  and  at  present  we 
know  not  exactly  where  to  draw  the  lines.  The  term  Archaean 
has  lately  been  applied  to  include  what  was  formerly  called  the 
Azoic  time.  The  next  grand  division  is  called  the  Paleozoic  Time. 
Next  going  up  in  the  scale  we  have  the  Mesozoic  Time  and  lastly 
the  Cenozoic  Time.  Thus  we  have  four  grand  divisions  of  Geolo- 
gic history  based  upon  the  development  of  life. 

20.  The  rocks  of  the  Archaean  time  are  supposed  to  be  the 
foundation  of  the  earth's  crust,  underlying  all  others  but  covered  so 
deeply  by  later  formations   that  they    cannot  be   seen    except   at   a 
few  points  where  they  "  crop  out"  and  form  the  surface  rocks.     In 
North  America  they  form  a   V   shaped   tract  extending   from  the 
great  lakes  to  Labrador  and  the  Arctic   Ocean.     (See  maps  in  any 
good  text-book).     The  rocks  of  this  division  are  generally  granite, 
gneiss,  marble,  etc.,  being  mostly  metamorphic  showing   that   they 
were  not  the  original  crust  but  washings  deposited  in  the  ocean  bed 
changed  by  the  internal  heat  and  upheaved  and  mingled    with    vol- 
canic material  from  the  internal  molten  mass.     That  life   existed   is 
probable  from  the  existence  of  such   rocks   as  limestone,  graphite, 
iron,  silica,  etc.,  which  are  shown  in   marry   cases  to   be  of  organic 
origin.  The  first  life  must  have  been  vegetable  since  the  animal  sub- 
sists upon  the  vegetable,  but  whatever  existed  it  was  of  the   lowest 
form.     The  Eozodn  Canadctise  is  the   oldest,  or  first   form   of  life 
that  has  been  identified  by   its   remains.     It   is  supposed   to  be  an 
animal  of  the  class    Rhizopods    of  a   very  low    order.     This   time 
has  been  divided  into  two  ages,  the  Azoic  and   Eozoic,  but   as   the 
exact  point  where  life  began  has  not  been  determined,  the  line  can- 
not be  definitelv  drawn.      Two  distinct  periods  have  been  recognized 
and  are  frequently    referred   to   by   geologists  as     Laurentian    and 
Huronian.     As  the  Eozoic  Age  is  not   definitelv   fixed   we    cannot 
siv  that  these  periods  are  divisions  of  this  age,  but  simply   conven- 
ient terms  for  describing  formations  which   differ   in  their  arrange- 
ment and  kinds  of  rock. 


232  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

21.  The  Paleozoic  Time  is  divided  into  three  ages  marked  by 
characteristic  forms  of  life.  They  are  the  •Silurian,  the  Devonian 
and  the    Carboniferous. 

22.  The  Silurian  Age  or  age  of  mollusks  has  for  conven- 
ience been  divided  into  the  Upper  Silurian  and  Lower  Silurian, 
which  may  be  considered  as  sub-ages.  Each  of  these  have  been 
divided  into  periods.  The  rocks  of  this  age  crop  out  or  form  the 
surface  rocks  in  most  of  the  interior  States,  especially  in  New  York, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Missouri  and  along  the  borders  of  the  Archaean 
rocks  in  Canada,  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota.  The  kinds 
of  rock  are  various,  consisting  of  immense  beds  of  limestone,  sand- 
stone, shales,  marl,  millstone  grit,  etc.  Many  of  them  are  abundant 
in  fossils  representing  the  sub-kingdoms,  Protozoa,  Radiata,  Mol- 
lusca  and  Articulata.  Vertebrata  represented  by  some  very  low 
forms  of  fishes  make  their  appearance  only  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
Upper  Silurian.  The  vegetable  kingdom  is  represented  by  sea- 
weeds and  some  lower  forms  of  land  plants.  The  most  interesting 
fossil  perhaps  is  the  Trilobite,  an  articulate,  several  species  of  which 
are  found  in  a  very  perfect  state  of  preservation.  The  eves  in  some 
species  are  so  perfectly  preserved  as.  to  show  their  compound  nature 
like  the  eyes  of  most  insects  of  the  present  daw  There  are  no 
living  representatives  of  this  order. 

23.  The  Devonian  Age,  or  Age  of  Fishes,  comes  next  to 
the  Silurian.  It  forms  the  surface  rocks  in  New  York,  where  it 
has  been  particularly  studied  and  the  periods  named,  and  in  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  most  of  the  northern  interior  States.  Limestones, 
sandstones  and  shales  principally  compose  the  formations.  Much 
valuable  building  material  is  obtained  from  the  Devonian  limestone 
and  sandstone.  Petroleum  is  frequently  found  in  the  rocks  of  the 
carboniferous  period.  Fossils  of  all  the  sub-kingdoms  are  found,  but 
the  age  is  especially  noted  for  the  number  of  fossil  fishes.  Insects 
first  make  their  appearance  in  this  age.  Higher  forms  of  land 
plants  also  appear. 

24.  The  third  or  upper  division  of  the  Paleozoic  Time  is  called 
the  Carboniferous  Age,  or  Age  of  Coal  Plants.  These  rocks 
come  to  the  surface  over  a  large  part  of  the  I  .  S.,  the  principal 
regions  being  from  .Southern  New  York,  through  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  Kentucky,  Virginia,  Tennessee  and  Alabama,  on  both  sides 
of  the  Mississippi  R.,  in  parts  of  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri  and 
Iowa,  with  isolated  regions  in  Michigan  and  Rhode  Island,  and 
Massachusetts.  The  rocks  are  mostly  limestone  and  sandstone, 
with  seams  or  beds  of  coal  varying  in  thickness  from  that  of  a 
sheet  of  paper  to  p>  feet.  The  presence  of  coal,  together  with  the 
evidence  of  its  being  of  vegetable  origin,  and  the  immense  number 
of  fossil  plants  found,  warrant  us  in  concluding  that  at  this  stage  of 
the  earth's  history  vegetation  flourished  in  much  greater  luxuriance 
than  now.      The  principal  bulk  of  coal  is  carbon,  which    is   also  the 


GEO  LOOT.  233 

principal  constituent  of  all  vegetable  structures.  Plants  get  carbon 
from  the  carbonic  oxide  of  the  air.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  the  at- 
mosphere of  this  time  was  heavily  loaded  with  this  gas,  and  that  only 
lower  forms  of  animals  could  exist,  and  this  we  find  to  be  true,  as 
remains  of  higher  forms  do  not  appear  until  in  later  formations. 
The  sub-kingdoms  of  animal  life  are  all  represented,  but  there  are 
no  large  forms,  and  most  of  the  life  belongs  to  the  water-. 

25.  The  Mksozoic  Time  comprises  but  one  age,  the  Age  of 
Reptiles,  which  is  divided  into  three  periods,  Triassic,  Jurassic  and 
Cretaceous.  The  two  former  are  not  well  separated  in  the  U.  S. 
They  appear  in  the  Atlantic  States  and  in  the  Rocky  Mt.  region, 
the  rocks  consisting  mostly  of  sandstone.  The  fossils  are  charac- 
teristic and  wonderful.  Immense  forms,  half  reptile  and  half  bird, 
sported  in  the  waters  or  flapped  through  the  air.  Birds  and 
mammals  make  their  appearance  for  the  first.  The  Cretaceous 
rocks  appear  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  in  Texas  and  on  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Rockv  Mts.  They  are  mostly  limestone  and  sand- 
stone in  this  country,  but  in  England  immense  beds  of  chalk  occur. 
The  "  marl  beds  "  of  New  Jersey  belong  to  this  period.  The  fossils 
are  similar  to  the  Triassic  and  Jurassic,  many  strange  reptilian 
forms  occurring. 

26.  The  Cenozoic  Time,  the  last  grand  division  of  Geologic 
history,  is  divided  into  two  ages,  the  Tertiary,  or  Age  of Mammals, 
and  the  Quaternary,  or  Age  of  Man.  The  rocks  of  the  Tertiary 
Age  appear  on  the  borders  of  the  Atlantic,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  Pacific  in  North  America,  and  consist  principally  of  marine 
and  fresh  water  deposits,  forming  beds  of  sand,  clay,  marl,  and 
sometimes  sandstone,  limestone  and  buhrstone,  and  lignite  or  car- 
bonized wood,  and  in  Colorado,  Utah,  California  and  some  other 
places  valuable  beds  of  coal.  The  strange  and  huge  reptilian  forms 
now  give  place  to  immense  mammalian  species  which  reach  their 
greatest  size  in  the  Quaternary.  The  Mastodon,  Mammoth, 
and  others  of  that  type  existed  just  previous  to  the  advent  of 
man,  in  fact  claimed  by  some  to  be  contemporary  with  primitive 
man. 

27.  The  term  drift  is  employed  to  designate  the  immense  de- 
posits of  sand,  gravel,  clay  and  boulders  or  loose  rocks  which  exist 
over  a  great  part  of  the  American  continent.  The  origin  of  this 
material  is  referred  to  a  "  Glacial  Period"  when  from  some  cause 
a  change  of  climate  caused  immense  masses  of  ice,  either  in  the 
form  of  icebergs  or  glaciers,  to  plow  their  way  over  the  continent, 
bringing  the  material  from  the  Archaean  beds  and  depositing  it 
over  the  existing  formations,  and  at  the  same  time  scoring  and  groov- 
ing the  underlying  rocks.  It  is  our  pin  pose  here  only  to  call  atten- 
tion to  this  interesting  question,  not  having  the  space  to  explain 
further.  We  would  refer  the  student  to  his  text-book  on  Geology 
for  arguments  and  facts  concerning  the  "  Glacial  Period." 


234  TEACHERS'  AXD  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

HIXTS    TO    THE    TEACHER. 

28.  It  will  be  best  to  begin  the  study  of  Geology  with  a  study 
of  the  inorganic  constituents  of  rocks,  and  continue  until  the  pupil  is 
somewhat  familiar  with  the  principal  kinds  of  rocks  which  may  be 
gathered  by  the  pupils,  or  which  may  be  found  in  the  cabinet  of  the 
institution. 

29.  Pupils  should  have  the  privilege  of  handling  and  testing 
the  specimens  in  various  ways,  as  by  scratching  with  a  knife,  ap- 
plying acids,  etc.,  and  be  taught  to  distinguish  them  by  these  tests 
and  by  general  appearance,  as  cleavage,  reflection,  transmission  and 
refraction  of  light,  by  color,  specific  gravity,  etc.  In  no  other  way 
will  pupils  acquire  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  composition  of 
rocks. 

30.  Excursions  to  fields,  quarries,  streams,  etc.,  for  the  purpose 
of  collecting  specimens  and  observing  natural  formations,  should  be 
of  frequent  occurrence.  There  is  scarcely  a  place  in  the  U.  S. 
where  "  drift  "  material  is  not  abundant,  and  from  which  cabinets 
of  from  25  to  50  specimens  may  be  obtained,  showing  the  many 
varieties  of  quartz  and  other  igneous  rocks,  while  in  all  mountain- 
ous and  hilly  regions  there  are  many  minerals  which  may  be  col- 
lected by  the  pupils.  Each  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  secure  a 
cabinet  of  his  own  gathering,  which  lie  may  afterward  enlarge  by 
exchanges  and  purchases. 

31.  The  teacher  may  illustrate  the  divisions  of  Geologic  his- 
tory and  the  inclinations,  breaking  up,  folding  and  divisions  of 
strata,  by  means  of  books  laid  on  top  of  each  other  in  various  posi- 
tions, and  by  folding  the  leaves  of  a  book. 

32.  Geology  may  be  taught  to  a  certain  extent  incidentally 
with  Geography,  and  as  a  general  exercise  for  the  whole  school  by 
means  of  brief  lectures,  accompanied  with  questions,  exhibitions  of 
specimens,  etc.  Children  in  country  schools  will  take  delight  in 
collecting  specimens  and  bringing  them  to  the  teacher.  A  school 
cabinet  may  be  formed  in  this  way,  by  successive  teachers,  which 
will  be  of  great  value.  The  various  ores  of  iron,  copper,  lead  and 
silver,  and  varieties  of  coal,  marble  and  building  rocks  should  form 
a  part  of  every  school  cabinet.  Many  of  tjiese  may  be  obtained 
by  exchanges  between  teachers,  pupils  and  others. 

QUESTIONS    OX    GEOLOGY. 

i.  Define  Geology.  2.  What  is  rock  in  a  Geologic  sense?  Define  petri- 
faction; fossil.  3.  What  is  meant  by  ultimate  and  proximate  elements;  define 
and  illustrate  each.  4.  Of  what  is  "the  greater  part  of  the  bulk  of  the  earth 
made  up?  5.  Of  what  is  a  greater  portion  of  the  solid  part  of  the  earth  com- 
posed : 

6.  Classify  rocks  as  to  composition.  7.  What  are  the  characteristics  of 
silica?  What  is  quartz?  s.  Name  six  varieties  of  silica.  Describe  rock  crys- 
tal, chalcedony,  amethyst,  jasper,  flint,  hornstone,  chert,  opal  and  buhrstone. 


BOTAN1".  235 

9.  Name  and  describe  the  rocks  of  the  alumina  series.  10.  Describe  lime- 
stone, Iceland-spar,  chalk,  stalactites,  stalagmites,  petrified  moss,  oolite  and  marl. 
What  is  gypsum?  What  is  the  origin  of  "plaster  of  Paris?"  What  is  ala- 
baster?    Selenite? 

11.  Describe  feld-spar,  hornblende,  talc,  mica,  tourmaline,  and  state  the  se- 
ries to  which  they  belong?  12.  How  distinguish  rocks?  13.  Classify  rocks  as 
to  mode  of  formation.     14.  Name  the  kinds  of  sedimentary  rocks. 

15.  Name  the  kinds  of  igneous  rocks.  16.  Granite?  Gneiss?  Syenite? 
Micaschist?  Marble?  Slate?  17.  Define  the  following  terms:  Stratum,  strata, 
formation,  fault,  concretion,  geode,  dip,  dike,  lode,  vein. 

18.  Classify  rocks  as  to  time  of  formation.  Define  paleontology.  How  de- 
termine the  age  of  rocks?  19.  What  does  the  nebular  hypothesis  demand?  20. 
Describe  the  Archaean  Time.     What  is  the  oldest  known  form  of  life? 

21.  What  are  the  divisions  of  the  Paleozoic  Time?  22.  Silurian  Age,  loca- 
tion, kinds  of  rocks  and  fossils?  2}.  Devonian  Age?  When  do  insects  first 
appear?  What  is  the  Age  of  Fishes?  24.  Where  is  coal  mostly  found?  What 
is  the  origin  of  coal?  What  evidence  have  we  that  plants  flourished  most  lux- 
uriantly during  the  Carboniferous  Age? 

25.  When  was  chalk  formed?  When  do  birds  first  appear  ?  What  charac- 
terized the  Mesozoic  Time?  26.  In  what  age  lived  the  largest  animals?  When 
did  man  appear?     27.  What  is  drift? 

— i0i— 


BOTANY. 


45 

As  to  Divisions. 

3 

4     Modifications. 

I5 

Branches. 

25 

Buds. 

35 

Leaves. 

45 

Flowers. 

55 

Fruit. 

GENERAL  OUTLINE  OF  THE  PLANT. 

[See  Note  to  Outline  of  Physiology] 

The  plant. 

ii     Parts.     (Organography). 
i2     Main  Axis. 

i3     Descending.     (Root). 
1*     Parts. 
2*     Kinds. 

i5     As  to  Mode  of  Develop- 
ment. 21     Structure.     (Anatomy). 
25     As  to  Situation.  12     Organic  Basis.     (Cell). 
35     As  to  Physical  and                   22     Tissues. 
Chemical  Properties.                                          32    Types  of  Structure. 

3*     Uses.  3]     Functions.     (Physiology). 

23     Ascending  Axis.     (Stem).  i2     Germination. 

1*     Parts.  22     Fertilization. 

2*     Kinds.  32     Absorption. 

15     As  to  Mode  of  Develop-         42     Circulation, 
ment.  52     Respiration. 

25     As  to  Position.  o2     Transpiration. 

3s     As  to  Situation.  41     Classifications. 

BOTANY. 

1.  Botany  is  the  science  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  includes, 
a  systematic  knowledge  of  the  forms,  organs,  intimate  structures 
growth,  history,  classification  and  uses  of  plants. 


886  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

2.  Naturalists  have  not  been  able  to  draw  tbe  line  between  the 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  so  closely  do  they  seem  to  grade 
together,  and  as  it  were,  overlap  each  other.  Lindley's  definition 
of  a  plant  is  at  least  approximately  true.  He  says:  "A  plant  is  a 
cellular  body,  possessing  vitality,  living  by  absorption  through  its 
outer  surface,  ami  secreting  starch."  It  is,  however,  claimed  by 
later  scientists  that   some  of  the  lower  animal  forms  secrete  starch. 

3.  The  flower  is  the  collection  of  organs  which  directly  or  in- 
directly contribute  to  the  process  of  reproduction  by  seed.  It  may 
consist  of  essential  and  non-essential  organs. 

4.  The  outer  whorl,  or  circle  of  Leaves,  generally  green,* 
sometimes  colored,  separate,  or  united  into  a  ring  or  cup,  is  called 
the  calyx.     Its  diyisions  are  called  sepals. 

5.  The  inner  whorl,  or  circle  of  leaves,  separate,  or  united, 
usually  colored,  is  called  the  corolla.    Its  divisions  are  called  petals. 

6.  If  there  be  but  one  whorl,  it  is  always  the  calyx,  that  is, 
there  maybe  a  calyx  without  a  corolla,  but  there  cannot  be  a  corolla 
without  a  calyx.  Both  calyx  and  corolla  may  be  wanting.  The 
calyx  and  corolla  together  are  called  the  perianth,  or  floral  enve- 
lopes. They  are  not  directly  concerned  in  the  production  of  the 
seed,  but  are  only  for  protection  of  the  other  organs,  hence  they  are 
called  non-essential  organs. 

7.  The  thread-like  organs  varying  in  number  from  one  to  a 
hundred  or  more,  situated  just  within  the  perianth,  are  called  sta- 
mens. Taken  together  they  are  sometimes  called  the  andrecium. 
The  thread-like  portion  of  the  stamen  is  called  the  filament.  It  is 
non-essential,  and  sometimes  wanting.  The  anther  consists  of  a 
closed  sac  divided  into  cells  and  containing  a  fine  yellow  dust  called 
pollen.  The  use  of  the  pollen  is  to  fertilize  the  embryo  seeds. 
When  the  filament  which  is  but  the  stalk  of  the  anther,  is  wanting, 
the  anther  is  said  to  be  sessile. 

8.  The  organs  which  occupy  the  center  of  the  flower  compris- 
ing the  fourth  whorl,  are  called  pistils.  Taken  together  they  are 
called  the  gynecium.  A  complete  pistil  is  composed  of  the  ovary, 
style  and  stigma.  The  ovary  is  a  closed  case  containing  the  embryo 
seeds,  or  ovules.  The  style  is  the  thread-like  portion  which  when 
present  bears  the  stigma  on  its  end.  The  stigma  is  the  tip,  or  ex- 
tremity of  the  style  or  of  the  ovary  when  the  style  is  wanting.  The 
use  of  the  ovary  is  to  bear  the  embryo  seeds  (ovules)  where  they  are 
fertilized  by  the  pollen  from  the  anther  falling  on  the  stigma  and 
penetrating  the  ovary  through  the  style. 

9.  Flowers  vary  greatly  in  the  number,  form  and  position  of 
their  parts,  but  in  all  flowers  the  four  whorls,  or  sets  of  organs,  al- 
ways maintain  the  same  relative  position  with  regard  to  each  other 
and  the  central  axis.      The  whorls  may  be   compared  to  the  parts  of 


*In  Botany  the  term  color  means  any  color  (including  white)  except  «reen 


BOTANT.  2:37 

:i  wagon  wheel,  the  pistil  or  jjistils  representing  the  hub,  the  sta- 
mens the  spokes,  the  corolla  the  felloes,  and  the  calyx  the  tire. 
There  is,  however,  this  difference,  the  parts  in  the  typical  flower 
are  attached  to  the  central  axis  and  not  to  each  other  as  in  the  wheel. 
Any  one  of  these  parts  may  be  wanting  or  they  may  be  united  to 
each  other,  but  their  relative  position  is  always  the  same.  Flowers 
are  thus  said  to  be  constructed  according  to  a  certain  definite  plan, 
carried  out  with  greater  or  less  accuracy  as  to  detail.  A  flower 
which  represents  this  plan  completely,  is  called  a  typical  flower. 

10.  The  typical  flower  must  be:  (1]  complete,  having  the  four 
sets  of  organs  arranged  in  concentric  circles;  (2)  perfect,  having 
both  kinds  of  essential  organs;  (3)  regular,  having  the  parts  of  each 
set  of  the  same  shape  and  size;  (4)  symmetrical,  having  the  same 
number  of  parts  in  each  set;  (5)  alternating,  having  the  several 
parts  of  each  set  stand  alternating  in  position  to  the  parts  of  the  next 
set;  (6)  distinct,  having  all  parts  disconnected. 

11.  The  torus,  or  receptacle,  is  the  end  of  the  flower  stalk  on 
which  the  parts  of  the  flower  rest,  sometimes  called  the  axis  of  the 
flower. 

12.  The  variations  from  the  type  have  been  classified  as 
follows : — 

I.  Incomplete,  deficient  in  respect  to  floral  envelopes. 

1.  Corolla  wanting,  apetalous,  or  monochlamydeous. 

2.  Calyx  and  corolla  wanting,  naked,  or  achlamydeous 

II.  Imperfect,  deficient  in  respect  to  essential  organs. 

1.  Pistils  wanting,  staminate,  or  sterile. 

2.  Stamens  wanting,  pistillate,  or  fertile. 

Remark. — When  staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  found  ou  the  same  plant,  it  is  called 
monoecious.  When  on  different  plants  of  same  species,  dioecious.  When  either  dioecious  or 
monoecious,  the  term  diclinous  is  used. 

3.  Pistils  and  stamens  both    wanting,   neutral. 

III.  Irregular,  when  the  parts  of  each  set  are  unlike  in  size  or  in  form. 
The  almost  infinite  variety  in  the  forms  of  flowers  is  due  to  the  modifications  of 
form  and  size  in  special  parts. 

IV.  Unsymmetrical. — The  typical  flower  has  the  same  number  of  parts 
in  each  set.  Whatever  the  number  may  be  it  is  called  the  radical  number.  It 
is  expressed  by  the  term,  or  signs  as  follows:  (1)  dimerous,  two  parted;  (2) 
trimerou',  three  parted,  etc.  Any  variations  from  this  number  in  any  of 
the  whorls  make  the  flower  unsymmetrical. 

V.  Organs  opposite,  those  of  one  whorl  standing  opposite  to  those  of 
the  next. 

VI.  Cohesion,  the  parts  of  the  same  whorl  united. 

1.  Sepals  united,   monosepalous. 

2.  Petals  united,  monopetalous  or  gamopetalous. 

3.  Stamens  united. 

(a)  In  one  set,  monadelphous. 

(b)  In  two  sets,  diadelphous. 

(c)  In  many  sets,  polydelphous. 

(d)  By  their  anthers,  svngenecious. 

4.  Pistils  united,  compound  pistil,  divisions  called  carpels. 

VII.  Adhesion,  the  parts  of  one  whorl  united  with  the  parts  of  another 
whorl. 


2:'.s  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

1.  Hypogynous,  a  term  denoting  that  the  organs  are  inserted  on  the 
receptacle  at  the  hase  of  the  ovary.  In  this  case  there  are  no  adhesions,  but  the 
parts  are  said  to  be  free. 

2.  Perigynous,  the  stamens,  corolla  and  calyx  united  in  a  cup  or 
tube  around  the  free  ovary.  The  calyx  and  corolla  are  apparently  one  up  to  a 
certain  point  and  the  stamens  appear  to  grow  out  of  the  cup  formed  bv  the  calyx 
and  corolla. 

3-  Epigynous,  all  the  organs  united  to  the  ovary  to  its  top  making 
them  appear  a>  it"  they  were  inserted  on  the  ovary,  as  in  the'apple  and  pear. 

4.  The  terms  "  calyx  superior,"  "  ovary  inferior,""  ovary  adherent," 
"calyx  adherent,"  all  mean  the  same  as  "  calyx  epigynous"  The  terms  "  calyx 
inferior,"  "  calyx  free,"  "ovary  superior,"  "  ovary  free,"  all  mean  the  same  as 
"calyx  hypogynous."     These  terms  are  used  frequently  in  analysis. 

13.  The  characteristic  forms  of  the  perianth  are  as  follows: 

I.  Regular  polypetalous. 

1.  Cruciform,  cross-shaped,  four  petals  with  long  claws  placed  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  as  in  mustard  and  cabbage. 

2.  Caryophvlaceous,  pink-like,  having  five  petals  with  long  erect 
claws  and  spreading  blade. 

3.  Rosaceous,  rose-like,  having  five  petals  with  short  claws,  corolla 
open. 

4.  Liliaceous,  lily-like,  six  divisions,  but  little  or  no  distinction  be- 
tween sepals  and  petals. 

II.  Irregular  polypetalous. 

1.  Papilionaceous,  butterfly-like,  having  five  petals,  dissimilar,  the 
upper  and  outer  being  largest  called  the  banner  or  vexillium,  the  two  side  petals 
called  wings  or  alae,  the  two  lower  often  partly  united  called  the  keel  or  carinum. 
Example,  the  Pea,  Locust  and  Clover. 

2.  Orchidaceous,  irregular,  6ix-parted  and  variously  deformed, 
peculiar  to  the  order  Orchidaceae. 

III.  Regular  gamopetalous. 

1.  Rotate,  wheel-shaped,  star-shaped,  a  short  tube  with  spreading 
border. 

2.  Cup-shaped,  concave  border. 

3.  Campanulate,  bell-shaped,  the  tube  widening  rapidly  at  bottom 
and  more  gradually  in  the  border 

4.  Infundibuliform,  funnel-shaped,  tube  gradually  enlarging  to  the 
top  as  in  the  morning-glory. 

5.  Urceolate,  urn-shaped,  globular  or  oblong  with  a  narrow  opening. 

6.  Salver-form,  tube  nearly  even,  with  border  joined  at  aright  angle. 

7.  Tubular,  spreading  slightly  or  not  at  all  at  the  border,  as  in 
Honeysuckle. 

IV.  Irregular  gamopetalous. 

1.  Labiate,  lip-shaped. 

(a)  Galeate,  orhelmeted,  upper  lip  concave  as  in  Catnip. 

(b)  Ringent,  or  gaping-throat  or  mouth  wide  open. 

(c)  Personate,  or  masked  throat  closed  as  in  Snapdragon. 

2.  Ligulate,  strap-shaped,  as  If  a  tubular  corolla  were  split  open  on 
one  side  and  spread  out  as  in  some  of  the  compositae. 

V.  Reduced  forms. 

1.  Pappus  hair-like  calyx  of  compositae  and   some  other  orders. 

2.  Setae,  bristles,  the  reduced  perianth  of  the  sedges. 

14.  Certain  terms  are  used  to  denote  the  varying  duration  of 
the  perianth  as  follows: — 

1.  Caduceous,  falling  off  immediately. 

2.  Deciduous,  falling  off  with  the  stamens. 


BOTAXi:  239 

3.  Persistent,  remaining  on  until  the  fruit  ripens. 

4.  Accrescent,  continuing  to  grow  after  flowering. 

5.  Marescent,  withering  without  falling  oft". 

15.  The  following  terms  are  used  to  denote  certain  appendages 
of  some  flowers. 

1.  Spurs,  tubular  processes  projecting  from  petals  or  other  organs,  as  in 
Larkspur. 

2.  Scales,  smafl,  flat  appendages  attached  to  the  inner  side  of  the  corolla 
as  in  the  Buttercup. 

3.  Crown,    a   circle  of  conspicuous  scales  having  the   appearance   of  a 
crown  and  sometimes  attached  to  the  stamens. 

16.  The  term  inflorescence  denotes  the  arrangement  of  the 
flowers  and  their  position  on  the  plant.  The  peduncle  is  the  stalk 
of  the  flower  and  may  be  either  simple  or  compound.  Pedicels  are 
the  branches  of  a  compound  peduncle  each  bearing  a  single  flower. 
The  main  axis,  or  stem  of  a  compound  peduncle  is  called  the  rachis. 
The  scape  is  a  flower  stalk  which  springs  from  a  subterranean  stem. 
Bracts  are  small  modified  leaves  on  the  peduncle,  or  scape.  Bract- 
lets  are  still  smaller  modified  leaves  growing  on  the  pedicles.  A 
spathe  is  a  large  bract  completely  enveloping  the  flowers  as  in  In- 
dian Turnip.  An  itivolucre  is  a  whorl  of  bracts  beneath  the  flower, 
sometimes  mistaken  for  a  calyx.  An  involucel  is  an  involucre  situ- 
ated on  the  pedicel.  Chaff  is  the  general  name  for  the  bracts  of 
the  grasses.  Glumes  are  the  larger  bracts  at  the  base  of  a  spikelet 
of  flowers  in  the  grasses,  corresponding  to  an  involucre.  Pales  are 
small  bracts  at  the  base  of  each  flower  in  the  grasses.  If  the  pe- 
duncle is  wanting  the  flower  is  called  sessile. 

17.  The  various  forms  of  inflorescence  may  be  arranged  un- 
der two  general  heads :  ( 1 )  Axillary,  Centripetal,  or  Indefinite ; 
(2)  Terminal,  Centrifugal,  or  Definite.  In  the  first  case  the  main 
stem,  or  axis  being  terminated  by  a  leaf-bud  continues  growing,  de- 
veloping flowers  in  the  axils  of  bracts.  The  flowering  commenc- 
ing with  the  circumference  of  the  flower  cluster  and  proceeding  to 
the  central,  or  terminal  bud,  is  called  centripetal.  In  the  second 
case,  the  central  axis  is  terminated  by  a  flower,  the  blossoming  pro- 
ceeding from  the  center  outward,  hence  called  centrifugal. 

18.  Of  axillary  inflorescence  we  may  have  the  following 
kinds: — - 

1.  Spike,  a  long  axis  or  rachis  with  scattered,  clustered  or  crowded  ses- 
sile flowers  as  in   Mullein,  Plantain. 

2.  Spikelets,  the  branches  of  a  compound  spike,  as  in  wheat  and  others  of 
the  Grass  family. 

3.  Spadix,  flowers  closely  arranged  on  a    thick,  fleshy  rachis  sometimes 
with  a  spathe  (16)  enveloping  it  as  in  Indian  Turnip. 

4.  Catkin,   or  Ament,  slender  spikes,    pendant  with   scaly  bracts  as  in 
Oak  and  Willow. 

5.  Raceme,  the  same  as  a  spike,  except  the  flowers  are  on  pedicels  as  in 
the  Currant. 


240  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

6.  Corvmb,  a  raceme  with  the  lower  pedicels  lengthened,  making  all  the 
flowers  stand  at  nearly  the  same  height.     It  may  be  simple  or  compound. 

7.  Umbel,  when  several  pedicels  of  nearly  equal  length  proceed  from  a 
common  center,  giving  the  appearance  of  an  umbrella.  The  pedicels  may 
themselves  become  umbels  producing  a  compound  umbel,  the  primary  pedicels 
then  called  rays,  and  the  secondary  umbels,  umbellets. 

8.  Head,  a  kind  of  compact  umbel,  the  flowers  all  sessile  on  the  end  of 
the  stem  as  in  the  Clover  and  Compositae. 

9.  Panicle,  an  irregular,  loose  flower  cluster,  as  in  Oats. 

10.  Thrvse,  a  compact,  pyramidal  panicle,  as  in  the  Grape. 

19.  Of  terminal  inflorescence  we   may  have  the  following : — 

1.  Cyme,  a  level-topped  or  convex  flower  cluster,  resembling  the  corymb 
except  that  the  flowers  are  centrifugal,  as  in  the  Elder. 

2.  Fascille,  a  modified  cyme  with  the  flowers  crowded  and  almost  ses- 
sile, as  in  the  Sweet  William. 

3.  Glomerule,  a  more  compact  cluster  or  sort  of  head,  axillary,  with 
centrifugal  evolutions  as  in  many  of  the  Labiatae.  When  they  meet  round  the 
stem  in  the  axils  of  opposite  leaves  they  form  a  verticil  or  verticillaster. 

20.  The  fruit  is  the  perfected  ovary.  It  consists  of  the  pericarp 
and  the  seed.  The  seeds  are  the  perfected  ovules  and  are  embryos 
of  the  future  plant.  The  pericarp  is  the  envelope  of  the  seeds  or  the 
perfected  walls  of  the  ovary.  The  divisions  are  called  carpels.  The 
pericarp  does  not  always  completely  enclose  the  seeds,  plants  of 
the  pine  kind   and  some  other  being  exceptions. 

21.  The  pericarp  may  be  dry,  when  it  is  either  membranous, 
coriaceous,  or  woody;  or  it  may  be  succulent,  or  juicy  as  in  the  grape, 
peach,  etc.  It  consists  of  three  parts,  the  external  layer  or  coat 
called  the  epicarp,  the  middle,  the  sarcocarp  and  the  inner,  the  cu- 
docarp,  e.g.  in  the  peach  the  skin  is  the  epicarp,  the  flesh  the  sarco- 
carp and  the  stone  which  encloses  the  kernel,  the  endocarp.  These 
p;rrts  are  not  always  apparent,  significant,  however,  as  showing  the 
analogy  between  the  pericarp  and  a  leaf 

22.  The  opening  of  the  pericarp  to  discharge  the  seed  is  called 
dehiscence.  Some  pericarps  do  not  discharge  their  seeds,  the  latter 
being  liberated  only  by  the  decay  of  the  pericarp,  or  by  its  bursting 
in  germination.  Such  are  said  to  be  indehiscent.  The  following- 
are  the  modes  of  dehiscence : — 

I.  Valvular,  opening  vertically,  regularly  and  either  wholly  or  partially 
around  the  axis,  forming  several  pieces  called  valves.  Of  these  we  have  four 
varieties  as  follows: 

1.  Sutural,  at  the  sutures  of  a  one-celled  or  simple  pericarp. 

2.  Septicidal,  when  the  separation  is  between  the  carpels  of  a  com- 
pound ovary.     The  carpels  may  then  open  separately  or  remain  indehiscent. 

3.  Loculicidal,  when  each  carpel  opens  at  its  back  into  the  cell. 

4.  Septifragal,  when  the  valves  come  away  from  a  compound  ovary 
leaving  the  partitions  (dissepiments)  or  inner  walls  of  the  carpels  remaining. 

11.  Porous,  as  in  the  Poppy  where  the  seeds  are  disciiarged  by  means 
of  orifice^  at  the  top  of  the  pericarp. 

III.  Cfrcumscissili  ,  when  the  whole  top  of  the  ovary  comes  off  like  the 
lid  of  a  box.  In  Jefiersonia  (Twin  Leal;  it  takes  place  only  half  around  the 
fruit. 


BOTANY.  241 

23.     The  pericarp  assumes  a  great  variety  of  forms.      The  fol- 
lowing outline  exhibits  the  principal  types: — 

I.     IndeMscent  pericarps. 

i.  Aohenium,  small,  dry,  one- seeded  pericarp,  free  from  the  seed 
and  tipped  wi'h  the  remains  of  the  style,  as  in  the  Anemone.  They  are  some- 
times mistaken  for  seeds.  The  strawberry  is  an  example  of  achenia  inserted  in 
a  fleshy  receptacle. 

2.  Utricle,  small,  thin  pericarp  fitting  cmite  loosely  to  the  one  seed. 

3.  Caryopsis,  the  pericarp  of  the  grasses,  thin,  dry",  inseparable  from 
the  seed. 

4.  Samara,  thin,  dry,  papery,  one-seeded,  with  membranous  wings 
as  in  the  Maple  and  Elm. 

5.  Glans,  as  the  Acorn,  Hazelnut,  Beechnut  and  Chestnut. 

6.  Drupe,  stone  fruit  as  Cherry  and  Peach. 

7.  Try  ma,  a  dry-like  drupe  as  the  Hickorynut  and  Butternut. 

8.  Etario,  numerous  small  drupes  united  to  each  other  as  in  Rasp- 
berry or  to  a  fleshy  receptacle  as  Blackberry. 

9.  Berry,  as  the  Grape,  Currant  and  Gooseberry. 

10.  Hesperidium,  as  the  Lemon  and  Orange. 

11.  Pepo,  the  Melon  and  Pumpkin. 

12.  Pome,  Apple,  Pear,  Haw,  etc. 
II.  Dehiscent  pericarp:,. 

13.  Pyxis,  many-seeded  dry  pericarp  with  circumscissile  dehiscence, 
as  Jeflersonia  and  Plantain. 

14.  Follicle,  single  carpel  one-celled,  many-seeded  opening  at  ventral 
suture,  Larkspur  and   Columbine. 

15.  Legume,  Pea  and  Bean,  variety    the  Loment,    jointed  pod    sepa- 
rating across  into  one-seeded  portions. 

16.  Silique,  a  two-celled  pod   as  in   Mustard.     Siltcle  is  a  short,  wide 
siligue,  both  peculiar  to  the  order  Cruciferae. 

17.  Capsule,   opening  by  as  many  valves   as   there   are    carpels,  by 
twice  as  many  as  by  pores. 

18.  Regma,  carpels  separating  elastically. 

19.  Stroble  or  cone,  as  Pine,  etc. 

20.  Sorosis,  as  Mulberry,  Osage  Orange  and  Pineapple. 

24.  The  seed  consists  of  a  kernel  and  coverings.  The  outer 
covering  is  called  the  testa.  It  varies  in  diiferent  phints,  being 
membranous,  leathery,  bony,  horny,  woody  or  fleshy,  and  some- 
times clothed  with  long  hairs,  as  in  the  cotton  plant,  sometimes 
winged,  as  in  catalpa.  The  inner  coat  is  thin  and  delicate,  called 
the  tegumen,  and  is  often  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  testa. 
The  aril  or  arillus  is  an  occasional  investment  or  appendage.  It 
is  a  growth  from  the  seed  stalk.  The  celastrus  and  envoymus  and 
the  mace  of  the  nutmeg  are  examples.  The  hilum  is  the  scar  left 
where  the  seed  separates  from  i its  stalk.  The  kernel  is  composed 
of  embryo,  or  embryo  and  albumen.  The  former  is  the  rudiment  of 
the  future  plant.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  germ.  The  latter  consists 
mostly  of  starchy  matter,  and  is  designed  as  a  store  of  nourishment 
to  be  used  in  germination.  The  embryo  consists  of  the  cotyledons, 
plumule  and  radical  parts,  which  will  be  noticed  under  the  subject 
of  Germination, 

25.     The  leaf  is  the  organ  of  digestion  and  respiration  in  the 
16 


242  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

plant,  and  may  be  considered  as  a  development  from  the  bark. 
The  leaf  may  consist  of  the  blade  or  lamina,  which  is  the  expanded 
portion,  the  petiole  or  leaf  stalk,  and  the  sti pules,  which  are  leaf- 
like  appendages  at  the  base  of  the  petiole.  These  parts  are  subject 
to  almost  infinite  variation,  either  part  being  wanting  or  trans- 
formed into  spines,  tendrils,  etc.,  or  parts. of  the  flower.  In  structure 
the  leaf  is  a  framework  of  veins  and  intervening  tissue  called  par- 
tnchym,    and    covered  on  both  sides  with  an  epidermis. 

26.  Venation  is  a  term  used  to  denote  the  arrangement  of  the 
framework  of  leaves.  There  are  three  principal  modes  of  venation, 
which  are  each  characteristic  of  grand  divisions  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom : — 

1.  Reticulate,  or  Net-veined.     (The  Exogens.) 

2.  Parallel-veined.     (The  Endogens.) 

3.  Forked-veined.    (The  Ferns,  etc.) 

Of  the  net-veined  leaves  we  may  notice  two  principal  forms,  the  pinnatrly- 
veined  and  the  palmately -veined. 

27.  The  forms  of  leaves  are  almost  infinite,  yet  they  may  he 
reduced  to  a  few  general  types.  The  general  form  of  the  leaf  is 
determined  by  the  arrangement  of  the  veins.  The  compound  leaf 
may  be  considered  as  arising  from  a  want  of  development  of  the 
tissue  between  the  veins,  thus  cutting  the  leaf  into  parts.  When 
this  development  is  only  partial,  we  have  the  lobed,  cut,  parted, 
etc.,  to  simple  leaves. 

28.  The  arrangement  of  leaves  upon  the  stem  is  worthy  of 
particular  notice.  The  study  of  leaf  arrangement  is  called  p/iyllo- 
taxy.  When  leaves  grow  from  the  stem  at  or  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  they  are  called  radical/  when  upon  the  stem  above 
the  ground,  eattliiie;  when  they  are  placed  one  above  the  other  on 
opposite  sides,  they  are  alternate/  when  two  are  set  against  each 
other,  they  are  opposite;  when  more  than  two  are  opposed  around 
the  stem,  they  are  verticillate  or  whorled.  The  general  law  of  ar- 
rangement seems  to  be  that  of  the  spiral. 

29.  Some  very  interesting  particular  laws  respecting  this  spiral 
arrangement  have  been  pointed  out  by  Braun,  a  German  naturalist. 
For  example,  in  the  elm  and  many  others,  t he  3d  leaf  is  placed  im- 
mediately over  the  1st,  the  4th  over  the  2d,  and  so  on.  This  makes 
a  cycle,  which  he  expresses  by  the  fraction  14,  the  numerator  de- 
noting the  revolutions,  the  denominator  the  number  of  leaves  in 
each,  and  the  fraction  the  angular  distance  between  the  leaves — 
/.  e.  Y2  of  3600.  In  the  birch  and  others  this  fraction  is  1  j  :  iu  the 
cherry,  apple,  etc.,  it  is  | ;  in  Osage  orange  and  others,  3/£.  These 
fractions  form  a  scries  in  which  the  terms  of  each  are  equal  to  the 
sum  of  the  corresponding  terms  of  the  two  preceding.  The  next 
then  would  be  ^=|s,  which  is  the  cycle  of  the  cones  of  most  of  the 
pines.  The  next,  fa  is  represented  in  the  house  leek  and  Scotch 
pine. 


BOTANY.  243 

30.  Buds  arc  the  rudiments  of  stems  or  branches.  They  con- 
sist of  a  number  of  scales  overlapping  each  other  and  enclosing  a 
tender,  cone-shaped  axis,  which  develops  into  a  stem  or  branch, 
hearing  leaves  or  flowers.  In  respect  to  their  contents,  we  have 
leaf  buds  and  Jlower  buds.  In  respect  to  their  situation,  we  have 
axillary  and  terminal  buds.  The  axillary  buds  may  be  active  or 
latent.  If  terminal  buds  only  grow  while  axillary  all  remain  latent, 
we  have  the  simple  straight  stem  without  branches.  If  the  axillary 
buds  grow,  we  have  the  branching  stem.  Accessory  buds  are 
sometimes  formed  immediately  above  the  axillary,  and  buds  some- 
times appear  at  any  place  along  the  stem,  or  even  from  leaves. 
These  are  generally  caused  by  accident — that  is,  when  the  terminal 
buds  are  destroyed,  as  in  pruning.  These  accidental  buds  are  called 
adventitious. 

31.  Vernation  is  a  term  employed  to  denote  the  mode  of  fold-  . 
ing  and  arrangement  of  the  leaves  in  the  bud.  The  arrangement 
and  folding  of  the  floral  envelopes  in  the  bud  is  called  aestivation. 
As  the  flower  is  but  a  modified  leaf,  nearly  the  same  arrangement 
is  found  and  similar  terms  are  employed  in  describing  them.  The 
forms  of  vernation  are: — 

I.  As  to  folding  of  each  separate  leaf. 

i.  Conduplicate,  when  folded  perpendicularly,  with  lateral  halves  face 
to  face. 

2.  Plicate,  or  plaited,  like  a  fan. 

3.  Circinate,  coiled  from  apex  downward. 

4.  Convolute,  rolled  up  from  one  side  or  twisted. 

5.  Involute,  both  edges  rolled  in. 

6.  Revolute,  both  edges  rolled  out. 

II.  As  to  folding  of  leaves  together. 

1.  Valvate,  edges  meeting,  fitting  closely. 

2.  Intricate,  edges  overlapping  like  shingles  on  a  roof  "  breaking  joints." 

1.  Equitant,  riding  astride,  conduplicate  leaves  alternately  embracing. 

2.  Obvolute,  half  equitant,  the  outer  leaf  embracing  only  one  of  the 
margins  of  the  other. 

3.  Triquitrous,  bud  triangular  in  cross  section  and  leaves  equitant  at 
each  angle,  as  in  sedges. 

32.  The  leaf  is  subject  to  various  transformations,  or  modifi- 
cations, a  few  of  which  we  shall  notice:  — 

1.  Scales  of  underground  stems  and  those  which  cover  the  buds  in  win- 
ter are  undoubtedly  modified  leaves. 

2.  Cotyledons,  or  seed  lobes. 

3.  Ascidia,  or  pitchers. 

4.  Tendrils. 

5.  Spines,  or  thorns. 

6.  Bracts. 

33.  The  leaf,  as  we  have  seen,  is  a  modified  form  of  the  stem, 
and  the  flower  is  but  a  modification  of  the  leaf.  This  is  called  by 
botanists,  metamorphosis.  A  gradual  change  maybe  noticed  from 
the  leaf  to  the  bract,  from   bracts  to   sepals,  from  sepals  to  petals, 


244  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

petals  to  stamens  and  stamens  to  pistils.  In  so-called  double 
flowers  the  stamens  and  pistils  revert  to  petals.  Such  flowers  will 
of  course  produce  no  seed,  and  they  are  sometimes  called  monstros- 
ities,  because  unnatural. 

34.  The  central  or  substantial  portion  of  the  plant  is  called  the 
axis.  The  part  which  bears  buds,  which  produce  branches,  leaves 
and  Howers,  tends  upward  in  its  growth  and  is  generally,  but  not 
always,  mostly  above  ground,  is  called  the  ascending  axis  or  stem. 

The  part  which  forms  the  basis  or  support  of  the  plant  does  not 
bear  buds,  tends  downward  in  its  growth,  and  usually  beneath  the 
ground,  is  called  the  descending  axis  or  root. 

35.  One  distinguishing  character  of  the  stem  is  the  jointed  ap- 
pearance produced  by  the  places  where  the  leaves  are  developed. 
These  definite  positions  where  leaves  appear  with  a  bud  in  their 
axils  are  called  nodes.  They  occur  at  more  or  less  regular  inter- 
vals and  give  symmetry  to  the  stem  and  branches.  The  spaces  be- 
tween the  nodes  are  called  internodes.  The  growth  of  the  stem  is 
then  simply  the  enlargement  of  the  internodes.  In  the  bud  there 
is  no  appreciable  space  between  the  nodes.  A  stem  may  be  then 
considered  as  simply  an  elongated  bud.  The  root  has  no  buds, 
consequently  no  nodes  or  internodes,  but  its  branches  proceed  irreg- 
ularly from  the  axis,  or  it  simply  divides  and  subdivides  itself. 

36.  Stems  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes,  scale 
stems  and  leaf  stems.  The  former  have  only  partially  or  unde- 
veloped internodes,  generally  remain  under  the  ground,  and  do  not 
bear  leaves,  but  have  scales  instead.  The  latter  have  fully  devel- 
oped internodes,  are  always  above  ground,  and  bear  leaves  and 
branches,  flowers  and  fruit. 

37.  The  principal  forms  of  scale  stems  are: — 

i.  Creeper,  running  prostrate  on  the  ground  or  just  beneath  it,  rooting 
at  every  node  and  sending  up  erect  stems  from  its  terminal  buds,  as  the  Witch- 
grass  and  Peppermint. 

2.  Rhizome,  shorter  and  thicker  than  the  creeper,  with  partially  devel- 
oped internodes,  mostly    wholly   subterranean,  as  the  Calamus  and  Water-lily. 

3.  Tuber,  a  thickened,  fleshy  portion  of  a  scale  stem,  subterranean,  hav- 
ing numerous  latent  buds  (eyes),  as  the  potato. 

4.  Corm,  a  solid,  subterranean,  bulbous  stem,  the  nourishment  stored 
up  in  the  axis,  condensed  internodes  at  the  top,  roots  proceeding  from  the  bot- 
tom, as  in  Indian  Turnip. 

5.  Bulb,  may  be  considered  a  large  underground  bud,  the  nourishment 
being  s'tored  up  in  the  scales,  which  are  very  thick  anil  numerous.  Examples, 
the  Onion  and  Lily. 

38.  The  principal  forms  of  leaf  stems  are: — 

1.  Caulis,  the  annular,  aria)  stem  of  herbaceous  plants. 

2.  Culm,  the  stem  <>t"  grasses  and  Bedges,  generally  hollow  and  jointed. 

3.  Trunk,  the  stem  of  trees. 

4.  Vine,  woody  or  herbaceous,  trailing  or  climbing  by  twining  or  by 
tendrils. 


BOTANT.  345 

39.  Stems  may  be:  (i)  as  to  position:  (a)  erect,  rising  per- 
pendicularly;  (b)  procumbent,  prostrate,  or  trailing,  when  lying 
flat  on  tbe  ground;  (c)  decumbent,  rising  at  base,  then  bending  to 
the  ground;  (d)  ascending,  rising  obliquely;  (e)  subterranean; 
(2)  as  to  situation:  (a)  subterranean ;  (b)  serial.  (3)  as  to  divi- 
sions:  (a)  simple;  (b)  branched. 

40.  The  following  terms  are  used  to  denote  parts  of  branches 
used  in  propagation: — 

1.  Sucker,  a  branch  issuing  from  an  underground  stem,  having  roots 
of  its  own,  and  when  separated  becomes  a  distinct  plant. 

2.  Stolon,  or  Layer,  a  branch  which  bends  over  and  taking  root  in  the 
ground,  sends  up  new  branches.  Some  plants  do  this  naturally  ;  in  others  the 
branch  is  buried  bv  the  nurseryman. 

3.  Cion,  a  twig  with  one  or  more  buds,  used  in  the  process  of  grafting. 

4.  Slip,  or  Cutting,  a  portion  of  a  branch  which,  when  placed  in  the 
ground,  takes  root  and  becomes  an  independent  plant. 

5.  Runner,  a  branch  which  runs  on  the  ground  and  takes  root  at  its 
extremity,  as  in  the  strawberry. 

41.  The  root  is  the  principal  organ  of  nutrition  in  plants  and 
serves  to  hold  the  plant  in  position.  The  part  where  the  root  joins 
the  stem  is  called  the  collum,  the  ends  of  the  fibers  or  rootlets  are 
called  spongioles,  being  the  organs  of  absorption.  They  are  de- 
veloped when  the  leaves  are,  and  perish  when  the  latter  fall  off*. 

42.  Roots  are  divided  as  to  their  mode  of  development  into 
Axial  and  Inaxial,  the  former  consisting  of  a  central  axis  continu- 
ing downward  called  the  tap  root,  the  latter  having  no  central  axis, 
but  dividing  at  the  collum  into  numerous  branches. 

43.  The  principle  axial  forms  are: — 

1.  Ramous,  the  woody  main  root  of  most  trees  and  shrubs. 

2.  Fusiform,  thick,  succulent,  tapering  both  ways  from  the  middle. 

3.  Napiform,  breadth  exceeding  length. 

4.  Conical,  tapering  from  above  down. 

Of  inaxial  roots  there  are: — 

1.  Fibrous. 

2.  Fibro-tuberous. 

3.  Tubercular. 

4.  Coralline. 

5.  Nodulous. 

6.  Moniliform. 

44.  The  basis  of  vegetable  structure  is  the  cell.  In  its  active 
condition  it  is  a  closed  membranous  sac  containing  a  fluid  and  a 
solid  point  or  nucleus.  (See  Lindley's  "  Introduction  to  Botany" 
vol.  1,  p.  35.)  The  typical  form  of  the  cell  is  spheroidal  but  there 
are  many  departures  from  the  primary  form,  the  principal  modifica- 
tions being  that  of  the  cylinder  as  in  the  cells  of  wood,  and  the 
tubular  or  flattened,  as  in  the  cells  of  the  epidermis.  These  forms 
are  still  further   modified    bv   external    pressure   resulting    from    the 


346  TEACH  lilts'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

crowding  of  cells  against  cells  producing  cubical,  octahedral,  pris- 
matic and  other  forms.  The  walls  of  the  cell  are  porous  and  fluids 
circulate  freely  from  one  cell  to  another.  They  consist  of  a  sub- 
stance called  cellulose,  the  ultimate  constitution  being  carbon,  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen.  Cells  vary  greatly  in  size.  .Some  may  be  seen 
with  the  naked  eye  as  in  the  pulp  of  the  orange  and  snowdrop, 
while  others  are  so  small  as  to  require  a  magnifier  of  considerable 
power  to  see  them. 

45.  The  contents  of  a  typical  cell  may  be  said  to  be:  (  1)  the 
cytoblast  or  nucleus  which  seems  to  be  the  generator  of  new  cells; 
(2)  the  protoplasm  or  original  semifluid  matter  from  which  new 
cells  are  formed;  (3)  the  thin  fluid  or  sap  which  circulates  from  cell 
to  cell  and  consists  of  water  holding  in  solution  various  substances 
as  chlorophyl,  which  is  the  green  coloring  matter  of  leaves,  starch, 
sugar,  gums,  resins,  various  salts,  acids,  alkalies,  etc.,  in  fact,  what- 
ever gives  the  peculiar  properties  of  plants  as  poisonous,  medicinal, 
etc. 

46.  The  growth  of  the  plant  is  simply  the  multiplication  of 
cells.  Cells  multiply  in  some  cases  with  wonderful  rapidity  as  we 
see  in  mushrooms  which  reach  to  great  size  in  a  single  night.  Lind- 
ley  cites  an  instance  in  which  a  certain  plant  produced  according  to 
estimate,  66  millions  of  cells  in  a  minute.  Though  most  plants 
consist  of  a  multitude  of  cells  a  single  cell  is  capable  of  existing  as 
an  independent  plant.  Diatoms  and  some  species  of  Conferva?  con- 
sist of  single  cells. 

47.  Botanists  have  classified  the  tissues  of  plants  according  to 
the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  cells  as  follows:—- 

1.  Parenchym,  cellular;  utricular  or  vesicular  tissue,  generally  made  up 
of  cells  in  the  form  of  little  bladders  or  vesicles.  It  is  transparent  and  gener- 
ally in  itself  colorless;  when  appearing  otherwise  the  color  is  due  to  contents  of 
the  cells.  It  is  the  most  common  form  and  occurs  in  all  plants.  In  the  pith  of 
the  elder  and  the  pulp  of  fruits  it  may  be  most  easily  seen. 

2.  Bothrenchym,  pitted  or  vasiform  tissue,  consisting  of  tubes  appearing 
as  if  full  of  holes  but  which  upon  close  inspection  are  found  to  be  pits  or  de- 
pressions in  the  walls. 

3.  Pleurenchym,  woody  or  fibrous  tissue  consists  of  transparent  mem- 
branous tubes  tapering  at  each  end  ami  overlapping  so  as  to  form  continuous 
fibers.  It  makes  up  the  greater  part  of  all  wood  and  bark  and  of  the  veins  of 
leaves. 

4.  Trachenchym,  or  vascular  tissue,  consists  of  simple  membranous 
tubes  joined  end  to  end  and  having  a  spiral  fiber  in  the  inside.  It  is  found  in 
the  succulent  parts  of  plants,  in  petioles  and  veins  of  leaves  and  petals  of 
flowers.  The  spiral  vessels  may  be  seen  by  pulling  the  petiole  of  a  strawberry 
leaf  asunder,  when  these  vessels  unroll  and  appear  as  tine  cobwebs.  Ducts  are 
according  to  Lindlev,  modifications  of  trachenchym. 

5.  Cinenchym,  or  laticiferous  tissue,  consists  of  branching  tubes  anasto- 
mosing with  each  other.  This  tissue  is  difficult  to  find  not  having  any  definite 
direction,  but  distributed  irregularly  among  the  parenchym.  These  vessels 
secrete  peculiar  juices  of  plants  as  the  white  juice  of  the  poppy  and  milkweed, 
the  red  juice  of  bloodroot,  etc.  It  is  not  well  understood  by  vegetable  anato- 
mists. 


BOTANY.  247 

» 

48.  Plants  like  animals  arc  covered  with  an  epidermis,  or 
cuticle  which  adheres  closely  to  the  cellular  tissue  beneath.  It  is  not 
distinguishable  in  some  of  the  lower  forms  which  seem  to  be  com- 
posed entirely  of  cellular  tissue.  It  covers  all  parts  of  the  plant 
exposed  to  the  air  except  the  spongioles  and  the  stigmas.  It  is 
usually  a  thin,  delicate,  transparent  membrane  but  in  some  eases  so 
dense  and  hard  as  scarcely  to  be  cut  with  a   knife. 

49.  The  epidermis  of  most  plants  is  perforated  with  little  slit- 
like openings  in  the  center  of  oval  or  lens-shaped  spots.  These 
openings  are  called  stomata.  They  lie  over  the  inter-cellular  spaces 
and  are  guarded  by  a  kind  of  membrane  which  has  the  power  of 
contracting  and  closing  the  openings.  In  a  moist  atmosphere  they 
are  open,  and  closed  in  a  dry.  They  appear  to  be  connected  with 
respiration.  They  are  most  abundant  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
leaves  but  are  found  on  all  green  parts  exposed  to  the  air.  There 
are  sometimes  as  many  as  160,000  to  the  square  inch. 

50.  Hairs  are  appendages  of  the  epidermis  and  are  either  single 
elongated  cells  or  a  series  of  cells  placed  end  to  end.  They  vary 
much  in  size,  form,  rigidity,  etc.,  and  take  many  names  in  conse- 
quence. Thus  we  have  down  or  pubescence,  bristles,  stings,  hooks, 
barbs,  etc.  Glands  are  peculiar  cellular  structures  which  secrete 
the  characteristic  products  of  plants  as  oils,  resins,  honey,  poisons, 
etc. 

51.  The  vegetable  kingdom  has  been  divided  into  four  great 
classes  based  upon  the  structure  and  mode  of  growth  of  the  ligne- 
ous or  woody  framework : — 

1.  The  exogenous  structure  consists  of  bark,  ivood  and  fitk.  The  pith 
is  in  the  central  part  of  the  stem,  consists  of  parenchym  and  is  found  mostly  in 
young  woody  plants  and  in  herbs.  Its  office  is  to  furnish  fluids  to  nourish  the 
buds.  When  the  plant  gets  older  it  becomes  dry  or  disappears  entirely.  It  is 
surrounded  bv  the  medullary  sheath  which  is"  a  delicate  tissue  consisting  of 
spiral  vessels'and  woody  tissue  and  is  in  connection  with  all  the  appendages  of 
the  axis  as  the  veins  of  leaves,  flowers  and  fruits.  The  wood  consists  mostly  of 
fleurcnckvm  and  ducts  and  is  arranged  in  concentric  rings  or  layers  around  the 
medullary  sheath,  one  ring  being  produced  each  year.  Medullary  rays  are 
plates  of  cellular  tissue  which  extend  from  the  medullary  sheath  and  from  the 
successive  lavers  of  wood  to  the  circumference  of  the  stem.  In  across  section 
of  a  stem  they  appear  as  fine  lines  running  from  the  center  like  spokes  of  a 
wheel.  In  a  "longitudinal  section  they  appear  as  shining  plates,  the  "silver 
grain  "  of  carpenters.  When  wood  becomes  a  few  years  old  it  changes  its  color 
and  is  then  called  heart  wood  or  duramen.  The  newer  growths  in  which  no 
coloring  matter  has  been  deposited  are  called  sap  wood  or  alburnum.  The 
former  may  be  considered  as  dead  wood,  for  it  is  no  longer  of  any  use  to  the 
growing  tree.  The  change  consists  in  deposits  of  solid  and  coloring  matter  in 
the  cells  and  the  thickening  of  the  cell  walls. 

The  bark  consists  of  three  distinct  layers,  the  inner  or  liber,  the  middle  or 
cellular,  and  the  outer  or  cortical.  The  liber  is  composed  mostly  of  pleural,  hym 
and  is  tough  and  strong.  It  forms  the  fiber  of  linen  and  hemp  and  the  tough 
hark  of  many  trees  as  the  Linden  and  Hickorv.  The  cellular  layer  is  composed 
of  tissue  resembling  that  of  the  body  of  the  leaf  and  performs  a  similar  office. 
The  cortical  layer  is  the  brown  or  gras  part  which  gives  trees  their  peculiar 
aspect.     It  i<  generally  cracked  and  roughened  by  the  pushing   outward   of  the 


2-kS  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

inner  parte.  Cork  is  this  laser  in  a  certain  species  of  tree.  Between  the  bark 
and  wood  is  a  layer  of  mucus-like  material  which  exists  in  the  spring  of  the 
jrear  and  is  called  cambium-  It  is  the  organizable  matter  from  which  both 
wood  and  hark  are  formed. 

2.  The  endogenous  structure  consists  of  parenchym  through  which  are 
scattered  irregularly  bundles  of  woody  fiber,  ducts  and  spiral  vesels.  Its  growth 
consists  in  the  increase  of  new  woody  fibers  in  the  interior.  There  is  no  dis- 
tinction of  bark,  wood  and  pith. 

3.  In  the  acrogenous  structure  the  growth  takes  place  only  at  the  end,  the 
stem  advancing  with  its  diameter  fully  formed. 

4.  The  thallogenous  structure  is  the  lowest  in  the  scale  consisting  en- 
tirely of  cellular  tissue  growing  in  all  directions. 

52.  When  a  seed  is  placed  under  the  proper  conditions  of  light 
heat  and  moisture,  it  sprouts  or  germinates.  The  radicle  protrudes 
from  embryo  and  descends  forming  the  root,  the  plumule  ascends 
and  becomes  the  stem.  The  plumule  is  a  bud  at  first  and  expands 
into  leaves  and  stem.  The  nourishment  for  the  radicle  and  plumule 
is  generally  stored  up  in  the  cotyledons  or  seed  leaves,  the  thick 
leaves  that  first  appear  above  ground  in  many  plants,  and  which 
constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  hulk  of  many  seeds.  In  some 
cases  the  nourishing  material  is  outside  of  the  embryo  and  is  called 
the  albumen.*  In  germination  water  is  absorbed,  the  starch  is  con- 
verted into  sugar  and  is  then  soluble  and  fitted  to  nourish  the  young 
plant.  Gluten  is  converted  into  diastase  which  acts  as  a  ferment. 
In  this  chemical  action  heat  is  produced. 

53.  We  have  seen  that  in  order  to  the  perfection  of  seeds  the 
ovules  must  be  fertilized.  This  process  of  fertilization  is  not  well 
understood.  The  pollen  falls  upon  the  stigma, expands  or  lengthens 
into  a  tube  which  penetrates  the  style  until  it  reaches  the  embryo 
sac  of  the  ovule  where  by  some  mysterious  process  it  causes  the 
development  of  the  ovule  into  a  perfect  seed  capable  of  germina- 
tion and  reproduction.  It  is  the  opinion  of  Schleiden  that  the  end 
of  the  pollen  tube  itself  becomes  the  embryo  of  the  new  plant  and 
is  only  quickened  by  the  embryo  sac  which  acts  as  a  receptacle  or 
nest  for  it.  As  in  many  cases  the  anthers  are  below  the  stigma  in 
many  others  on  different  flowers  of  the  same  plant  (monoecious) 
or  in  difFercnt  plants  (dioecious)  the  question  will  arise  how  does 
the  pollen  reach  the  stigma?  Insects  are  the  most  common  con- 
veyors of  pollen  as  they  roll  themselves  in  the  flower  of  one  plant 
and  then  fly  to  another  bearing  the  pollen  adhering  to  the  down  of 
their  bodies.      In  some  cases  tin-  pollen  is  conveyed  by  the  winds. 

54.  Absorption  of  liquids  is  by  means  of  the  sfongioles^  or  ex- 
tremities of  the  rootlets.  The  water  absorbed  contains  various  ele- 
ments in  solution  which  contribute  to  the  growth  of  the  plant. 
The  phenomena  of  absorption  is  explained  on  the  principles  of  01- 
dosviose  and  capillary  attraction.  The  leaves  and  green  bark  are 
also  capable  of  absorbing  not  only  liquids,  but  gases.     Some  plants 


this  must  n<>t  lie-  confounded  with  the  word  albumin  denoting  .1  chemical  compound. 


botaxi:  ;Ui> 

grow  when  suspended  in  the  air,  and  others  which  cling  by  their 
roots  to  solid  objects,  as  rocks  and  trees,  their  roots  being  simply 
for  support,  must  get  their  nourishment  entirely  by  absorption 
through  the  leaves  and  bark. 

55.  The  liquid  which  is  absorbed  and  flows  upward  through 
the  stem  to  the  leaves  is  at  first  mostly  water,  and  is  called  the 
crude  sap.  It  contains  in  solution  mineral  salts  and  gases  obtained 
from  the  earth;  also  sugar  and  dextrine  which  it  has  dissolved  from 
the  cells  in  its  upward  passage.  Maple  sugar  is  made  by  concen- 
tration of  this  sap  from  the  sugar  maple  and  other  trees.  When 
the  sap  arrives  at  the  leaves  it  loses  part  of  its  water  by  exhalation 
and  gains  carbon  from  the  carbonic  oxide  absorbed  from  the  atmos- 
phere. It  is  now  much  more  dense  and  rich  in  nutritive  material 
and  is  called  the  true  sap,  and  as  it  descends  it  is  assimilated  or 
built  up  into  the  tissues  of  the  plant.  In  certain  parts,  as  in  the 
pericarps,  cotyledons  and  albumen  of  the  seed,  tubers,  corms,  bulbs 
and  roots,  as  well  as  in  the  stem,  certain  nourishing  material  is  de- 
posited for  future  use.  This  material  consists  generally  of  starch, 
and  forms  the  food  of  animals  and  man.  On  the  ripening  of  fruits 
and  other  parts,  much  of  the  starch  is  converted  into  sugar. 

56.  The  leaves  are  in  the  plant  analogous  to  the  lungs  in  an 
animal.  In  leafless  plants  the  same  office  is  performed  by  the 
bark.  Leaves  take  in  air  at  their  stomata,  and  as  it  circulates 
through  the  intercellular  passages  of  the  parenchym  and  comes  in 
contact  with  the  sap,  it  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  latter  as 
the  air  does  to  the  blood  in  the  lungs  of  an  animal.  Under  the 
light  of  the  sun,  carbonic  oxide  (CO.,)  is  absorbed,  is  decomposed, 
its  carbon  retained,  and  the  oxygen  given  off.  Oxygen  is  also  ab- 
sorbed in  the  absence  of  direct  solar  light,  uniting  with  the  carbon 
of  the  tissues  to  form  carbonic  oxide,  which  is  exhaled  again  to  the 
atmosphere.  This  process  is  called  respiration.  As  has  been 
stated,  the  leaves  and  other  green  parts  give  off  water  in  the  form 
of  vapor.     This  process  is  called  transpiration. 

HINTS    TO    THE    TEACHER. 

57.  The  Spring,  Summer  or  Autumn  is  the  proper  time  to  study 
Botany,  for  then  sj^ecimens  are  abundant,  and  the  attempt  to  study 
Botany  without  the  plants  before  us  is  labor  thrown  away.  If  the 
study  of  this  interesting  science  were  simply  the  committing  to 
memory  of  the  numerous  technical  terms,  then  it  might  be 
well  to  study  it  in  winter;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  know  all,  nor 
even  a  considerable  number  of  these  terms  to  gain  a  useful  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject. 

58.  Technical  terms  are  necessary,  as  thev  save  the  use  of 
many  words  in  description.  They  are  best  learned  by  use,  and 
those  which  we  need  not  use,  of  course  we  need  not  learn.  A 
great  many  are  given  in  the  text;   not  that  we  expect  the  reader  to 


850  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS-  LIBRARY. 

learn    them,  but    that   he    may    refer  to   them  as  occasion  demands, 
and  that  he  may  gain  general  ideas  by  the  classifications  presented. 

59.  The  first  lesson  in  Botany  should  he  on  the  parts  of  the 
flower.  Each  member  <>f  the  class  should  have  specimens  of  some 
nearly  typical  dower  and  learn  the  names  of  the  parts  by  referring 
to  the  books.  The  first  recitation  should  be  a  drill  upon  the  parts  of 
the  flower.  Let  the  teacher  place  an  outline  of  the  subject  on  the 
blackboard  and  require  pupils  to  read  the  definitions  in  the  text-book 
and  try  to  find  the  part  defined  among  the  specimens  in  their  hands. 
At  the  next  recitation  the  teacher  calls  on  individuals  to  name  and  de- 
tine  some  part  of  the  flower  ami  exhibit  the  part  to  the  class,  and  so 
on,  until  they  are  as  familiar  with  them  as  with  the  important  terms 
in  arithmetic  and  grammar. 

60.  The  next  step  should  be  to  begin  the  analysis  of  a  plant. 
It  may  require  a  week  to  analyze  the  first  plant,  but  proceed  pa- 
tiently, explaining  the  manner  of  using  the  Key  to  Analysis  in  the 
text-book  and  looking  up  the  technical  terms  as  they  occur.  A 
certain  portion  of  the  Key  may  be  assigned  as  a  lesson — that  is,  the 
pupil  may  attempt  to  trace  the  plant  a  certain  distance,  as  to  the  co- 
hort, order  or  genus.  Besides  this,  a  certain  portion  of  the  text 
describing  stems,  leaves,  roots,  etc.,  ma)'  be  assigned  at  each  lesson 
for  the  pupils  to  read  in  the  meantime,  that  they  may  obtain  some 
general   ideas. 

61.  Pupils  will  soon  learn  to  handle  the  Key  to  the  Analysis, 
and  in  two  weeks  the  class,  with  the  aid  of  the  teacher,  will  have 
analyzed  perhaps  five  or  six  plants.  Now  certain  topics  may  be 
assigned  different  pupils.  Say  one  pupil  is  given  Inflorescence,  an- 
other Vernation,  another  Leaf  Arrangement,  and  so  on.  Each 
pupil  is  expected  to  explain  briefly  what  he  can  on  these  points  and 
in  many  cases  present  an  outline  of  the  subject  as  we  have  done  in 
the  text. 

62.  A  part  of  each  recitation,  however,  should  be  devoted  to 
analysis  in  the  class,  but  after  the  third  or  fourth  week  pupils  will 
be  able  to  analyze  so  readily  that  one  plant  may  be  disposed  of  in 
about  15  minutes  or  more,  and  the  class  may  average  a  plant  a  day. 
\'<>w  will  come  the  proper  time  to  study  the  physiology  of  plants, 
and  topics  such  as  Fertilization,  Germination,  Absorption,  etc.,  may 
b,  assigned,  not  to  individual  pupils,  but  to  the  class  as  a  whole. 
The  analysis  may  still  be  kept  up  every  day,  or  on  alternate  days. 
The  class  may  be  divided  into  sections  of  four  or  live  members 
each,  with  leaders,  who  may  conduct  the  analysis  of  plants  outside 
of  recitation  hours,  taking  excursions  to  W Is  and  fields. 

63.  Ten  or  twelve  weeks  spent  in  this  maimer  cannot  fail  to 
produce  good  results.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  text-book  be 
taught,  so  main  pages  assigned  as  a  lesson  and  tin-  pupils  be  re- 
quired t<>  commit  to  memory  the  technical  term-  without  seeing 
how  they  are  used,  the  whole  work   will  he  dry  and  repulsive. 


BOTANY.  251 

64.  Instructions  in  regard  to  forming  herbariums  are  given  in  the 
text-books,  but  a  few  words  here  in  regard  to  simplifying  the  work 
will  not  be  out  of  place.  A  very  simple  arrangement  for  drying 
plants  may  be  made  as  follows:  Take  two  boards  about  1.2x15 
inches  in  size  and  bore  them  full  of  holes  with  an  inch  auger.  Ar- 
range the  plants  to  be  dried  on  sheets  of  paper  the  size  of  the 
boards,  placing  five  or  six  sheets  between  the  plants.  Place  the 
papers  and  plants  between  the  boards  and  fasten  them  together 
with  a  wooden  clamp,  or  by  tying  with  a  cord.  Five  or  six  plants 
may  be  placed  in  the  press  at  one  time,  and  the  air  being  allowed 
to  pass  through  the  holes  in  the  boards,  they  will  dry  very  rapidly. 
Pieces  of  old  newspapers  will  answer  very  well  for  the  drying 
sheets. 

QUESTIONS    OX    BOTANY. 

i.  Define  Botany.  2.  Define  a  plant.  3.  What  is  the  flower?  4.  Calyx? 
Sepals?  5.  Corolla?  Petals?  6.  Can  there  be  a  calyx  without  a  corolla '  Can 
there  be  a  corolla  without  a  calyx?     7.  Stamens?     S.  Pistils?     Ovary? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  a  typical  flower?  10.  What  must  it  have?  11. 
Torus?  12.  What  are  the  variations  from  the  type?  Define  adhesion;  cohe- 
sion. 13.  Make  an  outline  of  the  characteristic  forms  of  the  perianth.  14. 
Does  the  perianth  always  fall  off  before  the  fruit  ripens?  15.  Name  some  of 
the  appendages  of  flowers. 

16.  Inflorescence?  17.  Forms  of  inflorescence?  iS.  Outline  axillary  in- 
florescence. 19.  Outline  terminal  inflorescence.  20.  Define  fruit.  21.  Peri- 
carp? What  is  the  flesh  of  a  peach?  22.  Dehiscence?  23.  Look  up  the  tech- 
nical terms  which  define  each  of  the  following:  apple,  peach,  cherry,  acorn, 
pumpkin,  currant,  pea,  blackberry. 

24.  What  are  the  parts  of  the  seed?  25.  What  is  the  use  of  the  leaf?  26. 
Venation  ?  27.  From  your  text-book  make  out  an  outline  of  the  forms  of  leaves. 
28.  Phvllotaxv  ?  29.  What  is  interesting  about  the  arrangement  of  leaves  on 
the  stem? 

30.  What  are  buds?  31.  Vernation?  32.  Name  some  of  the  transforma- 
tions of  leaves.  33.  What  is  a  double  flower?  34.  Define  axis.  35.  What  dif- 
ference between  a  stem  and  a  root?  36-39.  Outline  stems.  40.  What  is  a  cion? 
41.  What  are  the  uses  of  the  root?  42-43.  Outline  roots.  44.  What  is  a  cell? 
45.  Contents  of  cells?     46.  How  does  a  plant  grow? 

47.  Give  a  classification  of  vegetable  tissue  as  to  arrangement  and  form  ot 
tells.  4S.  Epidermis?  49.  Stomata?  50.  Hairs,  bristles,  down,  etc.  ?  51.  Ex- 
ogenous structure?  What  is  the  "  silver  grain  "?  What  is  cork,  botanically  ? 
Endogenous  structure?  State  whether  the  following  are  endogenous  or  exoge- 
nous: corn,  apple-tree,  oak,  palm-tree. 

52.  Tell  all  you  can  about  germination.  Place  some  beans  in  a  vessel  on 
some  cotton  and*  keep  the  cotton  saturated  with  water  and  note  the  result.  53. 
Describe  fertilization.  Cats  kill  field  mice,  the  field  mice  destroy  the  nests  of 
bumble  bees,  the  bumble  bees  assist  in  fertilizing  the  clover  seeds.  Query— 
What  relation  does  the  cat  sustain  to  the  farmer  in  this  respect? 

54.  What  is  absorption?  How  explained?  55.  What  is  the  use  of  the  sap? 
56.  If  the  leaves  are  the  lungs  of  a  plant,  how  do  leafless  plants  respire? 


HISTORY. 


OUTLINE    OF    GENERAL    HISTORY 


I.  Introduction, 
i.     Definitions. 

a.  History  (general). 

b.  Political  History. 

c.  Philosophy  of  History. 

d.  Chief  Elements  in  the  Study 
History. 

e.  Kindred  Branches  of  Study. 
(i).     Philology. 

(2).     Physical  Geography. 
(3).     Geology. 
(4).     Ethnology. 
(5).     Archaeology. 
(6).     Anthropology. 

f.  Races  of  Men. 

g.  Antiquity  of  Man. 
h.     Linguistic  Families. 

(1).     Aryan. 
(2).     Indo-European. 
(3).     Turanian, 
i.      Divisions  of  History. 
(1).     Ancient. 
(2).     Modern. 

II.  Ancient  History. 
1.     Egypt. 

a.  Antiquity. 

b.  Records(Hieroglyphics) 
(1).     The  Rosetta  Stone. 
(2).     Literature. 

c.  Race  and  Language. 

d.  Government. 

e.  La  us 

f.  Political  History. 
(1).     Periods. 

(2).     Dynasties. 

(3).     Pyramid  and  Temple-Bui 
ing  Epochs. 

(4).     Shepherd    Kings     and 
raelites. 

(5).     Material  Prosperity. 

g.  Mechanical  Sciences, 
h.     Art. 

(1).     Sculpture. 
(2).     Painting. 


(3).     Architecture, 
(a).     Pyramids,  Temples,  Obe- 
lisks. Sphinxes,  Tombs. 
i.      Religion. 

(1).     Polytheistic, 
of  (2).     The  Priesthood. 

(3).     Embalming. 
(4).     Trial  of  the  Dead. 
(15).     Theological  Works 
i.    "Caste. 

(1).     Evil  Effects  of. 
k.     Resources  of  the  Country. 
1.      Reflections  on  History  of  Egypt. 

2.  Assyria.* 

3.  Chaldea. 
4     Judea,  Phoenicia. 

5.  Persia. 

6.  India. 

7.  Greece. 

{Outline  in  full,  laxus,   manners,    cus- 
toms, home  life,  etc.] 

8.  Rome. 
{Outline    fully   special    points    named 

above  for  Greece,  also  Roman  polity,  char- 
acter,  language,  laws   and  influence  on 
modem  civilization.] 
III.     Modern  History. 

[Mediaeval) 

1.  Middle  Al;c>,  Dark  Ages  defined. 

2.  Character  of  the  Germans. 

3.  The  Franks  ami  Saracens. 

4.  England  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

5.  France  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

6.  Italy  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

7.  Germany  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
Id-       8.     Tartar  Conquerors. 

9.     The  Feudal  System. 
Is-      10.      Chivalry. 

1 1.  Rise  of  Popery. 

12.  The  Crusades. 

13.  Civilization  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
(Modern  History  proper.) 

1.  The  "(ilea'  Powers." 

2.  Maritime  Enterprises. 


♦It  would  occupy  ti»>  much  valuable  space  to  give    a  full   outline   for  eacli  country  here. 
The  student  should  prepare  such  outlines  of  each  country,  using  Egypt  as  a  model. 


HISTORT.  268 

3.  Great  Events   of  Sixteenth   Cen-         d.     Civilization  of  the  Seventeenth 
tnry.  Century. 

a.  The  Reformation.  5.     Great   Events  of  the  Eighteenth 

b.  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic.       Century. 

c.  Religious  Wars  of  France.  a.     Rise  of  Russia. 

d.  Reign  of  Elizabeth.  b.     Prussia. 

4.  Great  Events  of  Seventeenth  Cen-         c.     Poland  (fall  of). 
tury.  d.     England. 

a.  England  under  the  Stuarts.  e.     The  French  Revolution. 

b.  The  Thirty  Years'  War  in  Ger-         f.     The  Wars  of  Napoleon, 
many.  6.     The  Nineteenth  Century. 

"c.     Reign  of  Louis  XIV.  IV.     History  of  the  United  States. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  History  is  any  record  of  events.  A  record  of  the  life  of  a 
nation  or  people  is  hi 'story  proper ;  a  record  of  the  life  of  an  indi- 
vidual is  Biography. 

2.  Political  History,  that  is,  a  mere  record  of  wars,  conquests, 
massacres,  plots,  and  the  doings  of  kings  and  rulers,  has  heretofore 
constituted  the  great  bulk  of  all  history. 

3.  The  Philosophy  of  History  is  an  examination  into  causes 
and  effects.  It  should  receive  careful  attention  from  the  student  of 
history,  as  only  a  clear  understanding  of  the  causes  which  lead  to 
wars  and  revolutions  can  make  intelligible  the  events  themselves. 

The  origin,  character  and  surroundings  of  a  people  must  be  well 
understood  before  we  can  correctly  estimate  the  part  which  that 
people  plays  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

4.  The  Chief  Elements  in  this  estimate  of  the  character  of  a 
people  are  race,  geographical  location,  religion  and  natural  re- 
sources of  their  country. 

5.  Kindred  Branches  of  Study. — The  branches  of  study  nec- 
essary to  a  proper  understanding  of  history  are  Philology,  or  the 
science  of  language;  Geology,  or  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
formation  and  development  of  the  earth;  Physical  Geography, 
which  treats  of  the  earth  with  reference  to  the  conformation  and 
structure  of  its  surface,  its  climate  and  its  natural  resources. 

G.  Philology. —  The  history  of  nations  and  their  kinship  to 
other  nations  may  be  traced  by  means  of  language.  For  instance, 
the  occurrence  of  the  same  root  words  tor  father,  mother,  brother, 
sister  in  the  languages  of  the  Greeks,  Romans,  Goths,  Hindoos, 
Persians,  Kelts  and  their  modern  descendants,  shows  these  nations 
to  have  sprung  from  the  same  people.  The  fact  that  most  words 
describing  the  conveniences  of  advancing  civilization  are  different  in 
these  languages  shows  that  these  peoples  separated  at  a  very  re- 
mote period  of  antiquity. 

7.  Geology  explains  the  gradual  processes  by  which  the  earth 
was  fitted  for  the  habitation  of  man.  Fossil  remains  with  the  ac- 
companying rock  formation  indicate  relatively  the  time  at  which 
various  kinds  of  animals  and  man  appeared  on  the  earth. 


254  TEA CJ/ERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  L //.'A'.  1 R  ) ', 

8.  Physical  Geography  treats  of  the  natural  resources  on 
which  the  commercial  and  political   importance  of  nations  depend. 

9.  Ethnology  treats  of  types  of  mankind  and  race  distribu- 
tion. 

10.  Archaeology  deals  with  the  inscriptions  and  other  records 
found  on  ancient  monuments,  or  buried  in  tombs  and  ruins;  also 
the  utensils,  implements  of  war,  etc.,  which  have  descended  from 
antiquity.  Its  contributions  to  history  are  numerous,  valuable  and 
reliable. 

11.  Anthropology  treats  of  man  as  an  animal  and  his  place  in 
natural  history. 

12.  The  Antiquity  of  Man  is  much  greater  than  is  indicated 
by  any  kind  of  written  records  whatever.  This  is  distinctly  proved 
by  Philologv,  Geology  and  Archaeology.  Human  bones,  imple- 
ments of  war,  domestic  utensils,  etc.,  have  been  found  in  such  situa- 
tions as  to  show  clearly  that  they  were  placed  there  long  before 
the  dawn  of  authentic  history,  which  scarcely  dates  back  to  3,000 
years  before  Christ. 

13.  Races. — Mankind  is  divided  into  five  well  recognized 
races  or  types,  differing  in  intellect,  features,  color,  stature,  etc. 
They  are  the  Caucasian,  Mongolian,  Malay,  Negro  and  Ameri- 
can. These  are  the  strongly  marked  divisions.  In  fact,  there  are 
from  twentv  to  thirty  different  types  slightlv  differing  in  physical 
characteristics. 

14.  The  Caucasian  is  the  great  historical  and  progressive  race 
of  the  world.     Its  history  is  the  history  of  civilization. 

15.  Language. — The  human  race  is  divided  with  respect  to 
language  into  three  great  divisions,  the  Aryan,  the  Scmit' ' ic  and 
Tura' '  nian,  The  two  former  are  well  defined;  the  last  is  a  some- 
what indefinite  term,  covering  all  not  included  in  the  others. 

16.  The  Aryans  { Indo- Europeans)  include  the  ancient  Hin- 
doos, Greeks,  Romans,  Persians,  Teutons,  Kelts  and  Slavonians, 
and  their  modern  descendants,  comprising  nearly  all  the  nations  of 
Europe  and  America. 

In  their  influence  on  civilization  the  Aryans  predominate,  as  the 
Caucasians  predominate  among  races.* 

17.  The  Semitic  languages  are  those  spoken  by  the  Assyrians, 
Hebrews,  Chaldeans,  Egyptians,  Phoenicians  and  modern  Arabs. 

18.  Divisions  of  History. — History  is  usually  divided  into  An- 
cient, extending  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  fall  of  Rome,  476  A. 
D.,  and  Modern,  extending  from  476  A.  D.  to  the  present. 

Tlio  dates  of  important  events  :irc  used  for  convenience  in  dividing  periods.  The  changes 
which  distinguish  the  periods  may  h.ive  occupied  centuries.  Hence  the  student  must  not  inter 
that  the  world  differed  materially  ;t  few  years  after  a  given  date  from  what  it  was  before 
that  .i.ite. 


*The  word  Aryan  is  derived  from  a  root  found  in  the  Zend  and  Sanscrit  1  manages,  and 
means  n  >bl*  or  txt  ■•lien/.  The  primitive  Aryans  lived  in  the  regions  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
whence  they  were  supposed  to  have  emigrated  ;it  least  -jooo  B.  C.  The  original  Aryan 
language  is  lost,  but  has  been  partially  reconstructed  by  scholars. 


U IS TORT.  255 

ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

19.  The  most  ancient  nations  were  Egypt,  Assyria,  Babylonia, 
the  Phoenician  cities,  Persia,  Judea  and  India. 

EGYPT. 

20.  Egypt  has  the  oldest  authentic  history,  beginning  in  the 
reign  oiMehes  about  2700  years  before  Christ.  The  numerous  in- 
scriptions on  temples,  monuments  and  tombs,  together  with  the 
numerous  papyri  (paper  books  ),  determine  the  earliest  history  of 
Egypt  with  greater  fullness  and  accuracy  than  is  the  case  with 
almost  any  other  ancient  nation. 

21.  Hieroglyphics. — The  characters  used  in  these  records  are 
hieroglyphics,  an  arbitrary  system  of  picture  and  sy?nbol  writing. 
The  dryness  of  the  climate,  combined  with  enduring  materials, 
have  preserved  the  historical  monuments  of  Egypt  remarkably 
well. 

22.  The  Rosetta  Stone  found  by  the  French  at  Damietta,  in 
1 798,  furnished  a  clew  to  the  deciphering  of  the  hieroglyphics 
which  had  heretofore  been  unintelligible.  It  contained  inscriptions 
in  Greek,  Demotic  (the  language  of  the  common  people),  and 
hieroglyphics.  It  was  naturally  supposed  that  the  three  inscriptions 
were  the  same.  Certain  wor'ds  in  the  hieroglyphics  were  always 
enclosed  in  ovals.  These  were  surmised  correctly  to  be  the  names 
of  kings,  and  the  deciphering  of  the  names  of  Ptolemy  and  Cleo- 
patra furnished  a  basis  for  deciphering  the  entire  system  of  hiero- 
glyphics. This  threw  open  to  the  world  not  only  the  contents  of 
numerous  inscriptions,  but  also  of  books  on  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects.    Their  literature  was  lifeless  and  uninteresting. 

23.  Race  and  Language. — The  Egyptians  were  Caucasians 
and  spoke  a  Semitic  language,  which  shows  evidences  of  a  fusion 
with  a  Turanian  element. 

24.  The  Government  of  Egypt,  like  that  of  nearly  all  an- 
cient nations,  was  an  absolute  monarchy  somewhat  modified  by 
priesthood  influences.  The  combined  authority  of  the  crown  and 
the  priesthood  constituted  a  government  which  often  became  an  in- 
tolerable despotism. 

25.  Laws. — Many  of  the  laws  of  Egypt  were  wise  and  sal- 
utary. Penal  laws  were  very  severe.  One  of  the  laws  of  Amasis 
was  that  every  citizen  should  appear  before  a  magistrate  annually 
and  give  an  account  of  his  profession  or  business  and  his  means  of 
income.  Severe  punishment  was  decreed  against  those  who  could 
not  show  that  they  lived  by  honest  means.  He  who  had  it  in  his 
power  to  save  the  life  of  a  citizen  ami  neglected  to  do  so,  was  pun- 
ished as  a  murderer. 

26.  The  Political  History  of  Egypt  may  be  divided  into 
three  periods:    (1)    extending   from    2700  B.  C.  to  the  conquest  of 


256  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS*   LI  BR  ART. 

the  country  by  the  Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings,  about  2080  B.  C.; 
(2)  including  the  reign  of  the  Shepherd  Kings,  2080  B.  C.  to  1525 
B.  C;  (3)  from  the  expulsion  of  the  Shepherd  Kings  to  the  con- 
quesl  by  Persia  525  B.  C. 

27.  Numerous  dynasties  or  lines  of  royal  families  successively 
held  sway  in  Egypt.  At  different  periods  of  her  history  the 
country  was  divided  for  a  time  into  several  independent  or  semi-in- 
dependent monarchies  with  contemporaneous  sovereigns. 

28.  The  great  pyramids  were  built  during  the  first  period, 
2^00  to  2200  1).  C. 

29.  The  Israelites  were  in  Egypt  during  the  reigns  of  the 
Shepherd  Kings.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  time 
of  the    Exodus.      Some   writers  place   it   about  1650  B.  C;   others 

1450  B.  C. 

30.  The  great  temples  were  built  during  the  splendid  period 
following  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos,  1525  to  1085  B.  C. 

31.  The  prosperity  of  the  country  was  now  at  its  height.  In 
addition  to  the  great  architectural  triumphs  which  have  immortal- 
ized Egypt,  foreign  wars  were  successfully  carried  on.  Ethiopia 
and  a  large  part  of  Western  Asia  became  subject  to  Egypt.  But 
a  rapid  decline,  with  intervals  of  renewed  prosperity,  ended  in  the 
conquest  of  the  country  by  Persia,  525  B.  C. 

32.  Art. — The  Egyptians  early  attained  a  very  high  degree  of 
skill  in  the  arts  and  mechanical  sciences,  as  the  pyramids,  colossal 
temples  and  towering  obelisks  sufficiently  attest.  During  the 
third  period  they  exhibited  a  remarkable  degree  of  proficiency  in 
architecture,  sculpture  and  the  application  of  colors  in  painting. 

33.  In  Architecture  they  aimed  at  the  colossal  and  their 
grand  conceptions  bad  sublimity  in  execution.  The  size  of  Egyptian 
structures  has  never  been  equaled  by  those  of  any  other  nation. 
The  great  temple  at  Karnak  covered  an  area  twice  as  large  as  that 
of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  The  great  hall  in  this  temple  is  the 
largesl  room  in  the  world.  It  is  a  parallelogram  ^42  feet  long  by 
1  70  feet  wide.  It  contains  sixteen  rows  of  columns,  BOmeofwhich 
are  62  feet,  high   1  1   feet   6  inches  in  diameter,  with   capitals  22    feet 

across. 

34.  The  great  Sphinx  at  Gizeh,  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world,  has  the  body  of  a  lion  in  a  crouching  attitude,  with  a 
human  bead.  The  height  from  the  platform  on  which  it  rests  to 
the  top  of  the  head  is  IOO  feet;  the  length  of  the  body  is  1  \6  feet; 
from  the  top  of  the  head  to  the  chin  is  28  feet  6  inches;  across  the 
shoulders,  34  feet  A  small  temple  was  built  between  the  paws. 
With  the  exception  of  the  paws  and  the  temple  the  whole  was  cut 
out  of  solid  rock. 

35.  The  pyramids  it  is  generally  supposed  were  used  as  the 
epulchers  of  kings.  Tin-  Btructure  was  begun  when  the  monarch. 
.  -an  hi-  reign  and  added  to  year  by  year  till  his  death,  when  it  was 


HISTORY.  257 

hastily  completed.  Many  of  the  well-known  tombs  in  the  "  cities 
of  the  dead"  are  decorated  with  paintings,  the  colors  of  which 
are  as  fresh  as  when  applied  3,000  years  ago. 

36.  Art  was  constantly  fettered  by  certain  definite  forms  pre- 
scribed by  custom  and  religion.  Hence,  though  the  Egyptians 
showed  a  high  degree  of  skill  in  execution  they  failed* to  progress 
because  invention  had  no  play.  The  perfect  carving  of  heiroglyph- 
ics  on  flinty  granite  and  the  raising  of  enormous  masses  of  stone 
into  place,  indicate  a  mastery  in  the  use  of  tools  and  mechanical 
appliances. 

37.  Religion. — The  religion  of  the  Egyptians  was  Polytheistic. 
It  was  a  degrading  and  superstitious  idolatry.  Different  names 
were  given  to  different  manifestations  of  the  Deity.  As  judge  of 
men  and  father  of  mankind  he  was  Osiris.  Isis  was  the  sister  and 
wife  of  Osiris.  Seth  (Satan)  was  the  spirit  of  evil  afterward  slain 
by  Horus,  son  of  Isis.  Animals  of  all  kinds  were  worshiped. 
Strange  to  say,  the  animals  venerated  in  one  city  were  hunted  and 
despised  in  the  next.  This  often  led  to  serious  seditions  and  even 
civil  war.  The  deities  were  supposed  to  reside  in  the  bodies  of 
animals.  Thus  Osiris  was  represented  in  the  sacred  bull  Apis. 
When  the  bull  died  he  was  embalmed  at  enormous  expense,  and 
public  mourning  followed. 

38.  The  priesthood   formed  a  very  large  and  influential   class, 
many  of  whom  were  not  actually  priests.     They  alone  were  well 
educated.     They  were   wealthy  and   it  was   constantly  to   their  in- 
terest to  keep  the  common  people  poor  and  ignorant  by  means  of 
degrading  superstition  and  the  heavy  taxes  necessary  to  support  it. 

39.  Embalming  the  human  body  was  practiced  universally. 
The  Egyptians  believed  that  the  body  would  be  resurrected  entire 
as  at  death.  The  loss  of  a  member  was  considered  a  dire 
calamity.  These  mummies  were  so  well  preserved  that  they  yet 
exist  in  excellent  preservation  in  the  tombs  of  Egypt  and  in  the 
museums  of  the  world.  Animals  were  also  often  embalmed.  The 
secret  of  this  process  is  now  lost.  The  dead  were  not  allowed  to 
pass  to  the  "  city  of  the  dead  "until  judges  had  held  an  inquest 
on  the  moral  life  of  the  deceased.  In  some  instances  even  kings 
were  refused  the  right  of  interment. 

The  Learning  of  the  Egyptians  related  largely  to  the  mys- 
teries of  their  religion.  Books  (papyri)  on  various  subjects  have 
however,  been  discovered,  especially  works  relating  to  medicine. 

40.  Caste. — The  pojjulation  was  divided  into  several  caste-. 
priesthood,  soldiers,  husbandmen,  artificers,  ete.  The  son  nearly 
always  followed  the  occupation  of  the  father,  though  not  absolutely 
obliged  to  do  -,,.  This  system  was  a  constant  incubus  on  the  pro- 
gress of  the  people.  Genius  and  merit  had  little  chance  for  prefer- 
ment outside  their  own  caste.  The  result  was  bad  continually.  The 
priests  and  soldiers  were  the  only  classes  enjoying  political  rights. 


TEACHERS   AND   STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

41.  Resources.  -  The  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile  rendered 
Egypt  a  land  of  wonderful  agricultural  resources.  It  i>  estimated 
that  it  cost  only  about  $4  to  rear  a  child  of  the  lower  classes. 

42.  Conclusions. — The  Egyptians  were  a  people  of  great  in- 
tellectual power  and  abundant  genius.  Their  civilization  neverthe- 
less was  a  failure,  because  it  added  to  the  burdens  of  the  people- 
without  increasing  their  happiness.  Their  genius  died  fettered  by 
traditions  and  repressed  by  priestcraft.  Their  mighty  works  are 
not  the  works  of  beneficent  rulers,  wise  statesmen,  and  a  free  peo- 
ple. They  stand  through  all  time  as  the  monuments  of  a  false 
religion,  perverted  faith,  and  unholy  ambition. 

WESTERN     VSIA. ASSYRIA,    CHALDEA,  JUDRA,  PHOENICIA. 

43.  Assyria  and  Chaldea  (or  Babylonia)  attained  a  high  civili- 
zation at  a  very  early  date.  Much  light  has  lately  been  thrown 
upon  their  history  by  the  deciphering  of  inscriptions  and  Libraries. 
These  writings  are  in  the  cunc'  iform  or  arrow-headed  characters, 
and  are  found  stamped  upon  hricks  and  on  the  clay  tablets  which 
constituted   the  libraries. 

44.  Race  and  Language. — The  people  of  Assyria  and 
Babylon  were  of  Semitic  stock  and  the  Babylonians  were  close!  v 
related  to  the  Hebrews.  The  Assyrians  were  a  warlike,  aggressive 
people.      The  Babylonians  were  more  luxurious  and  effeminate. 

45.  Babylonia  (  Chaldea). — The  earliest  date  in  the  history  of 
Babylonia  is  .2234  B.  C.  This  date  depends  upon  an  unbroken 
series  of  recorded  astronomical  observations  covering  a  period  of 
1900  years,  discovered  by  Alexander  the  Great  331   B.  C. 

46.  Babylon  was  one  of  the  greatest  cities  the  world  has  ever 
seen.  It  was  laid  out  in  the  form  of  a  square,  each  side  of  which 
was  25  miles.  According  to  Herodotus  the  walls  were  ^^  feet 
high  and  S5  feet  thick.  The  hanging  gardens  built  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar consisted  of  terraces  elevated  one  above  another  on  enor- 
mous pillars.  They  were  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 
Babylon  flourished  as  a  great  power  until  1250  B.  C,  when  it  was 
conquered  by  Assyria. 

47.  Assyria  now  became  the  dominant  power  in  Western 
Asia.  Nineveh  was  its  capital,  situated  on  the  Tigris.  The 
Assyrian  Empire  was  ended  625  B.  C.  by  the  joint  attack  of  Persia 
and  Babylon.  The  independence  of  the  latter  city  ended  538  B.C., 
when  it  was  taken  by  the  Persians.  From  their  proximity  to  the 
Hebrews  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians  are  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  Bible.  Sennacherib,  King  of  Assyria,  lost  185*000  men  in 
one  night  near  Pelusium  in  an  expedition  against  the  Jews. 

48.  The  Arts  and  Sciences  were  in  an  advanced  stage  of 
development  among  the  Assyrians  and  Chaldeans.  The  latter  peo- 
ple were  proficient  in  astronomy.  Sculpture  was  carried  to  a  high 
degree  of   perfection   as   shown   by   the   bas-rclicfs  on  the  walls  of 


HISTORY.  259 

Nineveh.      The    utensils    of    domestic    and    commercial   use    were 
numerous.     Astrology  was  universally  practiced. 

The  Social  Life  of  these  nations  is  little  known.  Many  of  their 
customs  were  revoltingly  corrupt.  Their  religion  was  an  idolatry 
less  absurd  than  that  of  Egypt. 

49.  Commerce  made  the  people  of  Babylon  rich.  They  were 
a  nation  of  merchants.  They  handled  much  of  the  merchandise  of 
the  East.  Agriculture  was  a  leading  interest  in  the  rich  Tigro- 
Euphrates  valley. 

50.  The  Hebrews  were  a  Semitic  people.  They  were  never 
a  great  nation  in  a  political  sense,  and  were  repeatedly  conquered 
by  the  surrounding  nations.  Their  kingdom  reached  its  zenith 
under  Solomon  1015-975  B.  C.  Under  Solomon's  successor  Rhe- 
hoboam  ten  of  the  twelve  tribes  revolted  and  formed  the  Kingdo?n  of 
Israel  which  was  conquered  by  Assyria  72 1  B.  C.  after  an  independ- 
ent existence  of  250  years,  yerusalem  the  capital  of  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  (two  tribes)  was  captured  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of 
Babylon  586  B.  C.  The  people  were  carried  into  captivity  to 
Babylon  for  70  years. 

51.  The  final  destruction  of  Jerusalem  took  place  70  A.  D., 
when  the  city  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the  Romans  and  the 
people  dispersed  over  the  earth. 

52.  Religious  development  is  the  most  remarkable  feature  in 
Jewish  history.  In  their  code  of  morals  the  Hebrews  were  far  in 
advance  of  their  neighbors  and  their  religion  gave  rise  to  the  Chris- 
tian religion. 

53.  Phoenicia,  a  narrow  strip  of  country  on  the  eastern  shore 
of  the  Mediterranean,  was  early  noted  for  the  extent  of  its  com- 
merce. Tyre  and  Si  don,  so  often  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  were 
the  chief  cities.  Carthage  was  the  chief  Phoenician  colony.  The 
Phoenician  products  were  very  valuable.  The  celebrated  Tyrian 
purple  was  the  chosen  raiment  of  royalty.  This  dye  was  obtained 
from  the  juice  of  a  shell-fish. 

54.  The  commerce  of  the  Phoenicians  extended  along  the 
shores  of  the  entire  Mediterranean  and  as  far  as  Cornwall  in  Brit- 
ain, whence  tin  was  obtained. 

55.  The  first  alphabet  in  general  use  was  invented  by  this 
people  and  l>v  them  probably  transmitted  to  the  Greeks. 

56.  Tyre  was  captured  5S5  B.  C.  by  Nebuchadnezzar  after  a 
siege  of  thirteen  years,  and  again  by  Alexander  the  Great  332  B. 
C,  when  8,000  citizens  were  massacred  and  30,000  sold  into 
slavery.     Not  a  vestige  of  this  great  city  now  remains. 

PERSIA     AND    INDIA. 

57.  The  Persians  were  of  pure  Aryan  descent.  They  were  a 
simple,  hardy,  virtuous  race.  In  character  they  were  far  superior 
to  most  of  the  ancient  nations. 


260  TEACHERS-  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

58.  The  religion  of  the  Persians  strictly  speaking  was  not  an 
idolatry.  They  worshiped  fire  on  the  mountain  tops.  They  made  no 
images  and  built  few  temples.  Zoroas'ter  was  their  great  prophet. 
They  believed  the  deity  consisted  of  two  principles,  the  spirit  of 
c*oo<\  Omi/tzd,  and  the  spirit  of  evil,  Akriman.  The  sacred  writings 
were  called  the  ZendAvesta.  Later  their  religion  hecame  corrupted, 
and  magianism  sprang  up.  This  was  merely  a  species  of  magic. 
The  magians  were  also  called  fire-worshipers.  They  kept  sacred 
fires  continually  burning. 

59.  Political  History. — The  Persians  were  originally  subject  to 
the  Medes.  Cyrus  the  Great  threw  off  the  Median  yoke  558  B.  C. 
and  the  two  peoples  hecame  united  under  the  empire  of  the  A/cdes 
and  Persians.  Cyrus  captured  Babylon  53S  B.  C.  Cambyses  his 
son  conquered  Egypt,  525  B.  C.   Cambyses  was  a  cruel,  bloodthirsty 

tyrant. 

60.  Darius  II  was  the  greatest  of  the  Persian  monarchs.  His 
empire  extended  from  Thrace  to  India.  He  divided  it  into  provinces 
each  of  which  was  governed  by  a  satrap.  He  made  wise  laws, 
coined  money  and  established  post  roads. 

61.  Xerxes  (supposed  to  be  the  Ahasuerus  of  the  Bible)  invaded 
Greece  with  an  immense  host.  (See  Sec.  S6).  He  was  ignomini- 
ously  defeated  and  obliged  to  flee  for  safety.  Under  his  reign  which 
began  486  B.  C.  the  empire  commenced  to  decline.  It  was  finally 
overthrown  by  Alexander  the  Great  at  the  battle  of  Arbela  Oct.  1 

331   B.   C. 

62.  The  civilization  of  the  Persians  did  not  equal  that  of  the 
Egyptians,  Assyrians  or  Chaldeans.  The  ruins  of  Persepolis  indi- 
cate   a    city    of   great    extent    which    contained    many   magnificent 

edifices. 

63.  India. — The  Hindoos  were  Aryans  of  the  purest  stock. 
Their  language,  the  Sanscrit,  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  one  of  the 
most  perfect  in  existence.  It  ceased  to  be  a  living  language  several 
centuries  before  Christ.  It  is  rich  in  literature,  chiefly  of  a  religious 
character.  The  Vcdas  arc  the  sacred  books  of  the  Brahmins.  They 
are  in  the  form  of  epic  poems  and   are  the  oldest  religious  works  in 

existence. 

64.  The  Religion  of  the  Hindoos  is  Brahminism.  This  reli- 
gion has  existed  in  substantially  its  present  form  since  2000  B.  C. 
One  of  its  important  doctrines  is  the  belief  in  the  transmigration  of 
souls.  According  to  this  belief  the  soul  of  man  finds  an  abode  in 
different  animals  at  various  stages  of  its  existence.  For  example, 
the  soul  may  first  exist  in  the  body  of  a  dog,  afterward  in  a  horse 
and  so  on  till  a  human  habitation  is  furnished  it.  For  this  reason 
the  Hindoos  refrain  from  killing  animals  lest  they  may  disturb  a 
human  soul. 

65.  Buddhism,  a  reform  religion,  sprang  up  in  India  about  the 
6th  century  B.  C.     It  was  founded  by  Oau'tama,  sometimes  called 


HISTORT.  261 

the  "  Christ  of  India."  This  religion  has  now  more  followers  prob- 
ably than  any  other  extant — but  is  almost  extinct  on  its  native  soil. 
It  is  the  religion  of  large  areas  in  Central  and  Eastern  Asia.  The 
Brahminism  of  to-day  is  a  barren  form  having  little  influence  on 
the  morals  of  the  people.  There  are  also  about  40,000,000  of 
Mahometans  in  India. 

66.  Caste. —  Since  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the  earliest 
period  at  which  anything  is  known  of  India,  the  people  have  been 
divided  into  castes.  These  are  the  Brahmins,  including  the  priests 
and  educated  chisses;  the  Kshatriyas  who  attend  to  affairs  of  state; 
the  Vaisyas,  merchants  and  farmers;  the  Sudras,  laborers  and  arti- 
zans,  and  the  Pariahs  or  outcasts,  who  perform  the  most  menial  and 
degrading  labor.  From  intermarriages  many  half-castes  have  arisen. 
A  person  intermarrying  or  even  eating  with  one  of  another  caste- 
loses  caste  and  can  no  longer  be  entitled  to  the  full  privileges  of  his 
original  caste.  Every  person  is  obliged  to  follow  the  occupation  to 
which  hi|  father  belonged.  Hence  there  can  be  no  real  progress, 
and  India  has  remained  immobile  from  time  immemorial. 

The  upper  castes  are  descended  from  conquering  Aryans, 
the  lower  were  probably  subject  aborigines. 

67.  llic  following  striking  features  of  Oriental  History 
deserve  especial  notice. 

1.  Universal  power  of  religion.  Every  interest  was  subservient  to  re- 
ligion. Mighty  temples  and  other  works  were  erected  at  such  enormous  cost 
as  to  doom  unhappy  millions  to  hopeless  slavery  and  the  pangs  of  hunger. 
Ancient  religions,  perverted  by  a  cunning  priesthood,  were  the  means  of  misery 
rather  than  of  happiness  to  mankind. 

2 .  The  utter  absence  of  republican  ideas.  Despotism  everywhere  su- 
preme. The  privileged  classes  bore  the  honors  and  shunned  the  burdens.  The 
common  people  were  not  recognized  usually  as  having  any  political  rights. 

3.  Might  prevailed  over  right.  Slavery  was  universal  and  usually  ex- 
cessively cruel.     The  conquered  were  nearly  always  sold  into  slavery. 

4.  The  wonderful  stability  of  ancient  works.  The  colossal  structures  of 
antiquity  have  in  most  cases  succumbed  to  the  ravages  of  man  rather  than  to 
those  of  time.  Antiquity  renders  painfully  apparent  the  fiimsiness  of  our  own 
times. 

5.  The  want  of  progress  in  most  of  the  ancient  nations,  caste,  tradition, 
and  despotism,  prevented  real  advancement. 

6.  The  inclination  of  the  orientals  toward  despotic  government,  as  the 
natural  condition  of  mankind.     There  has  never  been  an  oriental  republic. 

GREECE. 

68.  Race  and  Language. — The  Greeks  belonged  to  the  Aryan 
stock  and  werccloselv  related  to  the  Latins  from  whom  the  Romans 
descended.  The  Greeks  called  their  country  /Alias  and  the  people 
Hellenes.  In  addition  to  peninsular  Greece,  Ancient  Greece  included 
the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  Sicily 
and  Southern  Italy  (Magna  Graecia),  and  the  Greek  colonies  of 
Mnrseilles  and  Northern  Africa. 


262  //  .i<  HERS1  AXD  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

69.  Geography. — The  southern  peninsula  now  called  the 
Morea,  was  anciently  called  the  Pcloponnc' shs.  The  whole  country- 
was  about  250  miles  long  by  180  miles  wide.  It  was  divided  into 
numerous  petty  States,  the  principal  of  which  were  Attica,  whose 
capital  was  Athens,  and  Laco'nia, capital  Sparta.  As  cities  had 
such  a  preponderating  influence  in  ancient  times,  the  name  of  the 
city  was  usually  employed  for  that  of  the  State.  Other  important 
States  were  Bceo'tia,  Corinth,  Acha' ia  and  Messe'nia. 

70.  The  Greeks  were  divided  into  four  great  branches,  the 
Ionia ns,  Dorians,  Achceans  ;mtL  Sto' Hans.  These  branches  spoke 
different  dialects  of  the  same  language  and  differed  widely  in  na- 
tional traits  and  customs.  The  branches  were  scattered  into  many 
localities  by  migrations.  The  chief  nation  of  the  Ionians  was  Athens; 
of  the  Dorians,  Sparta. 

/.      Period.  —  The  Heroic    Age,  from  the  earliest  times  to  about 

J IOO  B.  C. 

71.  The  Heroic  Age  is  so  called  because  the  principal  events 
in  the  history  of  that  period  are  the  exploits  of  heroes.  These  ex- 
ploits are  related  in  the  legends  or  myths  which  survived  to  a  Inter 
date  and  in  the  poems  of  Homer.  These  myths  are  doubtless  in 
some  instances  symbolical  of  certain  truths.  Thus  the  "  labors  of 
Hercules"  probably  represent  the  triumph  of  law  and  order  over 
primitive  savagery.  The  expedition  of  the  Argonauts  and  the 
Trojan  war  doubtless  were  actual  occurrences. 

72.  The  Trojan  "War  was  the  great  event  of  the  heroic  age. 
All  that  we  know  of  this  war  is  recorded  in  Homer's  great  poem 
the  Iliad  (from  Ilium,  the  name  of  Troy.)  Homer  is  thought  to 
have  lived  about  850  13.  C.  and  the  Trojan  War  probably  occurred 
about  300  to  400  years  earlier.  Homer  gives  exact  details  in  regard 
to  the  principal  events  of  the  war.  Many  have  doubted  the  truth 
of  Homer's  narrative  and  even  that  the  Trojan  war  ever  occurred. 
There  is  scarcely  any  room  however,  to  doubt  that  there  was  such  a 
war,  and  that  the  details  given  in  the  Iliad  are  in  the  main  correct.* 

73.  The  cause  of  the  war  was  the  carrying  of!  of  Helen,  the 
beautiful  wife  of  Menela'us,  king  of  Sparta,  by  Paris,  son  of  Priam, 
the  king  of  Troy.  The  Greeks  united  under  Agamemnon,  king 
of  Argos,  to  avenge  the  insult.  After  a  siege  of  thirteen  years 
Troy  was  taken  and  burned.      Helen  was  returned  to  her  husband. 

74.  The  greatest  heroes  of  the  war  were  Achilles,  a  Greek 
chieftain,  and  /lector,  a  Trojan. 

75.  The  striking  features  of  the  heroic  age  were: — 

1.  Religious  feeling  strong.  The  desecration  of  an  altar  or  temple  looked 
mi  with  horror.      Temples,  as  in  later  ages,  places  of  refuge. 


•The  recent  excavations  of  Dr.  Schliemann  on  the  site  of  Troy  conclusively  prove  the  exis- 
of  Several  distinct   cities   at  different  periods,  each  built  on  the  ruins   of    its  predecessor. 
One  of    the  cities  w;is  burned,  so   (ar  confirming  Homer,  but  the  discoveries  cannot  be  said  to 
throw  much  additional  iii_'ht  on  the  Trojan  war. 


1USTOR1.  36* 

2.  War  considered  the  natural  state  ot"  man.  Carried  on  with  a  brutality  at 
striking  variance  with  the  many  excellent  traits  of  character  prevailing  in  pri- 
vate life. 

3.  Generous  hospitality.      Fugitives  protected  sacredly. 

4.  Simplicity  of  manners.     Kings  not  ashamed  to  engage  in  manual  labor. 

5.  Women  held  in  high  regard. 

6.  Family  ties  properly  esteemed. 

7.  Slavery  universal. 

S.  The  State  predominated  over  the  city.  In  historical  times  the  city  be- 
came the  State. 

//.      Period. —  Greek  Development,  1100  to  500  B.  C. 

76.  The  first  authentic  date  in  Greek  history  is  776  B.  C,  the 
beginning  of  the  first  Olympiad.  From  that  time  there  is  a  con- 
secutive chronology.  As  we  have  seen,  Greece  was  divided  into  a 
great  number  of  independent  petty  States.  These  were  often  at 
war  with  each  other,  though  the  feeling  of  common  origin  was 
great  enough  to  cause  them  at  times  to  unite  against  a  common 
enemy. 

77.  Sparta. — The  Spartans  belonged  to  the  Dorian  race.  Ly- 
curgus  (850  B.  C.)  was  their  first  law-giver.  His  laws,  which  had 
untold  influence  on  the  Spartans,  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 
(  1 )  Weakly  children  were  exposed  to  perish,  that  the  race  might 
not  deteriorate.  (2)  Children  were  taken  in  charge  by  the  State 
when  seven  years  of  age,  to  be  educated.  The  education  of  the 
sexes  differed  but  little.  Both  were  obliged  to  spend  a  large  por- 
tion of  their  time  in  severe  athletic  exercises.  Book  learning  was 
despised.  (3)  The  citizens  were  obliged  to  eat  at  public  tables,  to 
which  each  contributed  a  fixed  amount  of  food.  Their  diet  was 
very  plain.  The  public  tables  effectually  prevented  luxury  among 
the  citizens.  (_|)  Men  were  not  allowed  to  marry  till  thirty  years 
of  age,  and  then  under  the  supervision  of  the  State.  (5)  Citizens 
could  not  engage  in  commerce.  This  was  left  to  foreigners  and 
menials.  (6)  Citizens  could  not  lawfully  own  gold  or  silver.  The 
coined  money  was  of  iron. 

78.  The  government  of  Sparta  was  a  monarchy.  There  were 
two  kings,  and  an  adyisory  council  of  Jive  JSpAors  elected  from  the 
citizens.  The  government  was  aristocratic  in  its  tendencies,  and  in 
Grecian  quarrels  Sparta  was  usually  found  on  the  side  of  the  aris- 
tocratic party. 

79.  Spartan  Character. — Spartan  courage  has  been  the  con- 
stant boast  of  the  world,  and  judged  from  the  standpoint  of  mere 
brute  force  it  has  never  been  excelled.  Viewed  from  a  modern 
standpoint  there  is  little  in  Spartan  character  either  to  admire  or 
commend.  Their  courage  was  not  of  that  true  quality  which  en- 
ables men  to  stand  up  and  die  in  defense  of  the  right.  It  was 
rather  the  courage  of  the  hull-dog  which  needs  onlv  the  prospect 
of  blood  to  inflame  it.  The  Spartans  were  cruel  beyond  their 
cruel  times.     Their  treatment  of  the  helots,  their  miserable   slave-. 


j>fA  TEACHERS'  AN.D  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

sufficiently  proves  this.  At  stated  periods  these  unhappy  beings 
were  hunted  like  wild  beasts  to  prevenl  their  becoming  numerous 
enough  t<>  be  dangerous,  and  to  exercise  Spartan  youth  in  the  noble 

callhig  of  war.  The  Spartans  were  pre-eminently  selfish.  They 
allowed  Athens  to  hear  almost  alone  the  brunt  of  the  first  great 
Persian  war  when  failure  meant  slavery  and  ruin  to  all  Greece. 

80.  Athens. — The  Athenians  belonged  to  the  Ionic  race,  (  I 
which  they  were  the  great  representatives.  Their  first  law-givers 
were  Draco  and  Solon.  The  code  of  the  former  was  so  severe 
that  it  was  soon  abolished.  Solon  prepared  a  new  code,  which 
completely  remodeled  the  government,  594  B.  C.  Servitude  for 
debt  was  abolished,  and  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  established. 

81.  The  government gradually  became  democratic,  and  Athens 
was  the  first  real  republic.  It  was  not  a  republic  such  as  the 
United  States,  vet  there  was  more  real  freedom  than  had  ever  been 
enjoyed  before  by  any  nation.  All  free  residents  were  declared 
citizens.  A  legislature  was  elected  by  the  people.  Kingly  gov- 
ernment had  been  abolished  by  the  Athenians  at  a  very  early  period 
in  their  history.  Under  the  republic  the  chief  executive  officer  was 
called  Archon.  lie  was  elected  at  first  for  life,  afterward  for  a  term 
of  years.  The  number  of  Archons  varied.  At  one  time  there 
were  nine,  one  of  whom  had  the  chief  executive  power.  The 
senate  or  council  originated  measures,  which  must  be  passed  on  by 
the  assembly  of  the  people,  or  citizens,  in  mass  meeting.  Changes 
were  made  from  time  to  time  in  the  details  of  government. 

82.  Tyrants. — Popular  government  was  interrupted  for  a  time 
by  Pisis'tratus  the  Dictator,  called  "  Tvrant."  He  was  a  wise  ami 
able  ruler.  He  and  his  successors  held  power  from  ^60  to  510  B.C. 
After  the  conquest  of  Athens  by  Sparta  the  former  was  for  a  time 
under  the  rule  of  the  "  Thirty  Tyrants." 

83.  Athenian  character  is  in  striking  contrast  with  that  of  the 
Spartans.  The  Athenians  were  as  brave  as  the  Spartans  when  oc- 
casion demanded  the  highest  courage.  They  were  more  humane 
and  generous.  The  Athenians  were  polite,  sociable  and  hospitable. 
Women  were  treated  with  great  consideration,  but  were  carefully 
secluded  from  society  and  spent  their  time  in  domestic  duties.  The 
Athenians  loved  and  cultivated  to  extraordinary  perfection  oratory, 
literature  and  the  fine  arts. 

///.      Period.      From   the   Persian    Wars    to  the    Supremacy   of 

Macedon,  500  to  jjS  />.  C. 

84.  The  Persian  "War  grew  out  of  trouble  between  the  Greek 
colonies  on  the  Asiatic  coast  and  Persia.  Athens  aided  the  Ionian 
colonies,  an  interference  which  Persia  determined  to  punish. 

85.  First  Invasion. — Darius,  king  of  Persia,  sent  out  an  ex- 
pedition under  Mardo'nius,  his  son-in-law.  Nothing  was  accom- 
plished, and  Mardonius  returned  in  disgrace.     A  second  expedition 


H2STOR2'.  2G3* 

numbering  100,000  men  and  600  triremes  (vessels  with  three 
banks  of  oars)  under  command  of  Da' to,  set  out, 490  B.  C,  for  the 
conquest  of  Greece.  Miltiades,  the  Athenian  general,  had  10,000 
men,  1,000  of  them  Platae'ans.  The  narrow  pass  oi Marathon,  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  Attica,  was  the  key  to  Southern  Greece.  Here 
the  Greeks  made  a  stand  and  defeated  the  Persians  in  the  ever 
memorable  battle  of  Marathon.      Only  192  Greeks  fell. 

86.  The  second  invasion  was  begun  by  Xerxes,  son  of  Darius, 
48^  r>.  C.  The  mighty  host  of  the  Persians  has  been  variously 
estimated.  Herodotus  says  it  consisted  of  2,600,000  men,  soldiers 
and  sailors,  besides  numerous  attendants.  The  fleet  numbered  1,200 
triremes  and  3,000  smaller  vessels.  To  meet  this  immense  host 
with  hopes  of  success  required  unanimity  on  the  part  of  the  Greeks. 
This  did  not  exist.  The  island  States  and  the  greater  part  of 
Boeotia  submitted  to  the  Persians.  It  was  the  season  of  the  Olym- 
pic games,  and  these  festivities  kept  many  others  away. 

87.  Battle  of  Thermop '  ylse. — Leonidas,  one  of  the  kings  of 
Sparta,  with  7,000  men  marched  to  Thermopylae  to  aid  the  Athen- 
ian forces.  Thermopylae  was  a  narrow  pass  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Greece,  near  the  northern  boundary  of  Thessaly.  The  position 
proved  untenable.  A  traitor  showed  the  Persians  a  passage  over 
the  mountains  by  which  they  could  flank  the  Greeks.  Retreat  was 
necessary.  Leonidas,  with  300  Spartans  and  700  Thespians,  de- 
termined to  hold  the  Persians  in  check  as  long  as  possible.  After 
waiting  five  days  Xerxes  ordered  a  chosen  body  of  troops  to  force 
the  pass.  They  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter.  A  picked 
corps  called  the  "  Immortals"  met  the  same  fate.  Next  day  the 
Greeks  were  attacked  in  front  and  rear,  and  all  perished,  fighting 
desperately. 

88.  The  Spartans  now  abandoned  the  Athenians  and  com- 
menced to  fortify  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  for  the  defense  of  the 
Peloponnesus.  Athens  was  abandoned  by  the  citizens  and  burned 
by  the  Persians. 

89.  Battle  of  Sal'  amis. —  The  only  hope  of  the  Greeks  now  lay 
in  the  Athenian  fleet  commanded  by  Themis' toclcs.  The  Greek 
fleet  engaged  the  Persian  in  the  narrow  strait  of  Salamis,  east  of 
Corinth,  and  completely  defeated  them.  Xerxes  in  great  alarm  re- 
treated precipitately  into  Asia,  leaving  ^500,000  men  under  Mardo- 
nius  to  continue  the  war. 

90.  Platsea  and  Myc'ale. —  Next  spring,  479  B.  C,  hostilities 
were  renewed.  The  Persians  were  defeated  at  Platcea  with  tre- 
mendous slaughter  by  the  Greeks,  now  numbering  1  10,000  men. 
On  the  same  day  the  Persian  fleet  was  again  completely  defeated 
at  Mycale.  The  Persians  returned  to  Asia,  leaving  immense  spoils 
in  the  hands  of  the  victors. 

91.  These  wars  did  much  to  promote  a  feeling  of  nationality 
among  the  Greeks.      Thev  also    showed    that    some   of  the    Greeks 


SM  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

were  willing  to  sell  their  country  for  gold  and  that  no  danger  trom 
foreigners  could  completely  extinguish  petty  jealousies  at  home. 
All  things  considered,  the  triumph  of  the  Greeks  over  the  vast  re- 
sources of  Persia  may  well  he  considered  the  grandest  event  in 
human  history. 

The  Age  of  Per' ic hs. 

92.  The  Age  of  Pericles  was  the  most  brilliant  period  of 
Athenian  history.  This  period  includes  the  time  during  which  Peri- 
cles was  the  most  influential  leader  of  the  Athenians,  though  many 
other  men  of  very  great  ability  took  an  active  part  in  public  affairs. 
Just  after  the  Persian  wars  Themistocles,  the  hero  of  Salamis,  was 
acknowledged  the  greatest  Athenian  leader.  His  chief  rival  was 
A rist i  'des, called  the  just.  By  a  law  in  force  then,  any  citizen  could 
be  banished  by  a  majority  of  the  people.  This  was  called  ostra- 
cism (because  the  ballots  were  written  on  oyster  shells,  Ostrea.\ 
Aristides  was  banished. 

By  the  advice  of  Themistocles,  Athens  greatly  increased  her 
navy,  making  her  the  greatest  naval  power  in  the  world.  The 
"long  walls"  were  built,  connecting  the  city  by  a  fortified  avenue 
sJ50  feet  wide  and  seven  miles  long,  with  the  Piraeus,  the  seaport  of 
Athens. 

93.  Themistocles  and  Pausa'nias,  the  hero  of  Plataea,  were  de- 
tected in  treasonable  correspondence  with  Persia.  The  former  died 
in  exile,  the  latter  perished  at  the  altar  of  a  temple  where  he  took 
refuge.  M iltiades,  the  hero  of  Marathon,  also  died  in  disgrace,  a 
sad  commentary  on  the  influences  which  surrounded  Greek  politics. 

94.  Pericles  now  became  supreme  in  political  influence  (460 
B.  C.),  and  occupied  that  position  for  thirty  years,  until  his  death. 
The  last  vestiges  of  aristocracy  were  swept  away,  and  the  will  of 
the  people  was  supreme.  Every  citizen  could  hold  office,  and  al- 
most every  citizen  was  competent  to  discharge  the  duties  of  office. 
The  hisfh  average  intelligence  of  the  Athenians  at  that  time  has 

rt  fy  O 

never  been  equaled  elsewhere  in  the  world.  Oratory,  literature, 
sculpture,  painting  and  architecture  flourished.  Athens  was  embel- 
lished with  splendid  temples.  The  Parthenon,  the  finest  example 
of  ancient  architecture  and  sculpture,  was  erected  on  the  rocky 
acropolis  overlooking  the  city. 

The  Peloponne' sian    War,  4JI-404  B.  C. 

95.  This  war  was  a  struggle  for  supremacy  between  Athens 
and  her  allies  and  Sparta  and  her  allies.  The  islands  and  mari- 
time State's  sided  with  Athens;  the  inland  States  took  the  side  of 
Sparta.  For  the  first  eight  years  the  results  were  mostly  favorable 
to  Athens.  During  the  second  year  a  terrible  plague  carried  off 
one-fourth,  the  inhabitants  of  Athens.  Pericles  was  among  the 
victims. 


1 7 IS TOR T.  267 

96.  The  siege  of  Platica,  an  ally  of  Athens,  began  in  the 
third  year.  After  a  siege  of  two  years  the  heroic  little  city  was 
taken,  and  about  one-half  the  garrison  escaped.  The  others  were 
condemned  to  death. 

97.  After  ten  years  of  war  a  truce  (the  peace  of  Nicias)  was  de- 
clared for  fifty  years,  but  war  was  resumed  a  few  years  later.  Al- 
cibi'ades,a  talented  but  dissolute  Athenian,  persuaded  his  people  to 
invade  Syracuse,  a  city  of  Sicily,  415  B.  C.  The  Athenian  fleet 
and  an  army  of  40,000  men  were  lost  in  this  disastrous  enterprise. 
The  miserable  survivors  were  sold  into  slavery. 

98.  An  alliance  with  Persia  was  basely  entered  into  by 
Sparta  near  the  close  of  the  war.  The  naval  battle  of  yEgos  Pot' '  - 
amos  utterly  ruined  Athens.  The  terms  of  peace  were  very  hu- 
miliating to  her.  The  "long  walls"  were  razed,  the  Athenian 
fleet  taken  and  «  Thirty  Tyrants  "  placed  over  Athens.  A  few 
years  later  the  tyrants  were  driven  out  and  a  new  alliance  of  powers 
against  Sparta  restored  Athenian  independence.  The  chief  histo- 
rians of  this  war  were  Thttcyd'  ides  and  Xen' ophon. 

99.  The  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand. — Soon  after  the  close 
of  the  Peloponnessian  War  10,000  Spartans  went  to  Asia  to  assist 
the  revolt  of  Cyrus,  the  younger  son  of  Artaxerxes,  king  of  Persia. 
Cyrus  was  defeated  at  Cunaxa  near  Babylon.  His  defeat  placed 
the  Greeks  in  very  great  danger.  Their  generals  were  invited  to  a 
council  and  slain.  The  Greeks  accomplished  a  safe  retreat  to  the 
Caspian  Sea  under  the  leadership  of  Xenophon,  the  historian.  This 
retreat  is  one  of  the  famous  military  exploits  of  history. 

100.  Sparta  and  Thebes. — Sparta  was  now  without  a  rival, 
but  soon  engaged  in  war  with  Thebes.  Epaminon'  das  totally  de- 
feated the  Spartans  at  Leuctra  371  B.  C,  and  Thebes  became  the 
leading  State,  a  position  she  occupied  till  the  death  of  Epaminpn- 
das  362  B.  C. 

Supremacy  of  JMacedon. 

101.  Continual  wars  had  ruined  Greece  and  prepared  her  foi 
foreign  domination.  Philip  of  Macedon  had  designs  on  Greece, 
and  finally  acquired  some  territory  which  entitled  him  as  a  Greek 
to  sit  in  the  Amphyctionic  council,  which  was  a  general  congress  of 
the  Greek  States.  Demos' thenes  continually  denounced  Philip  in  his 
famous  speeches  called  Philip' pics.  Open  war  was  finally  declared 
and  the  battle  of  Chaerone '  a,  338  B.  C,  gave  Philip  control  of  Greece. 

102.  Alexander  the  Great. — Philip  was  assassinated,  and  the 
Greeks  tried  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  his  son  Alexander.  The 
latter  easily  quelled  the  rising1,  and  set  out  with  35,000  men  to  con- 
quer Persia.  At  the  battle  of  Issus,  333  B.  C,  he  utterly  defeated 
Darius,  king  of  Persia.  He  took  Tyre  after  a  siege  of  seven 
months,  occupied  Jerusalem  without  opposition,  and  took  possession 
of  Egypt. 


868  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

103.  Arbela. — The-  battle  of  Arbela,  331  B.  C,  decided  the 
fate  of  Persia.  Alexander  with  ^0,000  Greeks  defeated  the  Per- 
sian arm}  estimated  at  1,000,000.  Darius  fled  and  was  treacher- 
ously slain.  Alexander  died  at  Babylon,  at  the  age  of  thirty-two, 
B.  C.  323. 

104.  'The  effect  of  his  conquest  was  to  Hellenize  the  entire 
Easl  to  a  great  extent.  The  Greek  language,  customs  and  institu- 
tions became  widely  disseminated  in  consequence. 

105.  Alexander's  Successors. — The  empire  of  Alexander 
went  to  pieces  on  his  death.  lie  left  a  son  who  was  a  weak  hoy, 
incapable  of  assuming  the  reins  of  government.  Quarrels  between 
the  principal  generals  followed.  No  attempt  will  be  made  to  des- 
scribe  the  wars  which  followed.  The  empire  was  finally  divided 
into  four  parts:  Egypt,  Syria  and  the  East,  Thrace,  and  Macedonia. 
The  Greek  States  revolted  and  were  again  subdued.  Under  the 
Ptolemies  Egypt  became  a  flourishing   nation. 

106.  The  Achaean  and  iEtolian  leagues  at  a  later  date  re- 
vived to  some  extent  the  glory  of  the  Greek  name,  but  Roman  in- 
terference became  more  and  more  marked  until  all  Greece  became 
a  province  of  Rome  under  the  name  of  Acliaia,  146  B.  C. 

Greek  Civilization. 

107.  The  civilization  of  Greece  was  grand,  considering  the 
time  at  which  it  flourished.  In  intellectual  ability  this  people  have 
never  been  excelled.  The  versatility  of  their  genius  made  them 
masters  in  literature,  oratory,  architecture,  sculpture,  philosophy 
and  mathematics.  Their  attainments  were  great  in  painting,  medi- 
cine, and  the  other  arts  and  sciences  of  the  times.  But  genius  alone- 
does  not  constitute  true  greatness,  ami  Greek  fame  is  too  often  tar- 
nished by  vanity,  selfishness,  jealousy,  treachery  and  cruelty.  On 
the  whole  we  find  much  more  in  them  to  admire  than  in  any  na- 
tion which  preceded  them. 

108.  Politics. — The  Greeks  were  the  first  civilized  nation  who 
enjoved  real  liberty,  and  Athens  the  first  State  to  extend  political 
rights  to  the  whole  people,  i.  e.,  all  freemen.  After  ages  of  despot- 
ism it  at  last  dawned  upon  the  world  that  the  common  people  had 
rights,  ami  the  hardy  western  nations  dared  maintain  their  rights. 

109.  Religion. — The  Greeks  had  a  multitude  of  i^ods;  in  fact, 
nearly  every  manifestation  of  nature  had  a  presiding  deity.  There 
were  twelve  principal  gods, of  whom  Zeus  {Latin,  yupiter)  was 
chief.  As  the  Romans  held  substantially  the  same  faith  as  the 
Greeks,  we  shall  give  the  Latin  names  of  the  gods  instead  of  the 
Greek,  as  more  familiar.  The  following  are  only  the  principal 
ones,  there  being  a  host  of  minor  deities:  Apollo*  the  sun  god,  was 
god  of  music;  Mercury*  messenger  of  the  gods;  Minerva*  goddess  of 
wisdom;  ¥»»o,  wife  of  Jupiter;  Venus,  goddess  of  love;  Mars,  god 
of  war;   Ceres,  goddess  of  plenty;  Diana,  goddess  of  the  chase. 


1I1STORT.  209 

110.  Oracles. — The  Greeks  were  very  superstitious.  They 
consulted  oracles  and  read  omens  in  the  movements  of  animals  and 
in  the  entrails  of  victims.  Numerous  sacrifices  were  offered.  The 
most  famous  oracle  was  that  of  Apollo,  at  Delphos. 

111.  Temples  were  numerous  and  magnificent.  The  chief 
seat  and  home  of  the  gods  was  Mount  Olympus. 

112.  Art. — The  Greeks  passionately  loved  the  beautiful.  This 
love  found  its  greatest  development  in  their  architecture  and  sculp- 
ture, any  just  description  of  which  would  require  a  volume.  Hence 
we  shall  only  say  that  the  chief  ornamentation  of  their  temples  lay 
in  the  graceful  columns  which  formed  a  prominent  feature  of  every 
temple,  and  in  the  sculptures  on  the  pediments  (gables),  friezes  and 
cornices.  There  were  three  styles  of  architecture,  distinguished  by 
the  different  columns  and  capitals,  or  tops  of  the  columns.  These 
orders  were  called  Ionic,  Doric  and  Corinthian.  The  most  cele- 
brated temples  were  the  Par' tkenon  (Doric)  at  Athens,  and  the 
great   Temple  of  Diana  (Ionic)  at  Ephesus. 

113.  Literature. — The  Greeks  were  the  first  nation  to  pro- 
duce a  really  great  original  literature.  Homer  was  called  the 
father  of  Poetry  and  Herodotus  the  father  of  History.  Thucydides 
and  Xenophon  were  historians  of  eminence.  The  Anabasis  of  the 
latter  is  a  school  book  to-day.  Aristotle  systematized  the  knowl- 
edge of  his  day.  He  was  the  tutor  of  Alexander.  Socrates  was 
a  philosopher,  and  was  one  of* the  purest  men  of  ancient  times. 
The  xVthenians  compelled  him  to  drink  poison  on  the  charge  of 
"corrupting  youth."  Plato  was  a  profound  philosopher,  and 
the  pupil  of  Socrates.  Plutarch  (2d  century  A.  Th)  wrote  the 
"  Lives"  of  the  noted  men  of  antiquity. 

114.  Festivals. — The  Greeks  had  four  great  public  festivals, 
the  principal  of  which  were  the  Olympian  games,  held  once  in  four 
years,  in  honor  of  the  Olympian  Jove  in  the  plain  of  Olympia  in 
E  '  lis.  The  exercises  consisted  of  boxing,  wrestling,  foot  and  chariot 
racing,  contests  in  oratory,  poetry,  etc.  All  Greeks  were  admitted. 
The  prizes,  which  were  held  in  very  high  estimation,  usually  con- 
sisted of  a  simple  crown  of  leaves,  oak,  laurel,  etc.  These  games 
constituted  a  great  holiday.  Hostilities  were  suspended  during 
their  continuance. 

115.  Home  Life,  Dress,  Customs. — The  early  Greeks  were  a 
frugal  people.  Their  food  was  chiefly  vegetables,  bread,  cheese 
and  fish.  Butchers'  meat  was  little  used.  They  took  a  light  re- 
freshment  of  bread  and  wine  on  rising,  at  noon  a  light  meal  with 
one  or  two  hot  dishes.  Business  affairs  were  transacted  in  the 
forenoon  and  the  men  spent  the  afternoon  in  visiting  and  talking 
politics.  At  Athens  the  women  spenl  nearly  all  their  time  seclud- 
ed at  home.  At  Sparta  they  had  more  freedom.  Dinner,  the 
principal  meal,  occurred  about  four  o'clock.  The  Greeks,  like  the 
Romans,  and    other    Eastern   nations,  reclined  on   couches    round  a 


•27(1  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

table  which  formed  three  sides  of  a  hollow  square.  Spoons  and 
knives  were  little  used  and  forks  unknown.  The  fingers  were 
wiped  on  pieces  of  bread.  The  drink  was  water  and  wine-and- 
water.  The  bread  of  the  poorer  classes  was  not  baked  but  merely 
dried.  When  eaten  it  was  moistened  with  oil  or  wine-and-water. 
The  rich  had  usually  baked  wheaten  bread.  Honey  took  the  place 
of  sugar.  There  were  many  sorts  of  cake.  Butter  was  little  used 
and  deemed  unwholesome.  After  the  feast  there  was  a  drinking1 
bout  presided  over  by  a  master  selected  by  the  company.  In 
drinking  healths  they  drank  a  small  cupful  for  each  letter  in  the 
name  of  the  person  whose  health  was  drunk. 

116.  The  houses  of  the  Greeks  were  plain  and  cheap.  Mil- 
lionaires were  unknown,  $10,000  constituting  a  large  fortune  in  the 
early  times.  Later  houses  were  more  expensive  but  never  built  for 
show.  They  were  mostly  one  story  in  height,  built  around  a  sort  of 
court.  The  kitchen  alone  had  a  chimney.  The  better  classes 
lived  almost  exclusively  in  cities.  The  farm  labor  was  performed 
by  slaves. 

117.  The  dress  of  the  Greeks  was  very  simple.  That  of  the 
men  consisted  of  a  long  undergarment,  or  sort  of  shirt  and  a  man- 
tle (usually  white).  It  was  a  breach  of  etiquette  to  appear  in  pub- 
lic in  the  undergarment  alone,  though  the  mantle  alone  might  be 
made  to  serve  as  a  street  costume.  There  were  two  styles  of 
dress  for  females.  The  Doric,  worn  at  Sparta,  consisted  of  a  long 
garment  fastened  down  the  sides  by  clasps  and  a  short  mantle, 
leaving  the  arms  exposed.  The  Ionic  women  wore  a  long  linen 
undergarment  reaching  to  the  ground,  with  sleeves.  Over  this  a 
loose  wrapper,  fastened  with  a  girdle.  Only  travelers  wore  hats. 
Jewelry  was  worn  by  both  sexes. 

118.  Education  was  general.  .Schools  were  supported  by  the 
State  in  .Sparta  only,  and  then  for  physical  training  rather  than 
mental.  Teachers  were  not  held  in  high  esteem  and  their  wages 
were  low.  The  branches  taught  were  grammar,  rhetoric,  arith- 
metic, geometry,  music,  writing,  and   gymnastics. 

119.  Influence  of  Greek  Civilization. —  Considering  the 
smallness  of  Greece  the  influence  of  the  Hellenic  race  upon  the 
world  has  been  marvelous.  Athens  at  her  zenith  had  a  population 
variously  estimated  at  from  120,000  to  192,000,  a  number  utterly 
insignificant  compared  with  her  place  in  history. 

ROME. 

120.  Races,  Language,  Geography. — The  Romans  were 
Aryans  closely  related  to  the  Greeks.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
historic  period  the  Latins  (Romans)  occupied  Latium,  a  small  ter- 
ritory on  the  west  coast  of  Central  Italy.  Adjoining  them  were 
the  Etruscans,  and  various  Italian  nations.  Northern  Italy  was 
occupied    by   the    Gauls.       Southern    Italy    by  the  Greeks.      The 


HISTOR2:  371 

Etruscans    were  a    highly  civilized    people   much  older    than   the 
Romans.     But  little  is  known  of  them. 

121.  Origin  of  Rome. — Roman  tradition  ascribed  the  founding 
of  Rome  to  Romulus,  who  gave  it  his  own  name.  He  quarreled  with 
his  twin  brother  Remus  while  the  work  was  in  progress  and  slew 
him.  Romulus  was  reputed  to  be  the  son  of  Mars,  the  god  of  war. 
A  fable  relates  how  he  was  miraculously  saved  from  drowning,  fed 
by  a  woodpecker  and  suckled  by  a  she  wolf.  The  facts  are,  Rome 
seems  to  have  been  founded  about  753  B.  C,  by  a  colony  from 
Alba  Longa,  a  city  of  the  Italian  confederation.  It  is  doubted 
whether  Romulus  ever  even  existed.  The  story  of  his  descent 
from  the  god  of  war  was  merely  a  pleasing  fiction  to  tickle  the 
pride  of  the  warlike  Romans. 

122.  Early  Wars. — The  Romans  engaged  in  frequent  wars 
with  the  Etruscans,  their  powerful  neighbors,  and  also  with  the 
Sabines,  who  lived  on  their  eastern  border.  The  Etruscans  were 
gradually  overcome  until  they  ceased  to  exist  as  a  nation.  The  Sa- 
bines were  incorporated  with  the  Romans,  adding  greatly  to  the 
strength  of  the  new  nation.  These  were  the  first  steps  which  led 
to  the  conquest  of  all  Italy  and  afterward  of  nearly  the  whole 
world. 

123.  The  Early  Government  according  to  tradition  was  an 
elective  monarchy.  The  names  of  seve?i  king's  remain  to  us  though 
little  is  known  of  their  reigns,  as  all  the  public  records  were  burned 
by  the  Gauls  when  they  captured  Rome,  390  B.  C. 

124.  Patricians  and  Plebeians. — The  people  were  at  first  di- 
vided into  pat ricians  [fathers),  the  nobility;  and  the  plebeia?isy 
literally  people.  The  last  king,  Tarquin  the  Proud,  was  expelled 
because  of  his  tyranny  and  the  monarchy  abolished.  A  nominal 
republic  was  established,  though  political  rights  belonged  to  the 
patricians  only.  Early  in  the  regal  period  the  people  had  been 
divided  into  tribes,  the  tribes  into  curiae,  and  the  curiae  into  houses. 
The  heads  of  the  houses  constituted  the  senate  or  legislative  body 
of  the  nation.  The  number  of  tribes  gradually  increased  from 
three  to  thirty-five,  and  changes  were  constantly  made  in  the  form 
of  government  during  successive  ages. 

There  was  a  long  and  bitter  struggle  between  the  patricians  and 
the  plebeians,  which  ended  in  the  complete  triumph  of  the  people. 

THE    ROMAN    REPUBLIC. 

125.  The  history  of  the  republic  may,  for  convenience  of  study, 
be  divided  into  four  periods: — 

I.  The    struggle  for   existence  and  growth  of  the  constitution,  509—343 

B.  C 

II.  The  conquest  of  Italy,  343—264  13.  C. 

III.  Foreign  conquest,  264  —  133  B.  C. 

IV.  Civil  strife,  133—31  B.  C 


272  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS"  LJBRARr. 

126.  Form  of  Government.— When  the  kings  were  expelled 
two  consuls  were  elected.  They  held  office  for  one  year  and  per- 
formed the  duties  of  their  office  for  one  month  at  a  time  alternately. 
Bach  consul  was  attended  hy  twelve  lietcrs  who  hore  the  fasces  or 
symbols  of  authority.  The  consuls  commanded  the  armies,  and  in 
cases  of  extreme  danger  they  had  the  right  to  name  a  Dictator  who 
had  supreme  power,  his  time  of  office    being  limited  to  six  months. 

There  were  occasional  changes  in  the  details  of  government,  at 
times  usurpations  of  power,  and  sometimes  violence  was  employed 
to  obtain  power,  hut  this  was  the  general  form  of  government  for 
a  long  time.     The  senate  was  the  legislative  body. 

127.  The  Early  Laws  were  in  general  very  oppressive  on  the 
lower  classes.  The  laws  regarding  collection  of  debts  were  unu- 
sually severe.  Old  soldiers  returning  victorious  from  the  field  were 
cast  into  the  dehtor's  prison  with  no  hope  of  release  until  every 
farthing  was  paid,  while  imprisonment  cut  off  the  very  means  of 
payment.  If  payment  was  not  made  the  debtor  might  be  sold  as 
a  slave,  put  to  death,  or  his  body  cut  in  pieces  and  divided  among 
the  creditors.  Taxes  were  very  heavy.  Reform  was  absolutely 
necessary. 

128.  Tribunes  of  the  People  (two)  were  elected,  493  B.  C. 
They  had  no  special  duties,  hut  were  elected  as  "  protectors  of  the 
people."  Their  powers  were  chiefly  negative.  A  tribune  could 
prevent  the  passage  of  any  law  by  the  simple  veto,  I  forbid. 

129.  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables. — The  election  of  Tribunes 
did  not  end  the  diificulties  between  the  patricians  and  the  plebeians. 
All  parties  agreed  that  a  more  perfect  code  of  lazes  was  necessary. 
Ten  men  (decemvirs)  were  elected,  450  B.  C,  to  frame  new  laws. 
They  for  the  time  superseded  all  other  officers.  They  examined  the 
laws  of  Greece.  A  code  of  ten  tables  was  framed,  and  next  year 
txvo  more  laws  unfavorable  to  the  people  were  added.  Dissatisfac- 
tion followed,  and  the  plebeians  a  second  time  threatened  to  secede 
from  the  city  in  a  body.      A  compromise  was,  however,  effected. 

130.  The  Consulate  had  heretofore  been  confined  to  the  pa- 
tricians. A  new  law  created  Military  V^ribnnes,  who  might  be 
chosen  from  the  plebeians.  They  took  the  place  of  the  consuls. 
Sometimes  tribunes  were  elected,  sometimes  consuls,  according  to 
which  party  predominated.  The  people  had  now  a  firm  foothold 
in  the  government  of  the  nation.  Censors  were  appointed  at  the 
same  time  to  look  after  public  morals,  revenues,  enrollment  of  the 
senate,  etc. 

131.  The  public  lands  were  still  held  hy  the  patricians,  which 
was  a  source  of  grievance  to  the  plebeians.  The  Licin'  ian  laws 
were  passed,  367  IS.  C,  after  a  ten  years1  struggle.  The  chief  fea- 
tures were:  (1  )  provisions  for  the  more  equitable  payment  of  old 
debts;  (-')  limitations  as  to  the  amount  of  public  land  the  patricians 
could    hold;     (3)    one    consul    should    always    he    a  plebeian.      The 


UISTOR).  273 

long     struggle    of    the    people    was    thus    ended    in    a    substantial 
triumph. 

Wars  for  the  conquest  of  Italy,  343-264  B.  C. 

132.  The  nations  conquered  were  the  neighboring  Latins,  the 
Samnites  of  Southern  Italy,  the  Greeks  of  Southern  Italy,  the  Gauls 
of  Northern  Italy.  In  the  wars  with  the  Greeks,  Byrrhus,  the 
eelebrated  king  of  Macedon,  entered  Italy  with  a  Greek  army  and 
defeated  the  Romans  in  two  battles,  but  really  accomplished 
nothing. 

133.  The  Roman  State. — A  brief  glance  at  Roman  polity  will 
give  a  better  understanding  of  the  means  by  which  Roman  power 
was  built  up.  The  Roman  policy  was  conciliatory.  Conquered 
people  were  allowed  as  far  as  possible  their  own  religion,  local  cus- 
toms and  laws.  Latin  was  the  legal  language,  and  this,  with 
Roman  colonization,  gradually  Romanized  the  provinces.  Citizen- 
ship was  often  conferred  on  a  provincial  city,  but  the  people  were 
obliged  to  go  to  Rome  to  vote.  Rome  always  reserved  to  herself: 
(1)  The  right  to  coin  money;  (2)  To  receive  embassies;  (3)  To 
declare  war  and  make  peace.  In  Italy  there  were  three  classes  of 
free  citizens,  Romans,  Latins,  Italians.  Only  the  first  had  all  the 
rights  of  citizenship.  Hence  we  see  that  in  all  her  vast  dominions 
Rome  was  the  source  of  all  political  power.  Colonization  was  the 
effective  engine  by  means  of  which  the  world  was  Romanized. 

Foreign  Conquest,  264-133  B.  C. 

134.  After  becoming  master  of  all  Italy,  Rome  began  to 
extend  her  conquests  outside  of  Italy.  Carthage  in  North  Africa 
was  her  great  rival.  Little  is  known  of  Carthage  except  that  she 
was  a  Phoenician  colony  and  a  very  wealthy  people.  The  Cartha- 
ginians were  a  brave  but  very  cruel  people,  and  the  Romans 
claimed  they  were  also  treacherous  and  untruthful.  But  the 
Romans  were  not  the  most  trustworthy  witnesses  in  the  case,  as 
the  two  nations  bitterly  hated  each  other.  The  wars  with  Car- 
thage were  called  the  lyu7iic  wars. 

135.  The  first  Punic  War  began  264  B.  C.  and  lasted  twenty 
years.  It  was  caused  by  the  interference  of  the  Romans  in  the 
affairs  of  Sicily,  a  part  of  which  belonged  to  Carthage.  At  first 
the  Romans  had  no  navy  and  the  Carthaginians  swept  the  sea. 
But  a  fleet  was  built  and  the  Romans  were  so  successful  that  the 
Carthaginians  were  driven  out  of  Sicily  and  Africa  was  invaded. 
But  the  tide  soon  turned  against  the  Romans.  Regains,  a  Roman 
general,  was  totally  defeated  in  Africa  and  himself  taken  prisoner. 
The  Roman  fleet  of  260  vessels,  carrying  100,000  men,  was  totally 
destroyed  by  a  great  storm  on  the  coast  of  Sicily  255  B.  C.  A 
new  fleet  was  destroyed  253  B.  C.  Regulus  was  sent  to  Rome  on 
parole   to   obtain    terms   of*  peace.       He   advised    war,  returned    to 

18 


274  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'    TAB R ART. 

Carthage,  and  it  is  said  was  put  to  death  with  horrihle  tortures. 
Peace  was  finally  made,  hy  the  terms  of  which  Carthage  gave  up 
Sicily  and  other  islands,  and  paid  an  indemnity  of  2,000  talents 
(nearly  $2,500,000). 

136.  Second  Punic  War. — The  terms  of  peace  were  not  satis- 
factory to  either  party.  The  Carthaginians  felt  that  they  had  been 
humiliated  and  the  Romans  were  determined  that  Carthage  should 
eventually  he  destroyed.  A  mercenary  war  broke  out  at  Carthage, 
caused  by  the  insubordination  of  returned  soldiers.  It  was  quelled 
after  horrid  atrocities.  The  Romans  interfered  and  compelled  the 
Carthaginians  to  pay  an  additional  fine.  The  quarrels  of  the  Car- 
thaginian nobility  in  their  disgraceful  contest  for  power  had  well 
nigh  ruined  their  country.  The  Barcine  family  at  this  time  was 
one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  Carthaginian  nobility.  Ha  mil'  car, 
its  head,  devoted  his  energies  with  success  to  the  conquest  of  Spain. 
He  caused  his  son  Hannibal  to  swear,  at  the  age  of  nine  years, 
eternal  enmity  to  Rome.  Hannibal  was  one  of  the  greatest  men  of 
ancient  times.  At  the  age  of  eighteen  he  fought  in  the  battle 
where  his  father  was  killed.  He  served  under  his  brother-in-law 
Has'drubal  and  at  the  death  of  the  latter  was  appointed  to  the  chief 
command  in  Spain.  He  began  at  once  to  carry  out  his  scheme  of 
yengeance.  His  own  brother  Hasdrubal  was  left  in  command  in 
Spain,  while  Hannibal  set  out  with  a  large  army  to  cross  the 
Alps  into  Italy.  After  several  battles  with  the  natives  and  incredi- 
ble sufferings  from  October  snows,  he  landed  on  the  plains  of 
Italy  with  20,000  foot  and  6,000  horse,  30,000  men  having  perished 
since  he  crossed  the  Rhone. 

137.  Hannibal  recruited  his  army  with  Gauls  and  Italians  and 
for  fifteen  years  maintained  himself  in  Italy  with  little  or  no  .-issis- 
tance  from  home.  He  defeated  the  Romans  in  three  great  pitched 
battles,  Tre'bia,  218  B.  C,  Lake  Thrasyme'ne,  217,  Cannae,  in 
Southeastern  Italy,  216.  In  the  last-named  battle  the  Roman  loss 
was  dreadful;  of  90,000,  the  slain  numbered  40,000,  including  both 
consuls.  The  Carthaginians  were,  however,  defeated  in  Spain  and 
Hannibal  was  obliged  to  evacuate  Italy. 

138.  The  battle  of  Zama,  near  Carthage,  resulted  in  the  total 
defeat  of  the  Carthaginians.  The  terms  of  peace  were  very  severe. 
Carthage  was  obliged  to  give  up  her  fleet  and  pay  within  fifry 
years,  in  installments,  an  indemnity  of  $10,000,000.  Sciftio,  the 
victorious  Roman  general,  received  a  great  triumph  at  Rome 
and  was  called  African/is,  a  title  meaning  conqueror  of  Africa. 

139.  The  Third  Punic  War  was  forced  upon  Carthage.  A 
large  party  at  Rome  insisted  on  the  complete  destruction  of  the 
hated  rival  city.  Porcius  CatO,  one  of  the  leaders  of  this  party, 
ended  every  speech  he  made  in  the  senate  with  the  sentence  "  De- 
lenda  est  Carthago  "—Carthage  must  be  destroyed.  The  Cartha- 
ginians were  ordered  to  surrender  their  arms.     They  refused,  and 


HIS  TO  in:  275 

their  city  was  taken  146  B.  C.  and  burned,  the  fire  raging  seven- 
teen days.  The  population,  estimated  at  700,000,  was  massacred, 
enslaved  and  scattered  abroad. 

140.  Important  Conquests  in  the  East  were  made  during 
the  period  of  the  Punic  wars.  Anti'ochus,  king  of  Syria,  was  de- 
feated at  the  battle  of  Magne'sia  190  B.  C,  and  lost  a  large  part 
of  his  territory,  besides  paying  tribute.  The  Maccdonia7i  power 
was  ruined  by  the  Romans  at  Pydna,  168  B.  C.  Greece  was  re- 
duced to  the  condition  of  a  province,  on  the  destruction  of  Corinth 
by  Mummius  146  B.  C. 

141.  The  power  of  Rome  was  now  supreme.  Instead  of  being 
one  of  the  great  powers,  she  was  the  sole  great  power.  The  con- 
quered countries  were  called  provinces.  Each  was  ruled  by  a 
governor,  who  had  the  rank  of  prcctor  or  proconszil.  No  salary 
was  attached  to  this  office,  but  the  governor  was  allowed  to  make 
levies  on  the  people.  This  system  led  to  shameful  abuses,  and  it 
was  almost  impossible  for  the  unfortunate  provincials  to  obtain  re- 
dress, as  the  very  spoils  of  the  governor  enabled  him  to  defy  suc- 
cessful prosecution. 

142.  The  Military  Strength  of  Rome  at  this  period  consisted 
of  about  800,000  able-bodied  men.  Armies  were  not  so  large  as 
during  the  existence  of  the  unwieldy  Oriental  empires.  Briefly, 
the  great  success  of  the  Romans  depended  on:  (  1)  rigid  discipline 
and  admirable  tactics;  (2)  superiority  of  weapons  and  armor;  (3) 
the  qztinc7inx  battle  order,  as  opposed  to  the  rank-and-file  system ; 
(4)  national  unity  and  intense  patriotism;  (5)  promotion  for 
bravery. 

143.  Condition  of  Rome. — Rome  was  now  wealthy  and  en- 
riched by  the  treasure  and  works  of  art  of  many  conquered  cities. 
Great  public  improvements  were  made.  The  streets  were  paved, 
174,  and  sewers  built.  The  Ma'rian  aqueduct,  built  144  B.  C.,cost 
$10,000,000.  Strangers  poured  in,  many  of  them  Greeks.  The  lat- 
ter introduced  the  elegant  culture  of  Greece.  The  study  of  the  Greek 
language  and  the  aping  of  Greek  customs  became  very  popular. 

144.  Senseless  extravagance  began  with  increased  wealth. 
Fortunes  were  spent  on  a  single  dinner.  As  much  as  100,000  ses- 
terces ($5,000)  were  paid  for  a  superior  cook  and  200,000  for  a  first- 
class  literary  Greek  slave.  Sumptuary  laws  regulating  expendi- 
ture were  passed,  but  availed  nothing.* 

145.  Public  morals  declined  rapidly  under  the  influence  of 
wealth  and  the  introduction  of  effeminate  Oriental  and  Greek  cus- 
toms. A  slave  population  crowded  out  the  freemen.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  slaves  in  Italy  in  the  first  century  B.  C.  numbered 
7,000,000,  while  the  freemen  were  only  5,000,000.  The  extinction 
of  7n  id  die  class  free77icn  was  the  death  knell  of  R0771C. 

*The  wealth  of  ancient  times  is  greatly  overestimated.     The  rich  men  of  to-day  are  un" 
questionably  the  wealthiest  that  the  world  has  ever  seen. 


876  TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

lipoch  of  Civil  Strife,  ijj-iji  B.  C. 

146.  Society  at  Rome  was  now  very  different  from  that  of 
the  early  ages.  Instead  of  the  old  distinctions  of  Patrician  and 
Plebeian,  there  were  the  rich  and  the  pour.  The  merchants,  chief 
officials,  and  the  tax  farmers  (men  who  collected  the  taxes  on  spec- 
ulation) grew  enormously  rich.  The  small  land-owners  of  Italy 
grew  year  by  year  poorer  and  diminished  in  numbers.  The  country 
people  flocked  to  the  city,  where,  without  means  of  support,  they 
gradually  learned  to  sell  their  votes  to  corrupt  politicians  for  bread. 
It  had  been  the  custom  in  early  times  for  the  rich  families  to  have 
numerous  clients.  These  clients  were  poor  but  respectable,  and  in 
return  for  a  certain  degree  of  protection  gave  their  services  when 
called  upon  in  times  of  danger.  Now  these  clients  were  little  else 
than  a  venal  mob,  ready  to  parade  the  streets  of  Rome  and  inau- 
gurate bloodshed  at  the  beck  of  their  master. 

147.  Seditions  of  the  Gracchi. — Tiberius  Gracchus,  one  of 
the  Tribunes,  proposed,  133  B.  C,  an  agrarian  law  similar  to  the 
Licinian  law  (see  Sec.  131).  The  object  of  this  law  was  to  redis- 
tribute the  public  lands  so  that  no  citizen  could  hold  more  than  500 
ju'  oera  (about  320  acres).  Many  citizens  had  held  lands  so  long 
undisturbed  that  they  considered  their  claims  amounting  to  owner- 
ship. The  law  was  passed  and  the  colleague  of  Gracchus  vetoed 
it.  Gracchus  had  his  colleague  expelled  from  office.  A  sedition 
arose  and  Gracchus,  with  many  of  his  adherents,  was  murdered 
133  B.C.  Ten  years  later  his  brother,  Caius  Gracchus,  revived 
the  law  and  secured  the  passage  of  a  law  by  which  grain  was  sold 
at  a  nominal  rate.  Later  it  was  given  away,  thus  establishing  a 
dangerous  precedent  by  which  a  large  part  of  the  populace  of  Rome 
became  idlers  and  paupers.  Another  massacre  followed,  in  which 
Caius  Gracchus  lost  his  life,  121  B.  C. 

148.  The  Social  War,  90-SS  B.  C,  followed,  in  which  300,000 
men  of  Rome  and  Italy  fell  in  battle.  It  ended  by  Rome  con- 
ceding to  the  Italians  most  of  the  rights  so  long  withheld. 

149.  Wars  of  Ma '  rius  and  Sulla. — The  time  had  now  arrived 
when  the  people  of  Rome  held  the  interests  of  a  faction  above 
those  of  their  common  country.  Caius  Marius  and  Lucius  Cor- 
nelius Sulla  were  rivals,  the  former  the  leader  of  the  popular  power, 
the  latter  of  the  aristocratic.  Marius  was  an  old  and  tried  soldier, 
rough,  hut  an  excellent  lighter  and  successful  general.  lie  had  de- 
feated the  Teutons  and  Cimbri,  102-101  B.  C,  with  great  slaughter, 
and  contrary  to  custom,  was  six  times  elected  consul.  Sulla  had 
served  under  Marius.  lie  was  not  only  a  soldier,  but  also  a  man 
of  culture,  fond  of  literature  and  the  arts.  They  were  rivals  for  the 
command  of  the-  expedition  against  Mithrida'  tes,  king  of  Pontus. 

150.  Marius  secured  the  passage  of  a  law  by  which  the  newly 
enfranchised    Italians   were  distributed   among    the  tribes  in  such  a 


I  f IS  TOli  r.  277 

way  as  to  control  a  majority  of  the  whole.  They  easily  passed  a 
law  recalling  Sulla  and  appointing  Marius  to  the  command  of  the 
expedition.  Sulla  marched  to  the  city  and  Marius  fled.  After  in- 
credible hardships  and  escapes  he  reached  Africa  in  safety.  Cinna, 
one  of  the  consuls,  now  espoused  the  cause  of  Marius  and,  by 
means  of  revolution,  took  possession  of  Rome.  Marius  returned 
and  Rome  was  given  over  to  scenes  of  cold-blooded  massacre. 
Those  whom  he  wished  put  to  death  he  refused  to  salute.  The 
friends  of  Sulla  were  proscribed,  that  is,  lists  were  made  out  and 
posted  in  public  places  and  all  whose  names  appeared  in  the  lists 
were  slain  wherever  found.  In  the  midst  of  these  disturbances 
Marius  died  and  the  leadership  of  the  party  devolved  upon  Cinna. 
In  the  meantime  Sulla  had  overcome  Mithridates,  who  was  a  brave 
and  skillful  leader  and  the  only  enemy  who  had  really  much  pros- 
pect of  opposing  Rome  successfully.  Sulla  returned  and  took 
Rome  83  B.  C.  He  began  a  still  more  dreadful  proscription  of 
the  opposite  party.  A  reward  was  placed  on  each  head.  The 
heads  of  the  victims  were  brought  to  Sulla  and  piled  on  his  porches. 
In  these  wars  200  senators  and  150,000  citizens  perished.  Sulla 
ruled  with  absolute  power.  He  styled  himself  the  "  Fortunate." 
To  the  surprise  of  everybody  he  suddenly  resigned  power  and  re- 
tired to  private  life. 

151.  The  Triumvirate  (rule  of  three  men). — Rome  was  no 
longer  a  republic.  It  was  destined  to  be  ruled  by  ambitious  men. 
The  infamous  Cat' aline,  leader  of  the  insubordinate  elements,  formed 
a  plot  to  burn  Rome.  It  was  detected  and  defeated  by  Cicero. 
Cataline  and  his  followers  all  perished  in  battle.  The  three  chief 
leaders  now  were  Cneius  Pompey,  Publins  Licinius  Crassits  and 
Caius  yulius  C<zsar.  Pompey,  called  the  "  Great,"  was  a  suc- 
cessful general  who  had  fought  in  all  parts  of  the  world  on  scores 
of  battle-fields.  Crassus  was  conspicuous  for  his  great  wealth. 
Caesar,  "  the  foremost  man  of  all  the  world,"  was  an  intellectual 
giant  who  combined  the  great  soldier,  the  successful  author  and  the 
wise  statesman.  After  five  years'  warfare  he  had  conquered  Gaul. 
In  these  wars  1,000,000  men  perished.  These  three  agreed  to 
unite  their  interests  against  the  senatorial  party,  60  B.  C.  To  ce- 
ment the  union,  Pompey  married  Julia,  the  daughter  of  Caesar. 
Crassus  fell  in  battle  and  Julia  died.  Caesar  and  Pompey  could 
not  endure  each  other's  rivalry.  The  senate  sided  with  Pompey 
and  ordered  Caesar  to  lay  down  his  arms.  lie  refused,  and  crossed 
the  Rubicon,  a  little  stream  which  formed  the  boundary  between 
his  province  and  Italy.  This  act  made  him  a  public  enemy  of 
Rome.  By  a  rapid  advance  he  took  possession  of  the  city  and 
Pompey  withdrew  to  Greece. 

152.'  The  Battle  of  Pharsa'lia.  in  Thessaly,  4.S  B.  C,  decided 
the  fate  of  Pompey.  He  was  totally  defeated,  fled  to  Egypt  and 
was  murdered  by  order  of  Ptolemy  the  king.     A  few   other  battles 


.'?-  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRARY. 

destroyed  the  remains  of  Pompey's  party.  Caesar  had  splendid 
triumphs  for  his  victories  in  Asia,  Africa,  Spain  and  Gaul.  lie 
was  made  Dictator  for  ten  years,  and  afterward  for  life. 

153.  Caesar  was  a  wise  ruler  who  really  had  the  welfare  of 
his  country  at  heart  He  enacted  wise  laws,  lie  attempted  to 
restore  marriage  to  its  ancient  position  of  honor  and  respect  from 
which  it  had  fallen.  He  reformed  the  calendar,  making  the  divi- 
sions  of  time  substantially  what  they  are  now.  He  encouraged  ag- 
nculture,  attempted  the  draining  of  the  Pontine  marshes,  and 
erected  grand  public  buildings.  But  his  success  had  created  many 
enemies. 

154.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  against  Caesar.  The  most 
prominent  persons  engaged  in  it  were  Brutus  and  Cassius.  Caesar 
was  stabbed  to  death  in  the  senate  house  March  15,  44  B.  C. 

155.  A  second  triumvirate  consisted  of  Mark  Antony,  Lep- 
idiis  and  Octavius.  The  latter  was  the  son  of  Caesar's  neice  and 
his  acknowledged  heir.  The  name  of  the  great  Caesar  had  a  pow- 
erful influence  on  the  Roman  world.  Brutus  and  Cassius  retired 
to  the  East  and  be^an  to  raise  armies  for  the  great  struggle  which 
was  to  decide  who  should  rule  Rome. 

156.  The  Battle  of  Phillip '  pi,  in  Macedonia,  42  B.  C,  resulted 
in  the  total  defeat  of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  who  committed  suicide. 

157.  Octavius,  Antony  and  Lepidus  divided  the  world  between 
them.  Octavius  took  the  West;  Antony,  the  East;  Lepidus, 
Africa.  The  latter  was  soon  deposed  and  difficulties  at  once  be- 
gan to  arise  between  Octavius  and  Antony.  The  latter  passed 
much  of  his  time  in  disgraceful  revels  with  Cleopatra,  the  dissolute 
queen  of  Egypt. 

158.  Both  parties  resoived  to  appeal  to  arms,  and  in  the  naval 
battle  of  Actium  Antony  was  defeated.  He  basely  deserted  his 
land  forces  and  fled  with  Cleopatra  into  Egypt,  where  both  com- 
mitted suicide  30  B.  C.  Octavius  reduced  Egypt  to  the  condition 
of  a  Roman  province.  He  was  now  supreme  ruler  of  the  world, 
and  in  the  year  27  B.  C.  took  the  new  title  Augustus. 

ROME    AS    AN    EMPIRE. 

159.  Extent. — Under  Augustus,  as  Octavius  was  called,  the 
Roman  empire  included  the  whole  civilized  world.  Other  prov- 
inces were  wrested  from  the  barbarians  by  succeeding  emperors. 
The  empire  now  extended  from  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  to  the 
Euphrates,  and  from  a  line  drawn  through  Holland  and  the  Crimea 
to  the  Great  Desert  in  Africa.  It  was  2,700  miles  long  by  an  av- 
erage width  of  1,000  miles,  with  a  population  of  120,000,000,  one- 
half  of  whom  were  slaves.  The  standing  army  consisted  of  25 
legions  01*7,000  men  each,  horse,  foot  and  artillery,  in  all  175,000 
men.  The  auxiliaries  numbered  175,000,  making  in  all  350,000 
men. 


HISTOID'.  279 

160.  The  civilization  of  this  vast  region  was  not  uniform. 
West  of  the  Adriatic  and  in  North  Africa,  excepting  Egypt,  the 
Latin  language  and  civilization  prevailed.  In  the  East  the  Greek 
language  and  civilization  were  widely  disseminated  since  the  con- 
quests of  Alexander.  In  Syria,  Oriental  civilization  had  a  great 
influence. 

161.  Augustus  gradually  assumed  all  power  to  himself,  but  he 
did  it  cautiously  and  under  the  sanction  of  lazvs  passed  by  a  sub- 
servient senate.  His  trusty  engine  of  power  always  at  hand  was 
the  prefect  of  the  city  and  the  pretoriau  guards.  The  power  and 
insolence  of  the  latter  was  such  a  little  later  that  they  chose  em- 
perors, and  an  abject  senate  confirmed  them. 

162.  The  Golden  Age. — Latin  literature  was  at  its  zenith  dur- 
ing the  long  peaceful  reign  of  Augustus.  Among  the  great  names 
in  literature  were  Virgil  and  Horace,  poets,  and  Livy  the  his- 
torian.     Cicero  was  the  greatest  orator  of  the  time. 

163.  Public  Works. — Augustus  beautified  and  improved  Rome 
with  public  buildings  and  other  great  works.  It  was  his  boast 
that  he  found  it  a  city  of  brick  and  left  it  a  city  of  marble.  Suc- 
ceeding emperors  continued  the  work  of  building  temples,  theatres, 
baths,  halls  of  justice,  aqueducts,  triumphal  arches  and  monuments, 
until  the  grandeur  of  Rome  surpassed  anything  the  world  had  yet 
seen.     The  temples  were  420  in  number. 

164.  The  Coliseum  was  the  largest  building;  ever  erected.  It 
was  in  the  form  of  an  ellipse  1,800  feet  in  circumference.  Its 
walls  consisted  of  three  rows  of  splendid  arches,  one  above  another, 
rising  to  the  height  of  140  feet.  The  whole  could  be  covered  by 
an  immense  awning.  The  air  was  cooled  by  fountains  and  per- 
fumed with  aromatic  spices.  Inside  rose  galleries  to  accommodate 
the  thronging  multitudes.  It  seated  87,000  persons.  In  the  center 
was  the  arena  where  the  gladiators  fought  with  each  other  and 
with  wild  animals.  These  inhuman  spectacles  were  very  frequent 
and  popular  with  the  Romans.  The  ruins  of  the  coliseum  still  at- 
test its  former  grandeur. 

165.  The  Aqueducts  were  the  triumphs  of  engineering  skill. 
They  were  brought  for  many  miles  over  hill  and  valley.  The 
valleys  were  spanned  by  arches.  In  some  cases  two  or  more  rows 
of  arches  one  on  top  of  the  other  rising  to  a  great  height  were  neces- 
sary to  span  the  valley.  At  the  top  was  a  deep  channel  in  which 
flowed  night  and  day  abundance  of  (lie  purest  water.  The  Baths 
were  numerous  and  magnificent.  They  were  thronged  daily  by  all 
classes.     Some  of  the  more  luxurious  bathed  several  times  per  day. 

166.  The  Walls  of  Rome  were  twenty  miles  in  circuit,  pierced 
by  thirty  gates.  Splendid  military  roads  led  to  all  parts  of 
Italy.  The  population  is  variously  estimated  at  from  1,250,000 
to  2,500,000. 

167.  Rome  was  built  on  seven  hills  on  both  sides  of  the  Tiber. 


2S0  TEACHERS'   AND   STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

The  Forum,  situated  between  the  Cap'itoline  and  Palatine  hills 
was  the  plaee  where  public  assemblies  were  held.  Mass  meetings 
and  elections  were  held  here.  It  was  surrounded  by  splendid  build- 
ings. Here  was  the  temple  of  Ja'nus  which  was  always  open  in 
time  of  war  that  the  citizens  might  sacrifice  to  the  god  and  pray  for 
victory  to  the  Roman  arms.  Its  great  gates  were  closed  only  three 
times  in  Soo  years.  In  the  Campus  Martins  (Field  of  Mars)  mili- 
tary reviews  and  musters  took  place,  also  various  athletic  sports  very 
popular  with  the   Roman  youth. 

168.  Augustus  died  A.  D.  14  after  a  reign  of  forty-one  years. 
The  Birth  of  CHRIST  took  place  during  his  reign.  Augustus 
was  succeeded  by  his  adopted  son,  Tiberius.  The  Julian  line  was 
artificially  continued  by  adoption  through  five  emperors,  the  last  of 
whom  was  Nero.  He  was  a  ruthless  tyrant.  During  his  reign  a 
large  part  of  the  city  was  burned.  There  was  a  suspicion  that  the 
fire  was  kindled  by  Nero's  orders,  though  he  charged  it  on  the 
Christians  and  bitterly  persecuted  them.  He  was  put  to  death,  98 
A.  D. 

169.  It  is  impossible  in  this  work  to  give  even  the  names  of 
the  numerous  emperors  who  ruled  from  Augustus  to  the  downfall 
of  the  empire,  476  A.  D.  Some  of  them  were  good  and  able  men 
who  tried  sincerely  to  reform  the  prevailing  and  increasing  corrup- 
tion of  the  times.  Others  were  monsters,  so  utterly  cruel  and 
hideous  in  their  wickedness  that  they  shocked  and  outraged  the 
vicious  times  in  which  they  lived.  The  middle  classes  and  many  of 
the  old  Roman  families  became  extinct.  The  purple  was  openly 
bought  and  sold  and  often  brought  its  unlucky  possessor  only  a 
violent  death.  The  armies  consisted  of  paid  mercenaries,  and  only 
the  terror  of  the  Roman  name  prevented  the  barbarians  from  over- 
whelming the  empire  long  before  that  event  finally  occurred. 

170.  Diocle'tian  an  able  ruler,  took  a  colleague  in  authority,  A. 
D.  284-305.  The  example  was  followed  by  his  successors  and  led 
to  the  final  division  of  the  empire  on  the  death  of  Theodosius,  395 
A.  D.,  into  the  Eastern  and    Western  Empires. 

Grove tli   of  Christianity. 

171.  The  incongruous  and  decaying  mythology  of  Greece  and 
Rome  had  proved  ineffectual  to  stay  vice  and  inculcate  virtue.  Its 
inconsistencies  and  absurdities  had  caused  wide-spread  unbelief 
among  the  educated  classes,  and  indifference  among  the  ignorant. 
The  world  was  ready  for  something  purer,  nobler,  and  more  in- 
spiring. The  policy  of  Rome  had  always  been  to  tolerate  all  the 
numerous  religions  found  within  her  borders.  The  religion  of  Jesus 
alone  was  proscribed.  The  Christians  were  despised  partly  because 
they  were  poor  and  without  influence,  partly  because  their  meetings 
were  secret  and  for  thai  reason  might  be  dangerous  in  an  age  of 
conspiracies,  but  chiefly  because  the)    were   aggressive  and  their  be- 


HISTORY.  281 

lief  would  not  allow  them  to  acknowledge  an)' other  religion  as 
having  any  claims  to  veneration  or  even  respect.  The  enthusiastic 
convert  to  Christianity  treated  paganism  with  scorn  and  did  not 
hesitate  to  desecrate  its  altars  and  temples.  But  one  result  could 
follow  and  that  was  long  and  hitter  persecution. 

172.  Persecutions. — The  Christians  suffered  the  most  horrible 
cruelties.  Nero  crucified  them, smeared  them  with  pitch  and  lighted 
them  for  torches  in  the  public  gardens,  and  sewed  them  up  in  the 
skins  of  wild  animals  to  he  worried  to  death  by  dogs.  There  were 
ten  general  persecutions  throughout  the  empire.  At  last  "when 
the  light  was  failing  from  his  dying  eves"  Galerius  issued  311  A. 
D.,  an  edict  of  universal  toleration.  A  singular  fact  is  that  the  good 
emperors  were  as  zealous  as  the  bad  in  persecuting  the  Christians. 
The  persecutions  were  largely  political  \\\  character. 

173.  Constantine  the  Great  was  the  first  Christian  emperor. 
He  made  Christianity  the  religion  of  the  State,  324  A.  D.  He  also 
removed  the  capital  to  Constantinople. 

Roman  Character,  Manners^  Home  .Life,  Etc. 

174.  Roman  Character. — The  Romans  were  a  stern,  harsh, 
inflexible,  unsympathetic  people.  They  had  unbounded  respect  for 
authority  and  rigidly  exacted  obedience  when  obedience  was  due. 
The  husband  had  unlimited  authority  over  the  wife  even  to  life  and 
death.  Sons  were  subject  to  the  father  as  long  as  he  lived.  The 
family  life  of  the  early  Romans  was  very  pure  and  simple.  The 
Romans  were  sometimes  guilty  of  base  treachery  and  the  violation 
of  a  treaty  was  considered  justifiable  if  it  profited  Rome.  They 
never  could  understand  that  a  conquered  foe  deserved  the  slightest 
mercy,  much  less  consideration,  except  as  a  favor  that  was  bestowed 
as  a  gratuitous   boon    hy  a  lordly  conqueror. 

175.  Their  religion  was  so  similar  to  that  of  the  Greeks  that 
little  need  be  said  about  it.  Besides  the  principal  deities  each  family 
had  household  gods  (Pena'tes)  which  were  worshiped  daily. 
Superstition  controlled  even  their  daily  occupations.  Their  belief  in 
signs,  omens  and  presages  was  as  deep  seated  as  it  was  absurd. 

176.  Home  Life. — The  dwellings  of  the  early  Romans  were 
very  plain.  The  house,  usually  a  single  story  in  height,  had  a  prin- 
cipal room  the  a' trium  which  served  as  a  common  sitting  and  dining 
room.  A  square  hole  in  the  center  of  the  roof  over  this  room  al- 
lowed the  smoke  to  escape.  The  same  hole  admitted  rain  water  to 
a  cistern  in  the  floor,  the  roof  sloping  toward  the  orifice.  Around 
this  central  room  were  smaller  sleeping  rooms,  store  rooms,  etc. 
The  Roman  nobility  erected  magnificent  palaces,  and  elegant  villas 
in  the  country.  The  streets  of  Rome  were  too  narrow  to  admit  the 
general  use  of  carriages.  Litters  were  used  instead.  Many  of  the 
houses  were  very  high.  We  read  of  one  Lodger,  a  port,  who  as- 
cended 200  flight- of  stairs.      The  furniture  was  at  first  very  simple. 


282  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

177.  In  the  later  times  vast  sums  were  uselessly  squandered  on 

household  furniture.  Tables  were  especially  expensive.  It  is  said 
that  Cicero  paid  1 ,000,000  sesterces  ($50,000)  for  a  table.  Lamps 
were  of  many  elegant  designs,  but  the  oil  smoked  badly  and  black- 
ened the  ceilings  and  furniture.  The  walls  were  beautifully  fres- 
coed in  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  and  the  floors  consisted  of 
handsome  Mosaic  pavement.  We  get  an  excellent  idia  of  Roman 
houses  at  Pompeii,  a  city  buried  by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  .V.  D. 
70.  and  excavated  within  the  last  century. 

178.  Daily  Life. — On  rising  in  the  morning  sacrifices  were  of- 
fered by  the  father  to  the  Penates.  Three  meals  were  eaten  per 
day  and  the  times  of  eating  were  about  the  same  as  in  cities  at  the 
present  day.  (The  student  must  remember  that  much  of  this  de- 
scription of  Roman  life  pertains  only  to  the  wealthy.)  Early  in  the 
morning  the  noble  Roman  received  his  clients  (see  Sec.  146)  who 
called  to  pay  their  respects  and  receive  their  daily  allowance  of 
money  or  food.  In  later  times  clients  were  treated  more  like 
menials  than  freemen.  Business  was  transacted  in  the  forenoon.  A 
siesta  followed  the  midday  meal,  and  afterward  the  gentleman  of 
leisure  amused  himself  at  gymnastics  or  at  the  bath.  The  even- 
ings were  spent  by  all  classes  at  the  theatres  and  public  spectacles. 

179.  Meals. — Breakfast  consisted  of  bread  and  wine.  The 
midday  meal  had  more  variety.  Dinner  (cena)  was  the  chief  meal. 
It  consisted  of  several  courses.  Among  the  wealthy  there  was 
great  display  and  many  rare  dishes  were  served.  One  of  the  empe- 
rors served  a  dish  composed  of  the  tongues  of  1,500  flamingoes. 
Another  convened  the  senate  to  discuss  the  best  manner  ol  cooking 
.1  line  turbot.  The  tables  were  similar  to  those  of  the  Greeks,  and 
the  guests  reclined  on  couches.  Spoons  of  two  kinds  were  used, 
but  no  forks.  They  had  napkins  but  no  tablecloths,  as  these  would 
hide  the  beautiful  tables.  Each  guest  brought  his  own  napkin.  It 
was  the  custom  of  the  emperor  Vitel 'lius  todine  with  his  friends,  and 
a  meal  often  cost  these  unfortunate  friends  not  less  than  $20,000. 

180.  Dress. — The  distinctive  dress  of  the  men  was  the  toga. 
This  was  worn  out  doors,  and  on  all  occasions  requiring  full  dress. 
The  toga  was  made  of  white  woolen  cloth,  longer  than  wide,  and 
nearly  semi-circular.  It  was  folded  lengthwise  and  wrapped  around 
the  body  and  shoulders  so  as  to  leave  the  right  arm  free.  Boys 
wore  a  toga  with  a  purple  hem.  A  sort  of  a  shirt  called  a  tunic 
was  worn  under  the  toga  and  sometimes  several  tunics  were  worn. 
The  poorer  classes  often  wore  a  sort  of  short  cloak  instead  of  the 
toga.  Hats  were  worn  on  journeys.  Shoes  were  of  several  kinds, 
indicating  different  degrees  of  rank.  Poor  people  wore  wooden 
shoes.  The  most  common  form  of  dress  for  women  seems  to  have 
been  a  long  tunic  reaching  to  the  feet  with  shorl  sleeves  and  girdle, 
an  under  tunic  and  a  close  fitting  vest.  A  wrapper  was  worn  out 
doors.      The  ladies  were  partial  to  gay  colors. 


HISTORT.  283 

181.  Marriage. — Woman  was  honored  at  Rome  as  the  mis- 
tress of  the  house  and  the  companion  of  man.  There  were  two 
kinds  of  marriage,  that  in  which  the  woman  passed  completely 
under  the  control  of  the  husband,  and  that  by  which  she  remained 
partially  under  the  control  of  the  father.  The  former,  the  more 
honorable,  fell  into  disuse,  and  the  marriage  state  gradually  became 
corrupted  into  little  else  than  concubinage.  Many  interesting  cere- 
monies were  connected  with  the  betrothal  and  marriage,  among 
which  were  sacrifices.  When  a  child  was  born,  if  the  father  took 
it  in  his  arms  it  was  reared;  if  he  refused  it  was  exposed  to  die, 
but  in  early  times  the  law  forbade  the  exposing  of  a  son  or  the  first 
(laughter. 

182.  Schools  were  numerous,  though  not  supported  by  the 
State.  Reading,  writing,  mathematics  and  rhetoric  were  taught, 
also  grammar,  to  which  much  attention  was  paid.  Writing  was 
performed  with  a  stylus  on  tablets  of  wax.  Book-sellers  kept 
trained  slaves  to  copy  works.  Ordinary  works  were  not  expensive. 
The  book  consisted  of  a  long  strip  of  parchment  with  a  roller  at 
either  end.  When  not  in  use  it  was  put  into  a  circular  wooden 
case.  Schoolmasters  were  not  held  in  high  repute,  though  teachers 
of  rhetoric  and  oratory  received  large  pay. 

183.  Public  Games. — The  Romans  were  exceedingly  fond  of 
public  games.  The  grand  circus,  after  its  last  enlargement,  seated 
250,000.  Chariot  races,  foot  races,  boxing,  wrestling,  and  cruel 
gladiatorial  contests,  participated  in  by  trained  gladiators  and  sav- 
age wild  animals,  were  the  amusements  of  the  circus  and  amphi- 
theater. The  theater  was  not  much  esteemed.  Triumphs  were 
accorded  to  victorious  generals.  These  consisted  of  processions, 
which  included  the  victorious  general  and  his  officers,  the  captives, 
arms,  spoils,  etc.     Splendid  games  usually  followed. 

184.  Slaves. — The  Roman  slave  code  was  extremely  cruel. 
The  master  had  the  power  to  put  a  slave  to  death  without  render- 
ing himself  liable  to  prosecution.  The  ordinary  punishments  of 
slaves  were  very  cruel,  and  when  it  is  remembered  that  slaves  could 
sometimes  be  bought  for  one  dollar  per  head,  there  was  no  pecuni- 
ary check  to  the  cruelty  of  the  master.  These  slaves  were  captives 
taken  in  war,  and  were  often  the  superiors  of  their  masters  in  re- 
finement and  culture.  Slaves  were  worked  very  hard.  When  the 
testimony  of  a  slave  was  taken  he  was  always  first  tortured  to  in- 
duce him  to  testify  truthfully.  At  night  they  were  chained  in  un- 
derground pens.  Sometimes  they  had  to  provide  their  own  food 
and  clothing.  They  were  sometimes  freed,  and  freedmen  often  be- 
came wealthy. 

185.  Art. — The  Romans  had  little  inventive  genius.  Their 
art  productions  were  chiefly  imitations  of  those  of  the  Greeks. 

186.  Downfall  of  Rome. — About  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century  the  barbarians  began   to   press  Rome   very   hard.     These 


284  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 

barbarians  were  Goths,  Vandals,  Huns, and  other  tribes  which  emi- 
grated in  hordes  from  the  East  and  North.  Rome  was  taken  and 
sacked  by  the  Goths,  410  A.D.,  and  again  by  the  Vandals,  455  A.  D. 

187.  The  last  victory  achieved  in  the  name  of  Rome  was  the 
defeat  of  At'tila,  king  of  the  Huns,  at  Chalons,  in  France,  451. 
This  barbarian  was  called  "the  Scourge  of  God."  He  was  routed 
with  terrible  slaughter  by  the  united  Goths  and  Romans.  The 
power  of  Rome  declined  rapidly,  and  the  last  emperor,  Augustulus, 
was  dethroned  and  his  dominion  assumed  by  the  Gothic  king  of 
Italy. 

188.  The  Eastern  Empire  (the  Greek  Empire)  continued  to 
exist  until  overthrown  by  the  Turks,  1453  A.  D.  Its  long  history 
is  uneventful  and  unprofitable.  It  served  as  the  preserver  of  Greek 
learning,  otherwise  it  had  little  to  do  with  the  progress  of  civiliza- 
tion. The  details  of  its  history  for  this  reason  are  omitted  entirely 
from  this  work. 

189.  Conclusion. — The  history  of  Rome  deserves  full,  careful, 
thoughtful  study.  Iler  influence  on  modern  civilization  was  so 
great  that  it  can  scarcely  he  over-estimated.  This  influence  is  seen 
in  our  language,  laws  and  customs.  Her  universal  power  was 
worthy  of  admiration.  It  paved  the  way  for  a  universal  civiliza- 
tion. As  the  impersonation  of  brute  force,  let  us  hope  its  like  may 
never  he  seen   again. 

MODERN    HISTORY. 

The  term  Middle.  Ages  is  often  applied  to  the  long  period  extending  from 
about  500  to  1500  A.  D.  The  history  of  this  period  is  usually  called  mrditsval 
history.    The  Dark  Ages  include  from  500  to  1000  A.  D. 

THE  FRANKS — CHARLEMAGNE — THE  SARACENS. 

190.  The  nations  who  overran  the  Roman  empire  consisted  of 
many  different  tribes,  nearly  all  Germans.*  They  settled  in  the 
countries  of  the  conquered,  and  largely  adopted  the  language,  man- 
ners and  customs  of  the  Romans,  together  with  the  Christian  re- 
ligion. The  infusion  of  new  blood  gradually  produced  in  place  of 
the  old  Roman  stock  the  modern  nations  of  Europe. 

The  Franks  were  a  powerful  German  tribe  who  settled 
during  the  decline  of  the  empire  in  what  is  now  France.  They 
soon  became  independent  of  the  emperors  reigning  at  Constantino. 


*  £t  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  Germans  were  utterly  barbarous,  like  the  Huns,  Turks 
and  Tartars.  Though  they  lived  in  the  fastnesses  of  their  gloomy  Northern  forests,  tiny  had 
many  customs  which  placed  them  far  above  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  tin-  scale  of  humanity. 
They  wen  In  he  first  place  emphatically  frtemen.  True,  they  held  slaves,  us  <li.l  <■•//  ancient 
nations.  Bat  the  mass  of  the  people  were  free,  and  even  the  slaves  were  not  the  miserable  be- 
ings found  under  Roman  dominion.  Woman  was  respected  as  the  equal  ol  man.  The  family 
relation  was  honorable,  and  adultery  was  severely  punished.  Hereditary  nobility  existed,  but 
it  bestowed  no  legal  advantages  over  the  commoner.  The  Germans  were  often  revoltingly 
•  mi  I  in  war,  ami  sometimes  sacrificed  prisoners  to  the  r  gods,  the  < rerman  tro.is  wire  titanic 
and  terrible,  UJm  was  the  chief.  They  were  doubtless  the  personification  of  the  wild  forces 
■  •I  nature.    Thus  we  see  that  these  so-called  barbarians  far  surpassed  the  civilized  Romans  in 

many  things  essential  to  true  manhood. 


IIISTORT.  286 

pie.  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  who  reigned  4S1-511,  fixed  his 
capital  at  Paris.  The  line  of  Clovis  soon  became  imbecile,  and 
Charles  Martel  (the  Hammer*),  a  mayor  of  the  place,  virtually  as- 
sumed the  government.  He  defeated  the  Saracens  in  the  great 
battle  of  Tours,  732  A.  D.  His  son  Pepin  (the  Short)  dethroned 
the  old  royal  family  and  became  king. 

191.  Charlemagne  ( Charles  the  Great),  son  of  Pepin,  was  the 
greatest  character  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  reigned  jointly  with 
his  brother  for  several  years,  and  then  succeeded  him  as  sole  king 
of  the  Franks.  He  was  crowned  "  Emperor  of  the  West  "  by  the 
Pope  at  Rome,  Christmas  day,  800.  This  coronation  revived,  in 
name,  the  Roman  Empire.  But  the  new  empire  depended  on 
Charlemagne  alone,  as  his  death  showed.  Charlemagne  was  a 
wise  and  good  ruler.  He  encouraged  learning  and  the  arts,  re- 
stored order,  and  gave  a  lasting  impetus  to  the  new  civilization. 
In  person  he  was  of  commanding  stature,  and  had  great  physical 
powers.  In  the  field  of  battle  he  was  irresistible.  The  wild  Sax- 
ons repeatedly  rose  against  his  authority,  and  he  as  repeatedly 
subdued  them.  At  last,  as  a  terrible  example,  he  beheaded  4,500 
of  them  in  one  day.  He  defeated  the  Bavarians  and  the  Saracens. 
He  marched  into  Italy,  and  conquered  the  Lombards,  and  annexed 
Lombardy  to  his  empire,  which  now  included  France,  a  large  part 
of  Germany,  and  Northern  Italy. 

192.  Charlemagne's  capital  and  favorite  residence  was  at  Aix- 
la-Chapelle.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis,  and  on  his 
death  the  empire  was  divided  between  his  three  sons.  France, 
Italy  and  Germany  thus  became  practically  independent  of,  one 
another. 

193.  The  Saracens. — The  term  Saracen  is  applied  to  the 
Arabs  and  their  descendants,  who  conquered  a  large  part  of  Asia, 
Africa  and  Europe  early  in  the  seventh  century.  The  Saracens 
were  Mohammedans.  Mahomet,  the  founder  of  the  religion  which 
is  named  after  him,  was  a  camel  driver  of  Mecca.  He  preached  a 
new  religion  called  Islam,  "  salvation."  The  written  creed  is  the 
Koran.  The  new  religion  was  distasteful  to  the  people  of  Mecca, 
and  they  drove  Mahomet  from  the  city.  This  flight,  called  the 
Hegi'ra,  took  place  622  A.  D.  This  is  the  Mohammedan  era, 
from  which  they  reckon  dates. 

194.  The  new  religion  was  propagated  by  fire  and  sword, 
and  soon  took  possession  of  all  Arabia.  Egypt,  Asia  Minor, 
North  Africa  and  Spain  were  conquered  in  rapid  succession,  and 
the  first  substantial  checks  which  the  Saracens  received  were  at 
Constantinople,  which  they  besieged  in  vain,  668-675  A.  D.,  and 
at  Tours,  where  they  were  defeated  by  the  Franks,  732  A.  D.  In 
the  siege  of  Constantinople  the  Greeks  were  able  to  defeat  their 
formidable  foes  by  means  of  the  terrible  Greek  Fire,  which  con- 
sumed the  ships  and  works  of  the  besiegers. 


28G  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDEXTS'  LTBRART. 

195.  The  capital  of  the  Saracenic  empire  was  at  Bagdad. 
The  ruler  was  called  caliph.  This  vast  dominion  was  soon  divided. 
A  caliph  ruled  over  the  east  at  Bagdad,  while  another  had  his  cap- 
ital at  Cordova,  in  Spain.  A  third  held  Egypt.  There  were  also 
several  semi-independent  States  during  the  latter  years  of  Saracenic 
power. 

196.  Civilization  of  the  Saracens. — The  Saracens  were  a  po- 
lite, cultivated,  intellectual  people.  The  caliphs  encouraged  the 
arts,  sciences  and  literature.  Bagdad  was  a  populous  and  splendid 
city.  The  scenes  of  the  celehrated  "  Arabian  Nights  "  were  laid 
in  Bagdad  during  the  reign  of  Ilaroun  al  Raschid  (Aaron  the  Just). 
This  distinguished  monarch  reigned  7S6-808  A.  D.,  and  was  conse- 
quently a  contemporary  of  Charlemagne.  Cordova  was  also  a 
populous  and  wealthy  city.  It  was  the  seat  of  Saracenic  culture  in 
the  West,  whence  their  learning  spread  over  Europe,  exerting  a 
beneficial  stimulus  on  the  ruder  civilization  of  Christendom.  The 
empire  of  the  Saracens  was  gradually  overthrown  by  the  Turks 
in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 

ENGLAND    IN    THE    MIDDLE    AGES. 

197.  England  had  been  a  Roman  colony  from  the  time  of 
Julius  Caesar.  London  was  a  flourishing  provincial  city.  Wales, 
Scotland  and  Ireland  were  still  in  possession  of  the  natives,  a  Keltic 
race,  speaking  kindred  languages.  On  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Roman  legions  the  civilized  inhabitants  were  hard  pressed  by  the 
uncivilized  Britons.  The  Saxons,  the  yutes  and  the  Angles,  who 
were  savage  tribes  dwelling  in  the  low  lands  of  North  Germany, 
invaded  Britain,  about  450  A.  D.,  and  waged  war  on  both  Ro- 
mans and  Britons.  The  greater  part  of  the  southern  and  eastern 
portions  of  the  island  were  reduced  to  subjection.  Several  petty 
kingdoms  sprang  up,  and  the  country  became  known  as  AngfolanJ, 
from  the  Angles.  This  name  Anally  became  the  modern  name, 
England.  The  German  invaders  and  the  native  Britons  never 
coalesced.  The  latter  were  gradually  exterminated  and  driven 
into  Wales  and  Scotland. 

198.  The  petty  States  were  united  into  one  kingdom  by  Eg- 
bert, king  of  Wessex,  827  A.  D.,  who  thus  became  the  //>.n7  king  of 
England.  The  Saxon  kings  of  England  had  innumerable  diffi- 
culties to  contend  with.  Their  subjects  were  ignorant,  semi-bar- 
barous and  turbulent.  Their  country  was  beset  by  foreign  invad- 
ers from  time  to  time.  These  invaders  were  Danes  and  the  kin- 
dred Scandinavian  tribes  of  Northern  Europe,  called  Norsemen, 
Northmen  and  Normans.  These  fierce  invaders  came  in  succe-^- 
ive  hordes  until  a  large  part  of  Eastern  England  became  Danish. 
Those  who  overran  Northern  France  were  called  Normans. 

199.  Alfred  the  Great  (871-901),  one  of  the  Saxon  kings 
of  England,    was    one  of  the  wisest  and   best    rulers  of  his  time. 


HfSTORT.  28? 

During  his  reign  the  Danes  invaded  England  and  overran  almost 
the  entire  country.  But  Alfred  finally  defeated  them  and  compelled 
them  to  remain  in  their  own  part  of  the  island  as  his  subjects.  He 
founded  the  University  of  Oxford  and  encouraged  the  establish- 
ment of  schools. 

200.  Canute  the  Great  was  a  Dane.  His  father  conquered 
England  in  revenge  for  a  terrible  massacre  of  the  Danes.  He  was 
a  wise  ruler. 

201.  The  Norman  Conquest. — The  Northmen  gave  name  to 
the  province  of  Normandy  in  France.  They  had  adopted  the 
French  language  and  become  more  highly  civilized  than  the  Eng- 
glish.  Edward  the  Confessor,  the  last  Saxon  king  whose  title  was 
undisputed,  died  without  heirs.  He  was  by  his  mother  a  relative  of 
William,  Duke  of  Normandy  (  William  the  Conoueror).  Edward 
favored  his  succession  to  the  English  throne.  Harold  was  elected 
to  succeed  Edward.  His  claim  was  disputed  by  his  brother  Tostig, 
who  claimed  descent  from  the  Danish  king's.  Tostigf  and  his  allies 
the  Scots  and  Norwegians,  were  defeated. 

202.  Battle  of  Hastings. — In  the  meantime  William  of  Nor- 
mandy landed  at  Hastings  (1066),  with  a  powerful  army.  Harold 
was  killed  altera  long  contest,  in  which  the  English  suffered  dread- 
fully. Most  of  the  Saxon  nobility  perished  and  William  became 
master  of  England. 

203.  William  reduced  the  Saxons  to  a  condition  little  short  of 
absolute  slavery.  The  lands  were  all  parceled  out  to  the  great  Nor- 
man barons  or  retained  as  royal  estates.  Every  precaution  was 
taken  to  prevent  the  English  from  regaining  their  liberty.  Curfew 
bells  were  rung  at  dusk,  after  which  it  was  unlawful  for  any  person 
to  keep  a  light  or  fire  burning.  The  Saxons,  however,  stuck 
tenaciously  to  their  mother  tongue  and  their  own  customs.  It  was 
a  long  time  before  the  two  peoples  really  united,  and  then  they  were 
more  Saxon  than  Norman.  The  union  was  accelerated  when 
King  John  lost  Normandy.  The  Normans  of  England  then  felt 
obliged  to  become  a  part  of  the  English  people. 

204.  The  Plantagenets. — The  direct  Norman  line  ended  with 
Stephen,  1 1 54.  His  successor  was  Henry  Plantagenet,  called 
Henry  II.  He  was  neither  Norman  nor  English  except  in  the 
female  line.  Henry  attempted  to  reform  the  vices  and  check  the 
growing  power  of  the  clergy.  In  this  he  was  opposed  by  the 
church.  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  famous  Thomas  Cl 
Becket,  was  slain  at  the  altar  bv  some  zealous  followers  of  Henry. 
For  this  crime  the  king  afterward  did  penance.  The  Conquest  of 
Ireland  was   completed  during   the    reign  of  Henry   II,    1171. 

205.  Henry  was  succeeded  bv  his  rebellious  son,  Richard 
Cceur  de  Lion.  This  renowned  hut  haughty  monarch  achieved 
great  fame    as  a  leader  of  the  second  crusade.      (See  Sec.   247). 

206.  Magna  Charta. — John  the   brother    of  Richard,  was   an 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARr. 

inefficient  tyrannical  prince.  He  lost  Normandy,  which  was  taken 
by  the  French.  When  his  tyrannies  grew  insupportable,  the  no- 
bility  compelled  him  to  signal  Runny  mede,  June  15, 12 15,  the  Mag- 
na Charta,  "  Great  Charter."  This  instrument  granted  certain  ina- 
lienable rights  to  the  people  forever.  It  was  the  foundation  of 
English  liberty. 

207.  The  Conquest  of  Wales  was  accomplished  by  Edward  I, 
}.       lie  prosecuted  a  war  with  Scotland  in  which  the  renowned 

William  Wallace  defeated  an  English  army  of  40,000  men  at 
Stirling^  1297.  Edward,  however,  established  the  English  power 
in  Scotland  for  the  time. 

208.  Robert   Bruce   was  the   rightful   claimant  to  the   Scotch 
throne.      He  defeated  the  English  with  great  slaughter  at  Bannock- 

n  (1314),  and  established  his  right  to  the  throne.  Edward 
III   of  England   again  brought   the  .Scots  to  submission. 

209.  War  with  Trance. — Edward  now  laid  claim  to  the  throne 
of  France  as  he  was  related  through  his  mother  to  Charles  IV  of 
France,  who  died  without  heirs.  He  began  a  series  of  wars  which 
lasted  for  one  hundred  years.  The  details  of  these  wars  are  un- 
profitable.    The  principal  events  were: 

(1)  The  battle  Crecy,  1346,  a  great  English  victory.  Cannon  were  first  used 
in  this  battle,  the  English  having  a  lew  small  pieces.  *  (2)  The  siege  anil  capture 
of  Calais.  (3)  The  great  battle  of  Poitiers  in  which  the  Black  Prime  with  12,000 
men  defealed  60,000  French.  By  the  treaty  of  peace  the  English  held  Aquataine. 
(4)  The  battle  of  Agincourt,  1415.  English  victory.  The  treaty  of  peace  which 
followed  declared  that  Henrv  V  of  England  should  succeed  to  the  crown  of 
France  on  the  death  of  Charles  V 1  of  France.  Both  kings  died  at  the  same 
time,  1422.  War  renewed.  (5)  Great  uprising  of  the  French  under  Joan  of  Arc. 
the  Maid  of  Orleans.  Victories  of  the  French.  Burning  of  Joan  of  Arc  by  the 
English  in  the  market  place  of  Rouen,  1431.     Total    expulsion  of  the  English 

•453- 

210.  During  the  reign  of  Richard  II   a  great  insurrection  took 

place  headed  by  Wat  Tyler,  1 38 1.  The  people  demanded  the 
abatement  of  an  unjust  poll  tax.  Violence  and  bloodshed  followed. 
Tyler  was  killed.  Concessions  were  afterward  granted  to  the  peo- 
ple, whose  claims  were  just.  But  these  concessions  were  soon  re- 
called and  the  leaders  of  the  people  tried  and  executed.  The  revolt 
was  suppressed  with  great  cruelty. 

211.  Wars  of  the  Roses. —  A  terrible  war  broke  out  1  (S.S 
between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  rival  claimants  for  the 
English  throne.      This  was  called  the  war   of  the  roses,  because  the 

rkists  wore  as  a  badge  a  white  rose  and  the  Lancastrians  a  red. 
These  wais  continued  at  intervals  for  thirty  years  and  ended  in  the 
triumph  of  the  house  of  Lancaster.  In  this  struggle  the  English 
nobility  was  almost  exterminated. 

BUROPE     A\i>    Asia    i\    GENERAL. 

212.  France  in  the  Middle  Ages.  —The  history  of  France  dur- 
ing the  middle  ages  affords  few  lessons  of  importance  to  the  student. 


HISTORY.  289 

The  points  in  her  history  of  most  interest  to  English  readers  have 
heen  given  in  the  History  of  England.  Her  annals  record  little  but 
a  succession  of  worthless  kings  and  hopeless  oppression  of  the 
people. 

213.  The  Jacquerie  (Zhak'er-e). — A  frightful  insurrection  of 
the  peasantry  (nicknamed  Jacquerie)  took  place  throughout  France 
during  the  reign  of  John  who  ascended  the  throne  1450.  It  was 
caused  by  the  misery  and  utter  hopelessness  of  the  peasantry.  Cas- 
tles were  sacked  and  their  inmates  put  to  death  with  shocking  bar- 
barity. At  length  the  peasants  were  defeated  and  a  general  mas- 
sacre began.  They  were  hunted  and  destroyed  like  wild  beasts  until 
whole  sections  of  country  were  nearly  depopulated. 

214.  Italy  in  the  Middle  Ages. — Italy  had  nominally  belonged  to 
Germany  as  a  part  of  "the  Holy  Roman  Empire"  founded  by 
Charlemagne.  But  the  powerful  influence  of  the  popes  combined 
with  local  causes  resulted  in  long  wars  between  the  Guelphs  and 
Ghibellin.es.  The  latter  sided  with  the  German  Emperors.  The 
Guelphs  upheld  Italian  interests  and  were  usually  sustained  by  the 
Pope  of  Rome.  The  struggle  ended  in  the  complete  overthrow  of 
German   influences. 

215.  The  Italian  Republics  had  their  origin  during  this  long 
period  of  disorder.  Venice  grew  to  be  a  wealthy  maritime  city 
with  powerful  naval  and  military  influence.  Her  government  was 
really  not  republican  at  all.  It  consisted  of  a  close  aristocracy  who 
elected  a  chief  officer  called  Doge.  Genoa  was  the  chief  maritime 
rival  of  Venice.  Florence  was  noted  for  the  wealth  and  culture  of 
her  citizens.  Her  gold  coin  called  the  Florin  circulated  all  over 
Europe.  The  great  family  of  the  Medici  (Med' e-che) acquired  the 
chief  power  at  Florence  in  the  15th  century.  Under  the  patronage 
of  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  Florence  became  noted  for  the  attainments 
of  her  painters,  sculptors  and  architects. 

216.  Germany  for  several  centuries  after  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne was  one  of  the  greatest  powers  in  Europe.  Her  rulers  were 
not  only  kings  of  Germany  but  emperors  of  "  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire,"  revived  by  Charlemagne.  The  power  of  the  empire 
gradually  declined.  No  attempt  will  be  made  to  give  the  details  of 
its  history  here.  The  constant  quarrels  with  Italy  were  the  most 
important.  Switzerland  declared  its  independence  of  the  Empire 
130S.      After  a  long  struggle  it  was  acknowledged  1499. 

217.  The  Hanseatic  League  was  formed  by  Hamburg,  Bre- 
men, and  Lubec  about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century.  It  con- 
sisted of  a  union  for  mutual  defence  against  private  and  other  foes, 
and  for  the  promotion  of  commerce.  It  finally  included  nearly  all 
the  cities  of  Germany,  and  became  so  strong  that  it  engaged  suc- 
cessfully in  wars  with  the  great  powers.  The  last  convocation  of 
the  representatives  of  the  league  was  in   1630. 

218.  Tartar  Conquerors. — The  plains  of  Central   Asia  have 

'9 


900  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

at  various  times  poured  forth  hordes  of  savage  conquerors  both  cast 
and  west.  The  Huns,  a  Tartar  people  who  invaded  the  Roman 
Empire  in  the  5th  century,  were  the  terror  of  the  adjoining  nations. 

(  See  Sec.    1S6).      They  were  a  coarse,  savage  and  brutal  people. 

219.  The  Seljuk  Turks  (  Sel'yook)  or  Turcomans,  took  Jerusa- 
lem from  the  Saracens,  1076,  and  threatened  the  Greek  Empire.  The 
Seljuks  were  in  turn  overthrown  by  the  Mongols,  or  Moguls^  Tar- 
tar race  under  the  renowned  Jenghiz  Khan,  who  reigned  from  1206 
to  1227.  It  is  said  that  he  caused  the  destruction  of  5,000,000  of 
human  beings.  For  a  century  these  Mongols  cruelly  ravaged  and 
plundered  from  China  to  Poland.  Their  atrocities  exceeded  those 
of  the  Turks  even.  In  125S  they  overthrew  the  Saracen  cali- 
phate at  Bagdad.  In  1299  the  Ottomans  ox  Ottoman  Turks  began 
a  career  of  successful  conquests  which  lasted  a  century  and  a  half. 
They  are  the  Turks  of  the  present  day.  Tamerlane  or  Timour  was 
another  great  conqueror.  He  totally  defeated  Baj'azet  the  Ot- 
toman sultan  in  a  tremendous  battle  in  Angora  1402.  He  also 
defeated  the  Mohammedan  sultan  of  India.  The  Mongols  finally 
conquered  India  and  established  the  empire  of  the  "  Great  Mo- 
gul,"  1526.     All  these  Tartar  invaders  adopted  the  Moslem  faith. 

THE    FEUDAL    SYSTEM. 

220.  The  barbarians  who  overthrew  the  Roman  empire  a<  - 
knowledged  as  supreme  authority  some  great  chieftain.  In  that 
age  of  incessant  warfare  the  chief  was  nearly  always  a.  man  whose 
Strength,  skill  and  daring  enabled  him  to  excel  in  feats  of  battle. 
The  invaders  parceled  out  the  lands  of  the  conquered,  allotting  a 
large  portion  to  the  king  or  principal  chieftain  and  smaller  portions 
to  the  subordinate  chiefs  and  freemen,  according  to  the  German  cus- 
tom which  allowed  every  freeman  a  portion  of  land.  In  that  age 
of  violence  the  individual  could  not  hope  to  hold  his  land  ami  enjoy 
its  fruits  in  peace.  Union  was  necessary  to  protection.  Hence  the 
chieftain  granted  the  right  of  using  the  lands  to  his  followers,  and 
they  in  turn  agreed  to  take  up  arms  in  defense  of  the  chieftain  and 
for  the  common  weal.  The  king  could  from  his  large  domain 
make  grants  to  any  one.  This  grant  was  called  a  feudum  or  //<•/" 
and  the  tenure  by  which  it  was  held  a  feudal  tenure*  This  tenure 
was  entirely  different  from  an  original  allotment  or  allodium.  This 
latter  belonged  to  the  holder  as  his  own,  to  do  with  as  he  pleased, 
while  the  feudal  -rant  might  he  retailed  if  the  person  holding  it 
failed  to  perform  the  service  on  which  it  depended. 

221.  Growth  of  Feudalism. — Owing  to  the  turbulence  of  the 
times,  the  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  small  landholders,  holding 
allodiums,  was  to  surrender  their  lands  and  take  them  again  on 
feudal  tenure,  thus  placing  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the 
great  barons.  The  person  granting  a  feudal  tenure  was  called 
liege,  lord*  or  suzerain.     The  dependent  was   called  a  liegeman*. 


HISTORY.  291 

•vassal  or  retainer.  Soon  all  the  lands  of  the  kingdom  were  held 
under  this  system  of  tenure.  The  king  had  for  his  vassals  the 
great  barons;  these  were  lords  of  the  lesser  chiefs.  The  church 
also  held  large  estates. 

222.  The  fief  consisted  of  the  castle  where  the  owner  lived 
with  his  family  and  men-at-arms;  and  the  attached  domains,  includ- 
ing the  villages  and  the  lands.  The  villagers  were  called  villains, 
from  villc,  a  town  or  city.  They  were  freeborn  men.  The  serfs 
belonged  to  the  soil  and  were  sold  with  it.  Though  not  slaves  in 
the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word,  their  condition  was  a  species  of 
slavery  which  soon  led  to  gross  abuse  of  power  on  the  part  of  the 
ruling  classes.  The  power  of  the  lords  may  be  seen  in  the  fact 
that  they  were  the  magistrates  of  the  district,  from  whom  there 
was  no  appeal  unless  the  king  chose  to  interfere. 

223.  The  influence  of  feudalism  was  bad.  It  was  at  first  a 
necessity  of  the  times,  but  it  soon  led  to  oppression  of  the  lower 
classes.  It  prevented  the  growth  of  nationality.  It  suppressed  in- 
dividual effort,  and  thus  prevented  progress  and  crushed  the  spirit 
of  the  common  people.  It  originated  with  the  German  tribes  and 
the  old  Roman  custom  of  allotment.  It  gradually  extended  all 
over  Europe.  The  chief  influences  which  contributed  to  its  down- 
fall were: — 

(i)  The  rise  of  cities  which,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  case  of  the  Hanseatic 
league  and  the  Italian  republics,  became  very  powerful.  (2)  The  influence  of 
royalty,  which  began  to  be  exerted  against  the  feudal  system  because  of  the  in- 
subordination of  the  great  barons.  (3)  The  clergy,  which  constantly  sought  to 
aggrandize  the  church  at  the  expense  of  all  other  powers. 

.  CHIVALRY. 

224.  Chivalry  naturally  grew  out  of  Feudalism.  The  Teu- 
tonic tribes  had  always  paid  woman  great  respect  compared  with 
the  other  ancient  nations.  Their  admiration  of  deeds  of  bravery 
amounted  almost  to  a  passion.  The  true  soldier  necessarily  com- 
bined gallantry  and  bravery,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  two  pro- 
duced the  knight  of  the  middle  acres. 

225.  It  was  the  custom  for  the  vassals  of  a  lord  to  send  their 
sons  to  the  castle  to  receive  training  in  military  exercises  and  the 
etiquette  of  the  times.  From  the  ages  of  seven  to  fourteen  these 
boys  were  called  pages.  The  page  associated  with  the  ladies  and 
accompanied  them  when  they  went  hawking  or  hunting.  The 
ladies  and  their  knights  taught  him  courtly  manners  by  precept 
and  example. 

226.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  the  page  became  a  squire  and  at- 
tached himself  to  some  knight  as  his  assistant.  He  assisted  his 
knight  to  don  his  armor,  handed  him  fresh  lances  and  came  to  his 
rescue  when  the  master  needed  assistance. 

227.  At  twenty-one  the  squire,  if  worthy,  became  a  knight. 


292  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

This  required  much  ceremony.  He  fasted,  confessed  his  sins,  and 
passed  the  night  in  watching  and  prayer.  Then,  having  bathed,  he 
was  clothed  in  new  garments  handsomely  adorned.  lie  went  to 
the  church  and  was  examined.  If  deemed  worthy  he  received  the 
sacrament  and  took  the  vows.  lie  vowed  that  he  would  he  good, 
brave,  loyal,  just  and  generous,  that  he  would  be  a  champion  of 
the  church,  a  protect  or  of  woman  and  a  redresser  of  wrong.  He 
vowed  to  assist  the  widow,  the  orphan  and  the  helpless.  To  com- 
plete the  ceremony  the  prince  gave  the  candidate  a  slight  blow  on 
the  neck  (dubbed)  with  the  fiat  of  a  sword.  This  was  the  last 
blow  he  was  to  receive  unresented. 

228.  The  knight  was  covered  from  head  to  foot  with  chain  or 
plate  armor.  lie  was  armed  with  a  sword,  battle-ax,  mace,  which 
was  a  heavy  missile  weapon,  and  a  lance.  His  horse  was  also  pro- 
tected by  armor.  Knights  rode  about  the  country  in  search  of  ad- 
ventures, and  were  then  called  kniifhts-erra)it. 

229.  The  characteristic  amusement  of  chivalry  was  the  tourna- 
ment. The  contesting  knights  fought  on  horseback  in  the  lists,  in 
the  presence  of  the  royal  household  and  the  gentry  of  the  vicinity. 
These  combats  were  innocent,  as  the  participants  did  not  engage  in 
a  life-or-death  struggle,  as  did  the  gladiators  of  Rome. 

230.  Each  knight  usually  selected  some  lady  to  whom  he 
vowed  perpetual  constancy,  and  in  whose  name  he  went  forth  to 
win  renown. 

231.  On  the  whole  the  influence  of  chivalry  was  good.  It  in- 
culcated gentle  manners,  respect  for  the  female  sex  and  charity  to- 
ward the  helpless.  Some  of  its  practices  degenerated  into  absurd- 
ity, and  its  beautiful  precepts  were  often  disregarded.  Still, 
chivalry  largely  laid  the  foundation  of  that  gentleness  which  is  so 
marked  a  trait  of  the  moderns  when  contrasted  with  the  savagery 
of  some  of  the  most  polished  of  the  ancients.  Chivalry  may  be 
said  to  have  continued  from  iooo  to  1500  A.  D. 

RISE    OF    POPERY. 

232.  The  influence  of  popery  upon  the  history  of  Europe 
from  the  fall  of  Rome  until  nearly  the  present  time  has  been  so 
great  that  a  correct  understanding  of  its  rise  and  growth  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  the  student  of  history.  That  understanding 
may  best  he  obtained  by  taking  a  connected  view  of  the  Papacy. 

233.  In  the  general  chaos  which  resulted  from  the  downfall 
of  ancient  Rome  the  Christian  church,  as  the  most  widely  spread 
and  the  best  disciplined  organization  of  the  times,  naturally  exerted 
.1  great  influence  upon  social  and  political  affairs.  The  bishop  of 
Rome,  as  the  highest  functionary  of  the  church  in  a  city  whose 
prestige  made  her  the  first  in  the  world,  gradually  began  to  assume 
the  leadership  of  the  entire  church.  At  first  the  arbiter  in  spiritual 
affairs,  he  soon  learned  to  wield    his   influence   in   political   disputes. 


HIS  TORT.  293 

This  assumption  of  supreme  authority  in  spiritual  affairs  on  the  part 
of  the  bishop  of  Rome  was  opposed  by  the  Eastern  Christians  and 
resulted  at  an  early  day  in  splitting  the  church  into  the  Eastern  or 
Greek  Catholics  and  the  Western  or  Roman  Catholics.  The 
head  of  the  Greek  church  is  the  "patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

234.  The  Roman  pontiff '(a  name  derived  from  Pontifex  Max- 
imus,  the  chief  priest  of  pagan  Rome)  was  called  papa  (father), 
to  which  was  affixed  the  epithet  sanctus,  meaning  in  English  "The 
Holy  Father,"  or  "His  Holiness  the  Pope/1 

235.  The  papacy  first  became  a  temporal  power  at  the  close 
of  the  8th  century.  Pep 'in  of  France  invaded  Italy  to  rescue  it 
from  the  Lombards.  The  eastern  and  southern  part  of  Italy  had 
always  belonged  to  the  Greek  empire,  under  the  name  of  the  "Ex- 
archate of  Ravenna."  The  Lombards  took  this  territory  from  the 
Eastern  empire.  Pepin  in  turn  wrested  it  from  the  Lombards  and 
bestowed  it  upon  the  Pope  of  Rome.  Charlemagne,  son  of  Pepin, 
when  crowned  Emperor  of  the  West  (8oo  A.  D.),  confirmed  the 
grant.  The  pope  now  became  not  only  spiritual  ruler  of  all 
Europe,  but  also  a  temporal  prince. 

236.  The  power  of  the  Popes  gradually  increased  for  two 
centuries  until  about  the  middle  of  the  ioth  century,  when  it  re- 
sulted in  an  open  rupture  between  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor  of 
Germany.  The  emperors  claimed  and  for  a  long  time  exercised 
the  right  of  investiture,  that  is  the  right  of  bestowing  on  bishops 
and  abbots  the  ring  and  the  staff,  which  were  the  symbols  of  their 
office.  The  bishops  on  whom  office  was  thus  bestowed  really  be- 
came vassals  of  the  emperor  and  naturally  sided  with  him  in  all 
cases  of  dispute.  7/ildebrand,  who  was  crowned  Pope  Gregory 
VII,  1073  A.  D.,  determined  to  deprive  the  emperors  of  the  right 
of  investiture.  He  had  it  proclaimed  by  a  general  council,  that  if 
any  one  should  accept  investiture  from  a  layman,  both  the  giver  and 
receiver  should  be  excommunicated. 

237.  Henry  IV,  Emperor  of  Germany  and  Italy  (the  latter 
nominally),  openly  defied  this  decree.  Gregory  absolved  Ucnry^s 
subjects  from  their  allegiance.  Henry  prepared  for  war,  but  to  his 
consternation  found  that  his  German  subjects  refused  to  fight 
for  a  monarch  who  was  under  the  ban  of  the  Pope  and  by  the 
logic  of  llic  times  consequently  under  the  ban  of  God.  The  Italian 
cities  and  bishops  offered  Henry  ample  assistance,  but  he  preferred 
to  undergo  the  most  humiliating  penance,  and  receive  the  papal 
absolution.  Ik-  stood  for  three  days  and  nights  in  the  dead  of  win- 
ter in  an  open  court  barefoot  and  with  no  clothing  but  a  woolen 
shirt.  This  degradation  of  the  greatest  monarch  of  bis  time  did 
not  avail  to  prevent  strife.  The  Lombards  were  indignant. 
Henry  besieged  Rome  and  committed  terrible  devastation.  Greg- 
ory was  obliged  to  <^o  into  exile. 

238.  During  its  early  career  the  power   o(  the  papacy  and  the 


2M  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

church  was  without  doubt  oftenest  exerted  in  behalf  of  the  right 
and  in  defence  of  the  oppressed.  The  tierce  spirits  of  the  times 
were  restrained  as  they  could  he  by  no  other  means. 

At  one  period  the  church  in  Fiance  proclaimed  a  truce  ij  God. 
This  began  Wednesday  evening  and  vnded  Monday  morning. 
The  Emperor  of  Germany  ordered  its  observance,  and  for  a  time 
all  hostility  ceased.  But  later,  in  the  plenitude  and  arrogance  of 
its  power  Popery  became  one  of  the  most  merciless  and  cruel  des- 
pot ivms  of  which  the  world  has  furnished  an  example.  It  stirred 
up  the  crusade  which  destroyed  the  peaceful  Albigenscs  in  the 
south  of  France  (1226).  It  hunted  the  Vaudois  of  the  Piedmont 
valleys  like  wild  beasts.  It  fired  Spanish  big, .try  to  make  war  on 
the  people  of  the  Netherlands,  and  attempted  to  crush  the  stout- 
hearted, liberty-loving  Dutch.  It  established  the  Inquisition  which 
racked,  tortured  and  burned  the  bodies  of  its  victims  for  opinion's 
sake.     It  opposed  real  liberty  and  true  progress. 

After  the  Reformation  (1520)  the  influence  of  the  Pope 
gradually  declined.  His  te?nporal  power  ended  in  1870,  when 
Victor  Emanuel,  King  of  Italy,  took  possession  of  the  "  States  of 
the  Church." 

THE    CRUSADES. 

239.  For  two  hundred  years  the  most  important  events  in  the 
history  of  Europe  were  the  crusades.  They  had  their  origin  in  a 
desire' on  the  part  of  Christians  to  rescue  Palestine  from  the  Ma- 
hometans. The  word  crusade,  from  the  French  eroi.x  (cross) 
means  a  war  for  the  cross.  It  was  the  custom  among  pious  Chris- 
tians to  perform  pilgrimages  to  the  holy  sepulcher  at  Jerusalem. 
The  Saracens  had  allowed  these  pilgrims  to  visit  that  country  in 
peace,  but  when  Palestine  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  near 
the  close  of  the  11th  century  (see  Sec.  219)  the  pilgrims  were 
subjected  to  many  indignities  and  scoffed  at  as  unbelieving 
dogs. 

240.  Peter  the  Hermit,  a  French  monk,  returned  from  the 
pilgrimage  and  received  the  sanction  of  Pope  Urban  II  to  preach 
a  crusade.  He  traveled  over  Europe  speaking  everywhere  to  mul- 
titudes, and  aroused  popular  enthusiasm  to  a  high  pitch.  Two 
councils  of  the  church  were  called  and  a  crusade  was  determined 
on,  1095.  It  was  agreed  that  a  red  eross  worn  on  the  breast  or 
shoulder  should  be  the  badge  of  the  crusaders. 

241.  In  the  spring  of  1 096  a  rabble  consisting  of  250,000 
men,  women  and  children,  unarmed,  and  without  supplies,  set  out 
to  march  through  Europe  and  Asia  to  Palestine.  They  plundered 
the  people  of  tin-  country  through  which  they  passed.  The  en- 
raged peasantry  dispersed  them  and  slaughtered  them  by  thou- 
sands. A  miserable  remnant  crossed  the  Bosphorus  and  were  cut 
to  pieces  by  the  Turks. 


iiiSTonr.  295 

242.  The  flower  of  European  chivalry  followed,  600,000 
strong,  under  various  leaders,  chief  of  whom  were  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon  and  Robert,  Duke  of"  Normandy.  The  cavalry  formed 
the  choicest  part  of  this  grand  army.  It  consisted  of  100,000  men, 
knights,  squires  and  attendants.  They  wore  beautifully  embroid- 
ered and  ermined  surcoats  and  glittered  in  polished  armor. 

243.  The  first  engagement  was  at  Nice  (Nicaea)  in  Asia 
Minor,  which  city  was  captured.  At  Dory lse ' urn  the  Sultan  of 
Roum  attacked  the  crusaders  with  an  immense  cavalry  force  esti- 
mated at  300,000.  In  close  conflict  the  light-armed  soldiers  of  the 
East  could  not  withstand  the  heavy  blows  of  the  strong-armed, 
well-disciplined  Europeans.  The  Turks  were  defeated  with  a  loss 
of  30,000. 

244.  The  crusaders  continued  their  march  to  Antioch,  incur- 
ring terrible  losses  from  the  heat  of  the  desert,  famine,  and  the 
enemy.  The  march  was  begun  with  100,000  horses,  but  only 
2,000  remained  when  Antioch  surrendered,  June,  1098.  The  city 
was  besieged  for  seven  months  and  only  surrendered  through  the 
treachery  of  a  Syrian  officer.  A  force  of  200,000  Mohammedans, 
sent  by  the  Sultan  of  Persia,  arrived  to  assist  the  city,  and 
the  Christians  were  now  besieged  in  turn.  The  Mohamme- 
dans were  driven  off  finally,  but  of  the  600,000  crusaders  there  re- 
mained only  1,500  cavalry,  20,000  foot  and  an  equal  number  of 
camp  followers. 

245.  Jerusalem  was  stormed  by  Godfrey,  July,  1098,  after  a 
siege  of  five  weeks.  The  Jews  were  burned  in  their  synagogues 
and  70,000  Moslems  massacred. 

246.  The  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem  was  formed,  with 
Godfrey  as  king,  and  the  first  crusade  closed. 

A  Second  Crusade  (1147-1149)  was  organized  to  assist  the 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  which  was  hard  pressed  by  the  Saracens. 
Conrad  III,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  Louis  VII,  of  France,  led 
300,000  choice  troops.  The  Emperor  was  defeated  in  Asia  and 
his  army  nearly  annihilated.  A  small  remnant  of  the  two  armies 
succeeded  in  reaching  Jerusalem,  hut  accomplished  nothing. 

247.  A  Third  Crusade  (1189-1  192)  was  led  by  Richard  I,  of 
England  (Richard  the  lion-hearted),  Philip  Augustus,  of  France, 
and  Frederick  Barbarrossa  (Red-beard)  of  Germany.  The  Em- 
peror was  drowned  while  bathing  in  a  little  stream  in  Cilicia.  His 
army  fell  into  disorder  and  suffered  terrible  losses. 

248.  The  English  and  French  went  by  sea  to  Acre,  where 
they  were  joined  by  the  remnant  of  the  Germans.  Acre  was 
taken  (1191)  after  numerous  battles  and  a  siege  of  twenty-three 
months.  The  leader  of  the  Saracens  in  this  war  was  the  cele- 
brated Sal'adin,  a  brave,  chivalrous  and  generous  soldier.  He  had 
united  the  .Saracens  from  the  Nile  to  the  Euphrates  and  his  power 
was  well  nigh  invincible.      The   leaders  of  the  crusaders  quarreled 


396  TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

among  themselves,  and  Richard  remained  to  continue  the  war. 
lie  soon  made  favorable  terms  of  peace  with  Saladin,  who  greatly 
admired   him. 

Several  other  crusades  took  place  but  they  were  all  barren  of 
results.  Gradually  the  Mohammedans  regained  the  whole  of  Pal- 
estine. 

249.  Influence  of  the  Crusades. — Though  the  crusades  failed 
in  their  immediate  object  their  influence  on  Europe  was  great  and 
lasting.     The  results  may  he  summarized: — 

(i)     The  transportation  of  supplies    by  sea  gave  rise  to   a  prosperous  coin 
merce  which  proved  permanent.     The  taste  for  oriental  spices,  silks,  and  othei 
productions  led  to  that  interchange  of  products  which  is  so  necessary  to  modern 
civilization. 

(2)  The  intermingling  of  so  many  different  nations  tended  to  break  up 
local  prejudices.  Men  learned  to  respect  the  people  of  other  countries.  Eu- 
ropeans learned  that  even  the  reviled  Moslems  were  as  brave,  generous,  and 
polished  as  themselves. 

(3)  The  crusades  contributed  much  to   the  breaking  up   of  the  feudal  sya 
tern.     The  great  barons  incurred  such  expense    in   fitting  out  their  forces  that 
many  were  obliged  to  dispose   of  a  portion  of  their  lands   to  free  themselves 
from  debt.     The  long  wars  broke  their  power,  and  thenceforth  the  nation  began 
to  prevail  over  its  great  subjects. 

(4)  Thev  promoted  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  by  bringing  the  civilization 
of  the  Saracens  and  Greeks  in  contact  with  that  of  Western  Europe. 

(5)  Lastly  but  not  least,  a  multitude  of  robbers,  murderers  and  thieves 
went  for  the  sake  of  pardon  or  plunder,  and  never  returned. 

CIVILIZATION    OF    THE     MIDDLli    AGES. 

250.  From  the  fall  of  Rome  to  the  close  of  the  nth  century 
was  a  period  in  which  ignorance  and  superstition  reigned  supreme, 
hence  this  time  is  often  called  the  «  Dark  Ages."  The  universal 
ignorance  of  the  Dark  Ages  depended  on  several  causes.  All  the 
knowledge  of  Western  and  Southern  Europe  had  been  in  the 
Latin  Language.  When  the  dominion  of  Rome  ended,  her  lan- 
guage became  corrupted  so  rapidly  by  the  influx  of  foreigners  and 
the  absence  of  instruction  that  it  soon  ceased  to  be  spoken  by  the 
common  people.  Latin  necessarily  continued  to  be  the  language 
in  which  the  laxvs  were  written  and  in  which  all  legal  business 
was  transacted.  It  also  continued  to  be  the  language  of  the  church 
and  of  the  educated  classes.  The  modern  languages  then  forming 
were  deemed  unworthy  of  culture.  No  hooks  were  written  in 
them  and  the  masses  of  the  people  were  thus  effectually  cut  oil' 
from  all  means  of  learning. 

251.  Learning  was  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  clergy 
and  the  monks.  Even  kings  could  not  write  their  own  names. 
Monasteries  were  numerous,  and  though  monkish  learning  was  not 
inventive  it  was  preservative,  and  to  the  church  we  owe  most  that 
remains  to  us   of  ancient  knowledge. 

252.  Another  cause  of  the  prevailing  ignorance  was  the  e\- 
pensiveness  of  hooks   and   their  consequent  scarcity.     Papy'rus, 


HTSTORT.  297 

which  had  been  imported  from  Egypt,  became  very  clear  when 
that  country  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens.  Parchment  was  the 
only  available  material,  and  books  became  so  costly  that  only 
wealthy  persons  could  afford  them.  In  some  cases  the  loan  of  a 
book  was  a  transaction  of  such  importance  that  the  person  borrow- 
ing was  obliged  to  give  a   heavy  bond  for  its  safe  return. 

253.  The  ignorance  of  the  times  grave  rise  to  the  grossest  su- 
perstition.  The  trial  of 'battle  was  universal.  By  this  custom  an 
accused  person  was  obliged  to  fight  his  accuser.  Prisoners  were 
obliged  lo  undergo  the  ordeal,  that  is,  handle  red-hot  iron,  walk  on 
red-hot  plowshares,  etc.  It  was  believed  that  the  innocent 
would  escape  all  these  trials  unharmed. 

254.  The  common  people  were  poor  and  the  wealth  of  the 
nobility  was  comparatively  insignificant  compared  with  Roman 
times  or  our  own  day.  The  rich  everywhere  as  a  rule  oppressed 
the  poor.  The  upper  classes  owned  everything,  the  people  were 
little  better  than  slaves.  Clannishness  and  suspicion  of  foreigners 
prevailed.  The  Jews  were  universally  despised  and  persecuted. 
Slavery  died  hard  and  only  disappeared  at  a  comparatively  modern 
date.  Horrible  atrocities  were  usually  committed  in  war.  The 
people  were  often  brutal  to  a  degree  beyond  credence. 

255.  The  conveniences  of  life  were  few  and  simple.  Labor- 
saving  machinery  was  little  used.  Stoves,  carpets,  china  ware,  etc., 
were  unknown,  even  to  the  rich.  Chimneys  came  into  use  about 
the  15th  century.  Glass  windows  were  introduced  into  England 
in  the  12th  century  and  were  taxed  as  a  luxury  for  a  long  time. 
Time  was  measured  by  means  of  sun-dials,  though  Alfred  the 
Great  devised  a  system  of  measuring  the  hours  by  means  of  burn- 
ing candles.  Haroun  al  Raschid  presented  Charlemagne  a  clock  at 
the  end  of  the  Sth  century. 

256.  The  only  really  great  works  of  the  middle  ages  were 
the  cathedrals.  In  the  nth,  12th,  13th  and  14th  centuries  these 
splendid  edifices  rose  all  over  Europe.  Some  of  them  occupied 
from  one  to  two  or  more  centuries  in  building:.  Some  of  the 
most  noted  of  these  great  churches  are  the  cathedrals  of  Stras- 
burg,  Milan,  Cologne,  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  St.  Paul's  at 
London. 

257.  Revival. — One  of  the  earliest  signs  of  advancing  civili- 
zation  was  the  springing  up  of  cities.  These  were  all  zcallcd,  and 
thus  afforded  security  to  life  and  property.  They  fostered  learning 
and  promoted  commerce.  The  influence  of  cities  was  very  great. 
(See  Sec.  215). 

258.  The  Great  Universities  were  another  means  of  stimulat- 
ing the  intellectual  growth  of  the  period.  These  great  schools  be- 
came popular  to  a  degree  almost  incredible  to  us  of  the  present  time. 
The  University  of  Oxford  was  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Alfred  in  the  9th  centurv.      In    the  12th   century  it  had  3,000  stu- 


TEACHERS   AND  STUDENTS  LIBRART. 

dents.      In  the  12th  century   the  University  of  Bologna  had  10,000 
student-.      In  the  15th,  the  University  of  Paris  had  25,000. 

259.  A  New  Literature  began  t<>  spring  up  in  French,  Span- 
ish, Italian,  and  German  about  the  time  of  the  crusades.  Chaucer, 
the  lather  of  English  literature,  was  born  1328. 

There  was  little  worthy  of  the  name  of  science  in  the 
middle  ages.  Some  of  the  arithmetics  consisted  of  less  than  a 
dozen  pages.  The  Arabic  notation  was  introduced  from  Spain  in 
the    10th    century.        Al'chcmv    was    universal    and    gave    rise    to 

chemistry. 

260.  Inventions. — The  mariner's  compass,  gunpowder  and 
cannon  came  into  use  early  in  the  14th  century.  (See  Sec.  207. 
The  invention  of  printing  from  movable  types  is  claimed  both 
by  the  Dutch  and  Germans.  The  latter  seem  to  have  the 
best  grounds  for  claiming  the  invention.  (in' tenburg,  a  German, 
printed  a  quarto  Bible  some  time  between  1450  and  1455.* 

MODERN    HISTORY    PROPER. 

261.  As  stated  before,  modern  history  may  for  convenience 
be  divided  into  the  middle  ages  and  modern  history  proper.  The 
latter  period  begins  about  1450  A.  D.  The  great  inventions, 
the  general  spirit  of  enterprise  and  the  rapid  dawn  of  enlighten- 
ment fix  the  15th  century  as  the  true  dividing  line. 

262.  The  Great  Powers  have  heretofore  been  England. 
France,  The  German  Empire,  TJie  Italian  Cities,  The  Greek 
Empire,  The  Eastern  Saracens,  or  their  successors,  the  Turks, 
and  The  Saracens  of  Spain,  called  Moors.  Besides  these  the 
Pope  exercised  a  sort  of  general  spiritual  and  temporal  power. 
The  Christian  kingdoms  of  Spain,  Aragou,  Castile  and  Navarre 
were  rising  into  power,  as  were  also  Sweden,  Poland  and 
Russia. 

263.  Important  changes  in  the  political  map  of  Europe  took 
place  at  the  beginning  of  the  modern  period.  The  capture  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Turks  (1453)  ended  the  Greek  Empire. 
The  capture  of  Grenada  (1492)  ended  the  decayed  Moorish  king- 
dom in  Spain.  The  nations  of  Europe  began  to  assume  largely 
their  present  boundaries. 

264.  Maritime  Enterprise. — A  period  of  great  maritime  ac- 
tivity began  near  the  close  of  the  15th  century.  The  great  events 
were  the  Discovery  of  America  by  Columbus  (149-)  under  the 
auspices  of  Spain  and  the  doubling  of  the  Cape  of  (iood  Hope  by 
Vasco  de  Gama,  a  Portuguese  navigator  ( 1498).  The  leaders  in 
maritime  discoveries  were  the  Spanishand  Portuguese,  followed  by 
the  English,  Dutch,  brench,  Swedes  and  others. 


•  Acopyofthh  BibU  in  excellent  pn  was  sold  for  $S,ooo  at  the  Brinley  book  sale 

..•  II  irtford,  1  "nn.,  April  11,1 


HISTORT.  299 

GREAT    EVENTS    OF    THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 


/.      The.  Reformation. 

265.  In  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  papacy 
was  in  the  zenith  of  its  power.  All  Europe,  except  Turkey  and 
Russia,  was  Roman  Catholic.  But  prosperity  had  begotten  nu- 
merous abuses.  One  of  the  most  flagrant  of  these  was  the  sale  of 
indulgences  (which  absolved  the  holder,  on  payment  of  a  specified 
sum,  not  only  from  sins  committed  but  even  from  sins  which  he  in- 
tended to  commit).  This  afforded  a  large  revenue  to  the  depleted 
papal  treasury.  Tctzc/y  who  was  agent  for  the  sale  of  indulgences 
in  Germany,  carried  on  the  traffic  in  a  manner  especially  odious. 

266.  Martin  Luther,  professor  of  theology  in  the  University 
of  Wittenberg,  opposed  the  traffic  and  vainly  sought  to  have  it 
suppressed.  He  appealed  to  the  people  and  published  ( 1 517) 
ninety-five  theses  condemning  the  sale  of  indulgences  as  con- 
trary to  reason  and  Scripture.  Pope  Leo  X  issued  a  /W/ (decree) 
declaring  Luther  excommunicated  and  his  theses  heretical.  Luther 
burned  the  bull  in  the  presence  of  a  multitude  at  Wittenberg. 
This  act  declared  open  war  between  the  papacy  and  the  Reform- 
ers (1520). 

267.  The  cause  of  Luther  was  now  openly  espoused  by  Fred- 
erick, Elector  of  Saxony.  Other  German  princes  followed,  and 
the  Reformation  soon  acquired  great  political  power. 

268.  Leo  X  determined  to  crush  the  new  doctrines,  and  ap- 
pealed to  Charles  V,  Emperor  of  Germany,  to  cany  out.  this 
design.  Charles  V  was  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  his  time. 
He  was  a  son  of  Philip,  Archduke  of  Austria,  and  Joanna,  daughter 
of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  sovereigns  of  Spain.  He  inherited  the 
crown  of  Austria,  the  government  of  Flanders  and  of  Spain, 
which  latter  included  Naples,  Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  a  large  part  of 
America.  In  addition  to  all  this  he  had  been  elected  Emperor  of 
Germany. 

269.  This  powerful  monarch  determined  to  crush  the  Reforma- 
tion. He  summoned  the  German  Diet  (the  Princes  of  the  Em- 
pire) to  meet  at  Worms,  and  ordered  Luther  to  appear  before  it 
under  "  safe  conduct."  Luther  was  asked  to  retract,  but  boldly 
refused  to  do  so.  He  was  then  declared  a  heretic.  The  new  doc- 
trines rapidly  spread  into  Switzerland,  France,  England,  Scotland, 
and  in  fact  all  Northern  Europe. 

270.  In  1529  the  Diet  of  Spires  renewed  the  outlawry  of 
Luther,  and  the  condemnation  of  his  doctrines.  Seven  princes 
and  fifteen  cities  protested  against  this  decree.  From  that  time 
the  reformers  were  called  Protestants.  The  most  important  feat- 
ures of  the  new  church  were: 


:;<hi  TEACHERS'  AXD  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

(  i  )    Abolition   of    monastic  orders  and   the-   celibacy    of  the 
clergj . 

(.2  J    Divine  service  in  the  language  of  the   country. 
(3j    Distribution  of  the  Bible  to  all. 

271.  The  Pope  and  the  emperor  waged  war  against  the 
Protestants,  and  the  contest  continued,  with  intervals  of  peace,  for 
many  years.  Finally  the  treaty  of  Augsburg  (1555)  granted  re- 
ligious liberty  to  the  Protestant  .States  of  Germany. 

272.  The  Reformation  in  England  was  hugely  influenced  by 
the  course  of  Henry  VIII.  That  monarch  wrote  a  vigorous 
article  attempting  to  refute  the  arguments  of  Luther.  I  lis  zeal  ob- 
tained for  him  the  title  of  Defender  of  tlic  Faith,  conferred  by  the 
Pope.  Henry  was  a  tyrannical  hut  very  energetic  king.  lie  had 
many  family  troubles,  having  married  six  wives  in  succession,  two  of 
whom  were  beheaded,  two  divorced,  and  one  died.  The  sixth  out- 
lived him.  In  the  case  of  the  first  wife,  Katharine  of  Aragon,  the 
Pope  feared  to  grant  a  divorce  lest  he  might  offend  Charles  V, 
nephew  of  Katharine.  Henry  proceeded  without  the  Pope's  consent. 
The  breach  widened  until  Parliament  declared  Henry  the  Supreme 
Head  of  the  Church  (  1534).  The  king  then  seized  all  the  church 
property  of  the  kingdom  and  appropriated  its  revenues  to  his  own 
use. 

2.      Rise  of  the  Patch   Republic. 

273.  The  Netherlands  belonged  to  Spain  at  the  time  of  the 
Reformation.  The  teachings  of  Luther  took  deep  root  among  the 
Dutch.  These  people  had  by  frugality,  industry  and  patience  he- 
come  wealthy.  Their  cities  wire  the  busy  centers  of  an  immense 
commerce.  The  Dutch  sailors  at  one  time  were  the  best  in  Europe. 
The  heresy  of  the  Dutch  excited  the  hatred  of  Philip  II.,  king  of 
Spain,  and  their  wealth  excited  his  rapacity. 

274.  The  Dutch  became  restive  under  .Spanish  rule,  and  re- 
volted ^1567)  on  the  introduction  of  the  Inquisition.  The  notorious 
Duke  of  Alva  was  sen!  by  Philip  to  rule  the  country.  lie  and  his 
"Blood  Council  "  tried,  condemned  and  beheaded  by  the  whole- 
sale. Tlie  Inquisition  was  a  sort  of  ecclesiastical  court  organized 
to  try  persons  charged  with  heresy.  Accusation  was  usually  equiv- 
alent to  condemnation.  This  bloody  court  first  tortured  its  un- 
happy victims  with  all  the  diabolical  devices  known  to  those  skilled 
in  this  hideous  calling.  The  accused  was  then  usually  burned  at  the 
stake  unless  he  openly  recanted. 

275.  The  heroic  Dutch  made  a  determined  resistance.  They 
were  led  by  "William  the  Silent,"  of  Nassau,  Prince  of  Orange, 
who  led  an  army  to  their  assistance.  This  admirable  man  and 
brave  soldier  was  assassinated  by  the  treacherous  Spaniards.  The 
Dutch  were  gradually  being  overpowered,  when  Elizabeth,  queen 
of  England,  sent  6,000  men  to    their  assistance.         The    war   finally 


H1STORT.  301 

ended  (1609)  after  raging  for  nearly  forty  years.     Spain  practically 
acknowledged  the  independence  of  the  Netherlands. 

j.     Religious    Wars  of  France. 

276.  Protestantism  had  spread  widely  in  France.  The  Pro- 
testants were  called  Huguenots.  After  the  death  of  Francis  II, 
the  great  rival  of  Charles  V,  the  French  kings  were  feeble  sov- 
ereigns who  were  ruled  by  Papal  intrigue  and  the  counsels  of  the 
powerful  nobility,  the  chief  leaders  of  whom  were  the  Guises.  The 
Guises  and  Catherine  de  Medici  {Med' e-cAe),  mother  of  Francis 
II,  determined  to  extirpate  Protestantism. 

277.  The  Princes  of  Bourbon,  who  were  of  the  royal  blood, 
became  jealous  of  the  Guise  faction.  One  of  these  Bourbons,  the 
Prince  of  Conde,  espoused  the  Huguenot  cause.  Another  Hu- 
guenot leader  was  Admiral  Coligny  \Kol-leen-ye'  ).  A  petty  skir- 
mish between  the  Catholics  and  Huguenots  at  the  little  town  of 
Vassy  precipitated  war,  1562,  which  continued  with  brief  intervals 
until  1570,  when  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed. 

278.  Henry,  King  of  Navarre,  had  been  one  of  the  chief  lead- 
ers of  the  Huguenots.  He  was  heir  to  the  crown  of  France  after 
the  sons  of  Henry  II.  To  cement  the  peace,  Henry  of  Navarre 
married  Margaret,  sister  of  Charles  IX,  the  reigning  king,  who 
was  one  of  the  sons  of  Henry  II. 

279.  Catherine  de  Medici,  the  queen-mother,  was  ambitious 
and  notorious  in  the  art  of  intrigue  so  peculiar  to  her  country.  She 
soon  became  jealous  of  the  influence  the  Huguenots  were  obtain- 
ing over  the  weak-minded  Charles  IX.  A  plot  was  formed  to 
crush  the  Protestants  by  a  general  massacre. 

280.  The  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  began  on  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Eve,  Aug.  24,  1572.  All  was  arranged  beforehand. 
The  conspirators  wore  badges  by  which  they  might  be  recognized. 
The  dreadful  work  began  on  the  ringing  of  the  bells,  when  all 
Paris  was  wrapped  in  slumber.  The  victims  in  the  city  were  es- 
timated as  high  as  10,000.  By  royal  order  the  massacre  was  ex- 
tended to  the  provinces,  where  probably  30,000  more  were  slain. 
Coligny  was  murdered  in  bed,  and  Henry  IV  only  escaped  by  at- 
tending maw, 

281.  The  Huguenots  flew  to  arms,  ami  war  raged  for  two 
years.  The  Protestants  were  finally  overpowered.  Henry  IV 
on  ascending  the  throne  in  1578  granted  them  full  religious  liberty, 
in  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  He  had  been  obliged  to  fight  for  his 
throne  against  domestic  enemies  leagued  with  Spain.  lie  linall\ 
became  a  Catholic. 

4.     Reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

282.  Elizabeth  of  England,  called  the  "Virgin  Queen,"  was 
a  daughter  of  Henry  VIII    of  the     Tudor  line.      Her   mother   was 


302  TEACHERS'  A  YD   STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 

Henry's  second  wife,  Anne  Boleyn  (Bui' in).  Henry's  divorce 
from  his  first  wife  was  considered  illegal  by  the  Catholics.  That 
party  regarded  Elizabeth  as  illegitimate  and  a  usurper.  They 
considered  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  who  was  a  great-granddaughter 
of  Henry  VII,  in  the  female  line,  as  rightful  heir  to  the  crown  of 
England.  The  unfortunate  Mary  was  imprisoned  for  eighteen 
years.  The  Catholics  plotted  in  her  favor.  Her  claim  to  the 
crown  caused  no  end  of  trouble,  and  finally  the  beautiful  captive 
was  beheaded  (1587). 

283.  Elizabeth  was  looked  upon  as  the  chief  leader  and  stay 
of  the  imperiled  Protestant  cause.  The  execution  of  Mary  in- 
flamed the  Catholics  of  Europe  beyond  endurance.  Philip  II 
of  Spain  was  rightfully  considered  the  leader  of  the  Catholic 
cause  in  Europe.  His  immense  domains  exceeded  those  of 
his  father,  Charles  V  (see  Sec.  268).  He  determined  to  crush 
England. 

284.  The  Invincible  Armada. — Philip,  advised  and  aided  by 
the  Pope,  at  once  began  to  put  into  execution  the  scheme  which 
had  been  in  preparation  for  several  years.  The  great  fleet  con- 
sisted of  150  ships  of  all  sizes,  3,000  cannon,  and  20,000  men,  com- 
manded by  the  Duke  of  Medina-Sidonia.  A  land  force  of  34,000 
men,  with  a  fleet  of  transports,  assembled  at  Dunkirk,  France,  to 
co-operate.  The  Spanish  ships  were  large  and  good.  All  the 
equipments  were  perfect. 

285.  The  English  vessels  were  much  smaller,  but  active  and 
well  manned.  They  were  actively  assisted  by  a  considerable  fleet 
of  Dutch  ships,  all  commanded  by  Lord  Howard.  The  Armada 
sailed  up  the  Channel  in  fine  style.  The  English  attacked  the 
Spanish  fleet  and  captured  a  few  vessels.  The  Spaniards  prudently 
assumed  the  defensive.  After  several  days  of  uninterrupted  suc- 
cess the  English  and  Dutch  drove  the  Spaniards  into  the  harbor  of 
Calais  for  refuge  (July,  1588).  Here  they  were  attacked  by  fire- 
ships. 

286.  The  Spanish  commander  now  attempted  to  return  home 
by  sailing  round  the  north  of  Scotland.  Here  the  fleet  was  over- 
taken by  a  dreadful  storm.  Only  one-third  of  the  proud  Invincible 
Armada  returned  to  Spain.  The  triumph  of  Protestantism  was 
complete. 

287.  The  reign  of  Elizabeth  lasted  forty-five  years.  It  was  a 
brilliant  period  for  England  at  home  and'  abroad.  Wealth  in- 
creased rapidly.  The  upper  classes  began  to  wear  fine  clothes 
and  jewels.  Coaches  came  into  use  in  London.  Manufactures 
throve  and  commerce  was  greatly  extended  with  other  countries. 
Literature  reached  its  golden  age  in  the  immortal  works  of  Shakes- 
peare.  Hardy  explorers  carried  the  English  flag  to  every  part  of 
the  earth. 


II  1ST  DRY.  303 

GREAT  EVENTS  OF  THE  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY. 


I.     England  under  the  Stuarts. 

288.  Elizabeth  was  succeeded  by  James  Stuart,  king  of  Scot- 
land, and  son  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  He  was  crowned  as  James 
I.  Thus  England  and  Scotland  were  practically  united  after 
centuries  of  warfare.  James  was  an  accomplished  scholar,  but  he 
lacked  the  political  foresight  to  note  the  more  liberal  tendencies  of 
the  times.  He  firmly  believed  in  the  "  Divine  right  of  Kings." 
His  reign  was  uneventful. 

289.  Charles  II  was  the  son  of  James.  He  inherited  the  ex- 
ploded notions  about  the  sacred  prerogatives  of  kings,  and  firmly 
believed  his  right  to  rule  England  was  limited  only  by  his  own  in- 
clinations. 

290.  Charles  needed  money  to  carry  on  a  war  with  Spain. 
Parliament  refused  to  grant  funds.  Charles  proceeded  to  raise 
money  by  various  illegal  taxes.  Discontent  grew,  and  the  king 
was  obliged  to  sign  a  bill  called  the  Petition  of  Right,  defining 
and  limiting  the  powers  of  the  king.  Matters  grew  gradually 
worse  for  several  years.  It  was  a  dark  day  for  Protestantism  in 
Europe.  The  English  people  thoroughly  detested  Popery,  and 
Archbishop  Laud,  head  of  the  English  church,  introduced  customs 
which  tended  toward  Catholicism.  The  people  were  inflamed, 
and  many  Puritans  emigrated  to  America  to  escape  persecution. 
The  Scotch  openly  rebelled.  In  1640  the  celehrated  Long  Par- 
liament resolved  to  place  a  permanent  check  on  royal  authority.* 
A  bill  was  passed  enacting  that  Parliament  should  be  convened 
at  least  once  every  three  years.  Another  bill  declared  that  Parlia- 
ment could  not  be  dissolved  without  its  own  consent.  Charles 
acquiesced,  and  apparently  all  difficulties  were  ended  (1641). 

291.  Charles  soon  after  attempted  to  overawe  Parliament  by 
demanding  five  of  its  most  obnoxious  members.  They  were  not 
given  up.  The  king  left  London  and  retired  to  York,  where  he 
had  previously  withdrawn.  Nothing  remained  but  civil  war.  The 
clergy  and  nobility  sided  with  the  king.  This  party  were  called 
the  Cavaliers.  The  tradesmen  and  country  people,  with  a  few  of 
the  nobility,  sided  with  Parliament.  This  party  were  called 
Roundheads  in  derision  of  the  Puritans,  who  wore  their  hair 
closely  cropped. 

292.  Oliver  Cromwell,  a  Parliamentary  general,  soon  became 
the  most  prominent  figure  engaged  in  the  war.  He  was  a  plain, 
blunt  countryman  who  soon  rose  from  the  rank  of  captain  to  that 
of  commander-in-chief.    Hostilities  lasted  from  1642  to  1647.    Two 


*  So  called  because  it  sat  thirteen  years. 


304  TEACHERS'   AND   STUDENTS'    LIBRARY. 

of  the  greatest  battles  were  at  Marston  Moor  and  Nase'by^  both  of 
which  were  royalist  defeats.  Charles  surrendered  himself  a  pris- 
oner 1 647.  He  was  tried  by  a  high  court  organized  for  the  pur- 
pose, declared  guilty  of  treason  and  beheaded,  Jan.  30,  1649. 

293.  After  the  death  of  the  king  the  popular  party  split  into 
various  factions.  Cromwell  finally  turned  Parliament  out  of  doors 
with  a  troop  of  soldiers.  A  now  Parliament  declared  him  Lord 
Protector  of  the  Commonwealth.  His  power  was  now  absolute. 
His  administration  was  vigorous  and  successful.  He  subdued  Ire- 
land and  awed  the  ambitious  Catholic  powers.  Cromwell's  last 
years  were  unhappy.  He  lived  in  the  fear  of  assassination  and 
died  at  the  age  of  sixty,  Sept.  3,  165S.  His  son  Richard  succeeded 
him,  hut  resigned  in  live  months. 

294.  The  Restoration. — Charles  II  was  invited  back  from  the 
continent  (1660)  with  every  demonstration  of  joy.  He  proved  one 
of  the  most  dissolute  kings  of  any  age,  and  the  people  were  not 
slow  to  copy  his  manners.  Still,  the  country  prospered,  and  he 
avoided  any  conflict  with  the  people. 

295.  James  II  succeeded  Charles.  He  was  a  thorough  tyrant 
and  a  devoted  Catholic,  and  soon  became  odious  to  the  people.  He 
was  driven  out  of  England  (1688).  His  son-in-law,  William 
Prince  of  Orange,  md  Mary  his  wife,  were  crowned  as  joint  sov- 
ereigns.     This  is  called  "the  glorious  Revolution  of   16SS." 

2.       The    Thirty   Years'    War. 

296.  The  great  religious  struggle  which  had  followed  the 
Reformation  in  Germany  was  destined  to  break  out  afresh.  Al- 
though still  nominally  :i  war  in  the  name  of  religion,  its  causes 
were  largely  political,  and  it  eventually  involved  most  of  the 
nations  of  Europe. 

297.  The  direct  cause  of  the  war  was  the  persecution  of  Prot- 
estants by  Ferdinand,  king  of  Bohemia.  Ferdinand  became  em- 
peror in  1619.  The  Bohemians  revolted  and  chose  Frederick, 
elector  of  Palatine,  a  Protestant,  as  their  king.  Frederick  was 
beaten,  and  lost  not  only  Bohemia  hut  his  own  dominions. 

298.  Ferdinand  now  determined  to  crush  all  the  Protestant 
States.  Christian  I  V  of  Denmark,  led  the  latter,  but  was  obliged 
to  quit  the  field.  Wallenstein,  the  great  imperial  general,  ravaged 
the  Protestant  territories  almost  at  will. 

299.  The  great  Gustavus  Adolphus  ("  The  Lion  of  the 
Noith"),king  of  Sweden,  determined  to  lead  the  Protestant  cause 
in  Europe  (1630  ).  He  found  the  Protestants  divided  among  them- 
selves and  some  of  them  even  turned  traitor  to  their  cause. 
Gustavus  Was  aided  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  prime  minister  of 
France.  He  was  everywhere  successful.  His  last  great  victory 
was  at  Lutzen,  in  Saxony,  1632,  where  he  fell  on  the  field. 

300.  France  now  openly  aided  the  Protestants,  -md    peace  was 


1 1 1ST  OUT.  305 

finally  concluded,  164S,  by  which  the  Protestants  gained  most  they 
contended  for.  The  ravages  of  the  war  were  dreadful.  The  pop- 
ulation of  Germany  decreased  from  30,000,000  to  13,000,000.  Out 
of  500,000  inhabitants  Wuitemburg  had  but  48,000  left.  Landed 
property  sank  to  one-twentieth  its  value.  In  Franconia  priests 
were  ordered  to  marry,  and  all  other  men  were  allowed  two  wives. 
The  morals  of  the  j)eople  were  very  low.  Murder  and  robbery 
prevailed  to  an  alarming  extent. 

J.     Reign  of  Louis  XIV. 

x 

301.  The  reign  of  Louis  XIV  of  France  had  the  extraordi- 
nary length  of  seventy-two  years,  1643-1715.  It  was  a  splendid 
era  for  France,  which  became  the  greatest  power  in  Europe.  But 
the  outward  glitter  of  this  reign  proved  deceptive.  The  wars  and 
court  expenses  of  the  "  grand  monarch "  sapped  the  nation,  and 
Louis  lived  long  enough  to  see  the  affairs  of  France  enveloped  in 
gloom  and  ruined  by  disastrous  defeat. 

302.  Cardinal  Richelieu,  prime  minister  of  France  from  1622 
to  1642,  was  the  greatest  statesman  of  his  time.  He  greatly  in- 
creased the  power  and  territory  of  France.  He  crushed  the 
Huguenots  at  home,  but  assisted  the  Protestants  in  Germany,  in  order 
to  humble  Austria.     His  policy  proved  bad  in  the  end  for  France. 

303.  Louis  attempted  to  conquer  the  Netherlands,  and  formed 
an  alliance  with  England  for  the  purpose.  The  Dutch  bravely  re- 
sisted. England  made  peace  with  them  and  they  were  Assisted  by 
Germany,  Brandenburg  and  Spain.  This  gigantic  contest  lasted 
four  years.  Louis  revoked  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  which  granted 
freedom  of  worship  to  the  Huguenots.  Thousands  of  Protestants 
went  into  exile. 

304.  The  war  of  the  Spanish  succession  resulted  from  Louis 
supporting  the  claims  of  his  grandson  to  the  crown  of  Spain.  This 
would  disturb  the  balance  of  power  by  making  the  Bourbons  of 
France  too  powerful.  England,  Holland  and  Germany  united 
against  France.  At  the  great  battle  of  Blenheim,  1704,  Marl- 
borough, the  English  commander,  and  Prince  Eugene,  of  Austria, 
utterly  defeated  the  French  and  Bavarians.  The  French  lost 
ground  everywhere,  and  peace  ensued  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht 
(f'tnkt)  1  y"i  3. 

305.  Civilization  made  great  progress  during  the  seventeenth 
century,  but  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life  were  few  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  present  day.  The  masses  were  still  ig- 
norant and  superstitious.  The  "Divine  right  of  Kings"  had  re- 
duced the  people  to  a  condition  little  better  than  slavery.  They 
bore  the  burdens  and  fought  the  battles,  while  the  ruling  classes 
took  the  spoils  and  wore  the  honors.  In  France,  especially,  the 
peasantry  were  in  such  a  wretched  condition  that  in  some  cases  they 
begged  to  be  sold  into  slavery,  so  that  their  responsibilities  might 

20 


30ti  TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS'    LIBRART. 

cease.  No  condemnation  is  severe  enough  for  the  abusesof  the  French 
nobility  and  clergy.  Their  lands  and  personal  cflccts  were  actually 
exempt  from  taxation.  In  England  things  were  somewhat  better. 
The  English  laborer  lived  on  coarse  fare,  but  had  much  personal 
freedom.  He  was  ignorant  and  often  brutal.  Wife-heating  was  a 
common  pastime.  Public  schools  were  unknown.  People  trav- 
eled by  stage-coach.  Highwaymen  frequently  robbed  the  pas- 
sengers. 

GREAT       EVENTS      OF      THE       EIGHTEENTH       CENTURY.  —  RUSSIA, 
PRUSSIA,    POLAND,    ENGLAND,    THE    FRENCH    REVOLUTION. 


/.     Russia. 

306.  The  Russians  belong  to  the  Slavonian  race,  of  Aryan 
stock.  The  early  history  of  the  country  is  unimportant.  Russia 
was  overrun  by  the  Tartars  tinder  the  great  Genghis  Khan,  in  the 
13th  century.  The  invaders  held  the  country  for  a  long  time,  and 
the  Russian  Dukes  were  considered  vassals  of  the  Tartar  Khans. 
Ivan  III  (1462-1505  )  reduced  the  Mongols  to  subjection. 

307.  Peter  the  Great  first  gave  Russia  a  name  in  history. 
Seeing  the  ignorance  and  barbarity  of  his  subjects,  he  set  about 
civilizing  them.  He  went  to  Holland  and  studied  ship-building, 
working  as  a  day  laborer.  He  traveled  over  Europe,  carefully 
studying  J:he  laws  and  customs  of  the  people.  He  returned  to 
Russia  and  at  once  began  the  reorganization  of  the  internal  affairs 
of  his  empire.      St.  Peter-burg  was  founded,  and  a  navy  begun. 

308.  Charles  XII  of  Sweden  ("the  madman  of  the  North") 
invaded  Russia  after  having  defeated  the  Poles  and  Danes.  Ik- 
attacked  a  force  of  Russians  ten  times  his  own  army  at  Narva 
(1700)  and  totally  defeated  them.  Charles  haughtily  refused  to 
negotiate  for  peace.  He  penetrated  into  Russia  and  laid  siege  to 
Pulto'  wa  where  he  was  totally  defeated.  Charles  lost  his  entire  army 
and  lied  to  Turkey  with  300  followers.  Peter  continued  successfully 
the  herculean  task  of  civilizing  his  rude  subjects.     He  died  1725. 

2.    Prussia. 

309.  Prussia  was  another  country  which  first  rose  into  import- 
ance in  the  iSth  century.  Frederick' the  Great  who  reigned  from 
1740  to  1786  placed  Prussia  among  the  Great  Powers  of  Europe. 
Frederick  taking  advantage  of  the  difficulties  in  which  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria  was  involved  by  rival  powers  who  claimed  por- 
tions of  her  dominions,  himself  laid  claim  to  Silesia.  He  succeeded 
in  annexing  that  province  to  Prussia  (1742.)  In  a  second  Silesian 
war  Austria  failed  to  wrest  the  province  from  him. 

310.  The  Seven  Years' War  began    1756.     Austria   formed  a 
ecret  treaty  with  Prance,  Russia,  Poland,  Saxony  and  Sweden  for 


HIS  TORT.  307 

the  partition  of  Prussia.  England  alone  sided  with  Prussia.  The 
war  was  a  fierce  one,  but  Frederick  beat  them  all  and  retained  all 
his  territory.     It  is  estimated  that  1,000,000  men  fell  in  this  war. 

j.  Polct7id. 

311.  Poland  became  one  of  the- great  powers  of  Europe  early 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  Under  King  John  Sobieski  they  com- 
pelled the  Turks  to  raise  the  siege  of  Vienna,  1683,  and  thus  saved 
Central  Europe  from  passing  under  the  rule  of  the  Moslem.  But 
Poland  rapidly  declined  and  became  a  prey  to  internal  dissensions 
and  the  rapacity  of  her  neighbors.  An  infamous  agreement  was 
entered  into  between  Austria,  Prussia  and  Russia  by  which  the  greater 
part  of  Poland  was  "partitioned'1''  between  these  powers,  1772.  A 
second  partition  took  place  in  1792,  and  a  third  in  1795  wiped 
Poland  from  the  list  of  nations.  The  unfortunate  Poles  made  a 
gallant  defence  of  their  liberties,  but  in  vain. 

4.  England. 

312.  Queen  Anne  was  the  last  of  the  Stuarts.  She  died  with- 
out heirs  and  the  Guelph  line,  or  House  of  Brunswick  (the  pres- 
ent house)  began  to  reign  (1714).  George  I  was  the  first  of  this 
line,  which  was  descended  in  the  female  line  from  James  I.  There 
were  three  Georges.  The  reign  of  George  the  I  was  a  pacific 
one.  During  the  reign  of  George  II  a  war  was  waged  with  Spain, 
also  the  fruitless  war  of  the  Austrian  succession  ( 1 741  —  1748),  to 
determine  whether  Maria  Theresa  or  Charles  VI  of  Bavaria  should 
succeed  to  the  Austrian  throne.  France  and  Prussia  sided  with 
Charles.  England  espoused  the  cause  of  Maria  who  made  good 
her  claim.  In  1745  Charles  Edward  Stuart  the  Pretender  tried  to 
win  back  the  throne  of  his  ancestors,  but  was  totally  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Cullo' den.  The  history  of  the  reign  of  George  III  is  of 
most  interest  to  Americans,  as  the  A?nerican  Revolution  took 
place  during  his  reign.  The  events  of  this  great  struggle  will  be 
given  in  full  in  the  History  of  the  United  States.  The  French  and 
Indian  war  by  which  France  lost  most  of  her  territories  in  North 
America,  began  in  17=5:5  and  lasted  till  1763.  It  involved  the  Eno-- 
iisn   Colonies. 

313.  Another  very  important  event  of  the  reign  of  George 
III  was  the  British  conquest  of  India,  which  eventuallv  added 
200,000,000  subjects  to  the  dominions  of  Great  Britain.  During 
this  reign  also  occurred  the  long  wars  -with  Napoleon  which  will 
be  more  fully  described  under  the  French  Revolution. 

314.  The  greatest  English  statesman  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury was  William  Pitt  the  "  great  commoner?  He  rose  from  the 
position  of  humble  representative  of  a  small  -borough  to  the  posi- 
tion of  prime  minister  (1756).  His  splendid  genius  was  the  chief 
instrument  in  bringing  England   out  of  the   condition  of  a   beaten 


308  TEACHERS''  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

and  humiliated  power  and  securing  for  her  arms  a  series  of  brilliant 
successes.  His  son  was  made  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in  1784 
at  the  age  of  twenty-five,  and  continued  as  virtual  head  of  the  gov- 
ernment  until  his  death  in   1S06. 

j.    The  French   Revolution. 

315.  Affairs  in  France  had  gradually  grown  worse  ever  since 
the  disastrous  close  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV,  in  1 715.  The 
court  was  usually  influenced  by  intriguing  women.  The  nobility 
and  clergy  were  extravagant,  haughty,  and  given  to  pleasure. 
These  two  classes  together  owned  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  entire 
landed  property  of  France  and  were  exempt  from  all  taxes.  The 
finances  were  in  a  terrible  condition.  The  burdens  of  the  govern- 
ment together  with  the  unjust  exactions  of  a  worn  out  feudalism 
which  still  existed,  could  no  longer  be  borne  by  an  impoverished 
people.  Continuous  costly  wars  sapped  the  life  of  the  nation. 
There  were  growing  signs  of  discontent.  The  writings  of  Voltaire, 
Rousseau  and  other  freethinkers  had  caused  thousands  to  awaken 
to  a  realization  that  something  was  radically  wrong  in  the  social 
fabric.  Finally  the  complete  independence  of  the  United  States, 
achieved  with  the  assistance  of  French  arms,  contrasted  painfully 
with  the  condition  of  the  French  people  themselves.  For  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  France  the  whole  French  people  began 
to  think  for  themselves. 

316.  The  details  of  the  French  Revolution  and  the  wars  of 
Napoleon  arc  very  voluminous,  and  space  will  allow  only  the  brief- 
est synopsis  of  this  the  greatest  revolution  in  the  history  of  the 
world.  Something  must  be  done  in  this  crisis,  and  Louis  XVI  de- 
cided, 1789,10  call  a  meeting  of  the  States  General,  advised  thereto 
by  his  prime  minister,  Necker,  a  prudent  and  able  man.  This 
body,  the  Parliament  of  France,  had  not  met  since  1614.  The 
kings  of  France  had  a  way  of  doing  without  legislatures. 

317.  Trouble  began  at  the  very  outset.  The  States  General 
consisted  of  three  divisions,  the  Nobility, the  Clergy  and  the  Third 
Estate,  or  commons.  The  latter  outnumbered  both  the  others,  and 
knew  its  power.  The  nobility  and  clergy  insisted  on  organizing 
two  houses.  The  Commons  insisted  on  organizing  as  one  body. 
They  sat  in  their  own  chamber  and  invited  the  nobility  and  clergy 
to  join  them.  On  refusal,  the  Third  Estate  declared  itself  the  na- 
tional, assembly.  The  D i(ke  of  Orleans  and  others  of  the  nobility 
and  clergy  joined  the  popular  party. 

318.  The  king  became  alarmed  and  was  undecided.  He  pro- 
rogued the  assembly  for  a  month.  But  their  President,  Bailly, 
.ailed  them  to  the  Tennis  Court  of  the  palace  where  they  resolved 
never  to  adjourn  till  they  gave  France  a  constitution.  Troops 
were  ordered  to  Versailles.  All  Paris  was  in  a  ferment.  The  Na- 
tional Assembly  (now  so  called  instead  of  States  General)  abolished 


HIS  TORT.  30ft 

all  the  odious  feudal  privileges  and  levied  taxes  equally  on  all  classes. 

319.  Enthusiasm  grew.  The  people  broke  open  gun  shops 
and  armed  themselves.  On  a  report  that  soldiers  were  about  to 
turn  the  National  Assembly  out  of  doors,  the  mob  stormed  the 
Bastile,  one  of  the  most  hateful  of  the  French  prisons  where  men 
were  condemned  to  rot  without  trial.  The  governor,  De  Lawny, 
and  his  handful  of  Swiss  guards,  surrendered.  He  and  some  other 
officers  were  massacred  and  the  Bastile  razed  to  the  ground,  July 
14,1789.  The  -people  were  now  supreme  and  the  nobility  began 
to  emigrate  hastily.  All  the  provinces  were  in  a  state  of  revolu- 
tion. 

320.  The  king,  who  always  failed  to  appreciate  the  gravity  of 
the  situation,  committed  a  fatal  indiscretion.  Fresh  troops  were 
ordered  to  Versailles,  and  at  a  banquet  in  the  palace,  Oct.  1,  some 
of  the  officers  trampled  under  foot  the  tri-colored  cockades  of  the 
Revolution  and  substituted  white  ones  of  the  House  of  Bourbon. 
The  mob  of  Paris  attacked  and  forced  the  palace  and  the  royal  family 
were  only  saved  by  Lafayette  at  the  head  of  the  National  Guard. 
The  king  and  his  family  were  taken  in  triumph  to  Paris,  Oct.  6,  as 
prisoners.      This  was  called  the  jfoyons  entry. 

321.  The  Revolution  gained  headway  throughout  the  year 
1790.  The  king  was  suspended  from  exercising  his  official  func- 
tions. All  titles  of  nobility  or  honor  were  abolished.  The  lands 
of  the  church  comprising  nearly  half  the  lands  of  France  were  con- 
fiscated. A  decree  of  death  and  confiscation  of  property  was  passed 
against  all  the  nobility  who    tailed    to   return  to  France  before  Jan. 


1,  1 


792. 


322.  The  powers  of  Europe  now  became  alarmed  at  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Revolution.  Prussia  and  Austria  declared  war  against 
France  in  1792.  Large  armies  crossed  the  Rhine  and  marched  to- 
ward Paris.      The  Allies  were  defeated  and  driven  from  France. 

323.  The  interference  of  foreign  powers  greatly  incensed  the 
extreme  Republicans.  In  the  National  Convention  (assembly), 
the  most  radical  leaders  were  Danton,  Marat  {Ma-rah  '  )  and  Robes- 
pierre (Robes-pe-air'  ).  Robespierre  the  most  notorious  figure  of  the 
Revolution  was  the  counsellor  and  secret  leader  ofthe  Jacobin  Clubs. 
These  organizations  contained  the  worst  elements  of  Paris.  On  the 
10th  of  August,  1792,  the  Tuillcries  (  Tzcecl'  reez)  were  attacked 
and  the  Swiss  guard  massacred.  The  king  and  family  were 
removed  to  prison. 

324.  The  Massacre  of  September. — -The  Jacobins  insisted  on 
the  formation  of  a  "  Revolutionary  Tribunal"  which  was  appointed 
amid  the  protests  of  the  convention.  Hundreds  of  persons  wee  in 
prison  and  an  awful  massacre  was  begun  Sept.  2,  1792.  Many 
were  hacked  to  pieces  without  even  the  form  of  a  trial.  None  of 
the  accused  received  mercy  at  the  hand  ofthe  court. 

325.      Louis   was   deposed    and  the    Republic  proclaimed  Sept. 


310  TEACHERS1  .LVD  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

2.0.  The  king  was  charged  with  conspiring  with  the  allies  and  of 
having  knowledge  of  their  movements.  He  was  pronounced  guilty 
and  condemned  to  death.     The  execution  took  place  Jan.  21,  1793. 

326.  All  Europe  was  now  arrayed  against  France,  while  the 
madness  of  the  radical  Republicans  knew  no  hounds.  The  only 
really  powerful  opposition  to  the  Jacobin  party  were  the  Girondists 
{Zhe-r on' (lists').  They  favored  milder  measures,  hut  were  over- 
whelmed and  most  of  them  guillotined  without  mercy. 

327.  The  Reign  of  Terror  was  inaugurated  Slav  31,  1793. 
Marat  was  assassinated  by  a  young  woman  named  Charlotte  (Jor- 
day.  Danlon  had  a  short  time  before  been  denounced  by  the 
Jacobins  and  executed.  Robespierre  remained  undisputed  leader 
of  the  Jacobins.  He  kept  the  guillotine  busy  till  the  executions  for 
months  averaged  from  50  to  So  per  day,  and  1,285  from  June  IO 
to  July  17,  1794.  Among  the  victims  was  the  beautiful  Marie  An- 
toinette (.l/?-to-ucttc')  queen  of  Louis  XVI.  The  madmen  of  the 
Revolution  now  made  a  new  calendar  and  changed  the  names  of 
the  months  and  weeks.  The  Sabbath  was  abolished  and  the  wor- 
ship of  Reason  suhstituted  for  the  Christian  religion. 

328.  The  horrors  of  the  reign  of  terror  caused  a  reaction.* 
Robespierre  himself  was  arrested  and  lodged  in  prison,  suffering 
from  a  horrible  wound.  He  and  his  fellows  were  guillotined  July 
28,  1794,  and  the  reign  of  terror  ended. 

329.  All  this  time  the  French  were  fighting  the  allies  and 
winning  victories.  A  royalist  rising  in  La  Vendee  was  also  sup- 
pressed after  stubborn  resistance  and  much  loss  of  life.  At  the 
death  of  Robespierre  a  new  constitution  went  into  effect,  and  the 
government  was  intrusted  to  a  Directory  of  five  men.  The  mob 
of  Paris  resisted,  hut  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who  commanded  the 
artillery,  swept  the  streets  with  grape  shot  and  quelled  the  insur- 
rection. The  Revolution  was  ended  and  Napoleon  began  his  won- 
derful career  of  almost  continuous  warfare  for  twenty  years  against 
most  of  the  powers  of  Europe.  The  Directory  continued  from 
1795  to  the  end  of  1799. 

jjo.     Chief  Events  in  the    Wars  of  Napoleon. 

1796.  Napoleon  defeats  the  Austrian*  at  the  bridge  of  Lodi,  May  10,  and 
at  Areola  Nov.  14. 

1797.  Beats  the  Austrian*  at  Tivoli  and  captures  Venice.  By  treaty  of 
CampO  Formio,  Austria  cedes  much  territory  to  France. 

1798.  Invades  Egypt.  Destroys  the  Turkish  power  at  the  battk:  of  the 
Pyramids,  July  21.  The  French  fleet  destroyed  by  the  English  fleet  under  Ad- 
miral Nelson,  at  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  Aug.  1. 

1799.  The  allies  defeated  in  Switzerland.  .Siege  of  Acre.  Napoleon  de- 
feats the   Turks  at  Mt.  Tabor  and  Aboukir.     Chosen  First  Consul,  Dec.  24. 

1800.  Defeats  the  Austrians  at  Marengo,  Italy,  two  to  three  times  his 
own  number,  June  14.  The  French  Gen.  Moreau  defeats  the  Austrians  at  Ho- 
henlinden,  Dec.  3.     The  Austrians  lose  100  pieces  of  artillery  and  14,000  men. 


*It  is  estimated  th.it  over  iS.ooo  were  guillotined  at  Paris,  3^,000  at  Nantes  and  31,000  at 
1  t<  ns. 


HJSTORT.  311 

1801.  Forms  a  mercantile  league  with  Prussia,  Sweden,  Russia  and  Den- 
mark against  England.  English  destroy  the  Danish  fleet  in  the  harbor  of  Co- 
penhagen, April  2.     Dissolution  of  the  confederacy. 

1802.  Peace  with  England.  Napoleon  causes  a  thorough  revision  and 
codification  of  the  French  laws.  Projects  great  internal  improvements  and  im- 
proves the  finances.     Declared  first  consul  for  life. 

1804.  Napoleon  crowned  Emperor  by  the  Pope.  The  Third  Coalition, 
consisting  of  England,  Austria,  Russia,  Prussia  and  Sweden. 

1805.  Napoleon  defeats  the  Austrians  and  Russians  at  Austerlitz,  Dec.  2, 
inflicting  a  loss  of  30,000  men.  Austria  compelled  to  give  up  Tyrol  and  her 
Italian  possessions.  Nelson  destroys  the  combined  French  and  Spanish  fleets 
off  Trafalgar,  Oct.  21. 

1806.  Prussia  crushed  at  Jena  (l'a'  >ia)  and  Auerstadt  (Our' stat)  Oct.  14. 
Prussian  loss,  40,000  men  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners.  Joseph  Bonaparte 
made  king  of  Naples,  Louis  Bonaparte  king  of  Holland. 

1807.  Drawn  battle  at  Eylau  (f'hnu)  Feb.  8.  Russian  loss,  25,000  killed 
and  wounded.  French  loss,  30,000  killed  and  wounded.  Russians  defeated  at 
the  bloody  battle  of  Friedland,  June  14.  Peace  of  Tilsit,  favorable  to  Napol- 
eon. New  Kingdom  of  Westphalia,  on  the  Rhine,  with  Jerome  Bonaparte  as 
king.    Milan  Decree  against  English  commerce. 

1808.  The  French  lose  and  gain  ground  in  Spain.  Joseph  Bonaparte  de- 
clared king  of  Spain,  June  6. 

1809.  Battle  of  Aspern  and  Esseling  ;  French  defeat.  Battle  of  Wa- 
gram,  July  5  and  6;  Austrians  defeated.  Capture  of  Vienna.  Austria  deprived 
of  more  territory. 

1810-1811.  Continuous  war  between  French  and  English  in  Spain. 
Zenith  of  Napoleon's  power. 

1812.  Invasion  of  Russia  by  the  "  Grand  Army,"  numbering  500,000 
men.  Battle  of  Borodino  (Bor-o-dee' no).  Russians  defeated  with  loss  of  47,000 
men  killed,  wounded  and  prisoners.  French  loss  50,000.  Burning  of 
Moscow.  Horrors  of  the  Winter  retreat.  Total  loss  of  the  grand  army, 
450,000. 

1813.  Napoleon  defeats  the  Prussians  and  Russians  at  Lutzen  and  Baut- 
zen May.  Is  defeated  by  the  allied  Austrians,  Prussians  and  Russians  at 
Leipsic  (Life'  sic)  Oct.  16-19.     French  loss,  60,000.     Loss  of  the  allies,  40,000. 

1814.  Occupation  of  Paris  by  the  allies.  Abdication  of  Napoleon  and 
his  retirement  to  the  island  of  Elba,  with  the  rank  of  Emperor. 

1815.  Napoleon  again  assumes  the  government  of  France — "  The  100 
day6."     Defeated  at  Waterloo,  June  18.     Exiled  to  St.  Helena.     Died  182 1 

THE   NINETEENTH   CENTUIiY. 

331.  China  and  Japan. — But  little  was  known  accurately  of 
these  countries  until  the  present  century.  China  lias  a  very  ancient 
civilization,  dating  back  to  at  least  2000  B.  C.  The  religion  of 
the  country  is  Confu'  danism,  from  Confucius  its  founder.  Many 
of  the  great  inventions  were  made  independently  by  the  Chinese, 
•  is  the  mariner's  compass  and  gunpowder.  Both  countries  were 
closed  to  foreigners  until  recently.  The  Japanese  are  progressing 
rapidly  in  civilization. 

332.  France. — After  the  exile  of  Napoleon  the  Bourbons 
were  restored  to  the  throne  of  France.  A  war  began  between 
England  and  the  United  States  in  1S12  and  lasted  until  1815.  The 
results  were  favorable  to  the  United  States  (see  history  of  U.  S.). 
The  South  American  Republics,  the  Empire  of  Brazil,  the  Centra1 
American    Suites    and    Mexico    became   independent    between    the 


812  TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

years  [810  and  [821.     Greece,  with  the  aid  of  European  powers 
established  her  independence,  1S21. 

333.  The  Bourbons  continued  to  rule  France  until  a  revolution 
drove  them  from  the  throne,  1830.  The  cause  was  a  renewal  of 
the  old  Bourbon  absolutism.  Louis  Phillippe  was  elected  king. 
He  reigned  until  another  revolution  took  place,  in  1848,  when  a 
republic  was  established  for  a  time. 

334.  Louis  Napoleon,  a  nephew  of  the  great  Napoleon,  ille- 
gally seized  the  government,  and  was  declared  Emperor,  with  the 
title  Napoleon  III,  Dec.  2,  1852.  He  reigned  until  1870,  until  a 
republic  was  proclaimed  at  the  close  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war. 

335.  Reform  in   Great  Britain The  old  manner  of  electing 

members  of  parliament  had  grown  obsolete  and  afforded  many  op- 
portunities for  corruption.  Boroughs  existed  which  had  scarcely  a 
dozen  voters.  These  sittings  were  of  course  held  by  wealthy  men  and 
were  often  corruptly  bought.  The  Reform  Bill  of  1832  abolished 
all  these  "  rotten  boroughs"  and  greatly  increased  the  number  of 
voters  by  allowing  all  who  owned  a  certain  amount  of  property  or 
who  paid  a  certain  rent,  to  vote.  The  corn  laws  levying  duty  on 
grain  and  cattle  were  repealed  1846.  Another  reform  bill  in  1867 
still  further  extended  the  Franchise.  In  1869  the  Irish  Church  was 
disestablished,  i.  e.  declared  to  be  no  longer  the  State  Church  of 
Ireland  as  it  still  is  in  England. 

336.  A  Sepoy  (Se'poy)  rebellion  broke  out  in  India  in  1S57, 
led  by  Nana  Sahib.  The  Sepoys  were  native  soldiers  in  the  British 
service.  They  rebelled  because  they  supposed  their  cartridges 
were  greased  with  lard,  an  abomination  to  them.  The  rebellion 
spread  among  the  natives  and  was  only  suppressed  after  awful 
atrocities  had  been  committed.  The  chief  events  were  the  mas- 
sacre of  C  awn  pore  and  the  siege  of  Lucknow. 

337.  Internal  troubles  in  Hungary  in  1S4S  finally  led  to  civil 
war.  Austria  and  Russia  interfered  and  the  Hungarians  were 
overwhelmed.  The  patriot  leaders,  Kossuth  and  others  went  to 
the  United  States   in  exile. 

338.  The  Crimean  War  took  place  in  1854-5 because  tnc  Czar 
Nicholas  seized  some  Turkish  territory.  France^  England  and 
Sardinia  aided  Turkey  lest  Russia  should  destroy  the  balance  of 
power  in  Europe  by  the  acquisition  of  too  much  territory.  The 
principal  events  were  the  battles  of  Alma  and  Inkerman  and  the 
siege  of  Sebastopol.      Russia  was  forced  to  abandon  her  designs. 

339.  Unification  of  Italy. — France  aided  by  Sardinia  took  a 
large  portion  of  the  Austrian  territory  in  Italy,  after  a  short,  sharp 
war,  the  principal  battles  of  which  were  Magenta,  June  4,  1859,  and 
Solferino,  June  24.  Part  of  Lombardy  was  ceded  to  the  king  of 
Sardinia,  who  in  turn  ceded  Nice  to  France.  Garibaldi  in  [860  in- 
augurated a  revolution  which  finally  drove  out  the  king  of  Naples 

nd  Sicily,  which   territories   were  annexed  to  Sardinia.     This  last 


HISTORY.  313 

State  now  became   the  Kingdom   of  Italy.     The    unification  was 
completed  in  1870,  when  the  Papal   territories  were  added  to  Italy. 

340.  Unification  of  Germany. — A  quarrel  took  place  in  1S66 
between  Prussia  and  Austria  over  the  disposition  of  Schleswig — 
Ilolstein  which  they  had  just  taken  from  Denmark.  In  the  great 
battle  of  Sadowa  the  Austrian*  were  totally  defeated  with  terrible 
loss.  The  North  German  Confederation  was  then  formed  with 
Prussia  as  the  leading  State,  instead  of  Austria. 

341.  The  Franco-Prussian  War. — France  and  Prussia  had 
long  been  jealous  of  each  other.  Leopold,  of  Hohenzollern,  a  rela- 
tive of  the  King  of  Prussia  ( 1S70),  became  a  candidate  for  the 
Spanish  throne.  France  objected  and  both  sides  began  operations 
at  once,  July,  1S70.  This  terrific  contest  was  soon  over.  The 
French  were  beaten  everywhere  and  finallv  Napoleon  surrendered 
to  King  William,  at  Sedan,  Sept.  2.  Paris  endured  the  horrors  of 
a  prolonged  siege  but  was  forced  to  surrender  Jan.  28,  1871.  A 
French  Republic  was  established;  France  had  to  cede  Alsace  and 
part  of  Lorraine,  which  had  been  taken  from  Germany  by  Louis 
XIV,  and  pay  an  indemnity  of  5,000,000,000  francs. 

342.  A  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1S7S  ended  in  the 
defeat  of  the  latter  after  a  bloody  struggle.  At  Plevna  the  Turks 
won  a  decided  victory.  Ronmelia  and  Servia  became  independent 
and  Bulgaria  semi-independent. 

343.  A  war  broke  out  between  Chili  and  Peru  during  the  year 
1S79.  It  ended  in  the  total  defeat  of  Peru  and  the  capture  of  Lima 
(1881.)  At  the  present  writing  (1882)  Peru  is  without  a  stable 
government  and  in  a  condition  bordering  on  anarchy. 

344.  The  Irish  Land  League  kept  up  a  continual  agitation  in  Ire- 
land forthe  reduction  of  rents  and  a  redress  of  Irish  grievances.  These 
grievances  were  so  real  and  pressing  that  Parliament  finally  passed 
the  Irish  Land  Bill  late  in  the  year  of  1881.  A  war  with  the 
Dutch  Boers  in  South  Africa  was  ended  at  the  same  time  by  Eng- 
land's granting  most  of  the  concessions  asked  by  the  Boers.  In 
1S79  a  war  had  been  waged  against  the  Zulus  of  South  Africa;  it 
ended  in  their  submission. 

345.  To  enumerate  all  the  wonderful  inventions  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  and  to  describe  adequately  the  works  of  great  artists, 
authors,  engineers,  architects,  the  various  triumphs  of  genius,  would 
require  a  volume,  hence  we  pass  them  by  in  silence.  This  is  indeed 
an  age  of  wonders.  The  true  story  of  the  struggles,  difficulties 
and  wonderful  successes  of  many  modern  enterprises  would  read 
more  like  a  tale  of  enchantment  than  the  sober  pagres  of  authentic 
history. 

346.  Conclusion. — At  the  end  of  any  subject  it  is  well  to 
know  what  conclusions  we  mav  draw  from  its  study  so  that  we 
may  profit  thereby.  This  work  the  author  will  leave  to -the  student 
with  a  single  exception.      The   reader   who    has   followed   this  little 


314  TEACHERS   AXD  STUDENTS'   LJBRART. 

work  page  by  page  must  have  discerned  before  this  that  the  world 
is  constantly  growing  Utter  (croakers  to  the  contrary  notwith- 
standing). A  comparison  of  Ancient  and  Modern  history  suffici- 
ently shows  this.  We  often  hear  of  "the  good  old  days."  Let  us 
be  thankful  that  the  world  has  done  with  them.  Our  own  times 
are  besl  in  most  things  that  subserve  the  happiness  of  the  masses. 


HISTORY  OF   THE  UNITED  STATES. 

INTRODUCTION. 

1.  A  proper  understanding  of  the  history  of  the  United 
States  necessitates  a  brief  outline,  not  only  of  the  chief  events  in 
the  discovery  and  colonization  of  the  North  American  continent, 
hut  also  of  the  chief  facts  in  the  history  of  the  native  inhabitants  of 
the  continent  and  its  prehistoric  inhabitants. 

2.  The  Indians. — At  the  time  of  its  discovery,  America  was 
everywhere  inhabited  by  tribes  of  dark-skinned  people  called  by 
Columbus  and  his  followers  Indians.  Columbus  supposed  he  had 
discovered  some  part  of  India,  hence  the  name  Indian  was  applied 
t<-  all  the  natives  of  the  New  World. 

3.  The  Indians  were  divided  into  hundreds  of  petty  tribes  in- 
dependent of  each  other.  Many  of  these  tribes  were  almost  con- 
stantly at  war  with  their  neighbors.  Their  warfare  was  very  cruel. 
Prisoners  were  tortured  to  death  with  fiendish  barbarity  and 
whole  tribes  were  sometimes  exterminated. 

4.  Numbers.— The  Indian  population  of  North  America  was 
very  sparse.  The  whole  number  at  the  discovery  of  America, 
within  the  present  limits  of  the  United  States,  has  been  estimated 
as  low  as  250,000.  It  probably  was  more,  but  did  not  perhaps  ex- 
ceed  1,000,000.  Mexico  and  Peru  had  at  the  same  time  a  popula- 
tion of  several  millions  each. 

5.  Mode  of  Life. — The  Indians  were  more  or  less  nomadic  in 
their  habits.  They  lived  chiefly  by  hunting  and  fishing.  Among 
most  of  the  tribes  the  women  cultivated  little  patches  of  corn, 
pumpkins  and  other  vegetables.  They  had  no  towns,  and  villages 
Were  rare.  Their  houses  were  wigwams  made  of  bark  and  skins. 
Their  arms  were  bows  and  arrows,  stone  hatchets,  clubs  and 
knives. 

0.  Language.  -The  languages  of  the  Indians  were  ao-crl,<- 
tinative,  like  the  Chinese,  that  is,  long  words  of  many  syllables, 
describing  a  thing,  were  used  instead  of  a  single  word.  This  may 
lie  sufficiently  illustrated  by  a  word  for  goat — (utree-horn- 
hair-lip,")  which  was  pronounced  as  one  word.  The  native  lan- 
guages wen-  very  numerous,  the  whole  number  in  North  and 
South   America  being  not  less  than  four  hundred  and  fifty. 


HISTORY.  315 

7.  The  origin  ot  the  Indians  is  wrapped  in  profound  obscurity. 
Many  theories  have  been  advanced  to  account  for  their  presence  on 
the  American  continent.  Some  of  these  theories  arc  absurd,  all  of 
them  inadequate 

8.  Mexico  and  Peru  at  the  time  of  their  conquest  (1519-21) 
had  attained  a  very  considerable  degree  of  civilization.  There 
were  many  flourishing  cities  containing  large  temples  and  other 
public  buildings. 

9.  The  Mound  Builders  were  a  people  who  inhabited  the 
Mississippi  Valley  at  an  unknown  period  before  the  Indians.  Noth- 
ing whatever  is  known  of  these  people  except  that  they  were  nu- 
merous and  much  more  civilized  than  the  Indians.  Numerous 
mounds  of  great  size,  earthworks  and  other  remains  attest  a  former 
teeming  population,  which  has  passed  away  without  leaving  a 
single  written  record. 

DISCOVERIES. 

10.  The  Northmen  (see  Gen.  Hist.  Sec.  19S)  were  the  first 
Europeans  to  discover  and  explore  the  continent  of  North  America. 
An  account  of  their  discoveries  is  given  in  the  old  chronicles  of  Ice- 
land. These  discoveries  began  about  the  year  1001  and  were  con- 
tinued by  various  Norwegian  navigators  for  many  years.  Some  of 
these  hardy  explorers  sailed  as  far  south  as  Rhode  Island.  Settle- 
ments were  made  in  Greenland,  but  a  century  later,  the  people  per- 
ished during  a  terrible  winter,  and  all  knowledge  of  the  American 
continent  was  for  a  time  lost  to  the  civilized  world. 

11.  Columbus  deserves  the  credit  of  discovering  the  New 
World.  He  was  a  poor  map-maker,  a  native  of  Genoa,  Italy. 
From  his  youth  he  had  been  conversant  with  maritime  affairs.  He 
early  came  to  the  conclusion  that  there  must  be  large  bodies  of  land 
somewhere  in  the  west.  The  idea  that  the  world  was  round  had 
for  some  time  been  prevalent.  Columbus  did  not  think  that  a  new 
continent  would  be  found  in  the  west.  The  land  he  sought  was  in 
his  opinion  the  eastward  extension  of  India. 

12.  Columbus  met  with  many  discouragements.  He  applied 
to  several  potentates  for  men  and  vessels,  but  his  projects  received 
little  encouragement  or  open  ridicule. 

13.  At  length  Queen  Isabella  of  Spain  became  interested  in 
the  project  of  Columbus,  and  offered  to  sell  her  jewels  to  raise  the 
necessary  funds.  Ferdinand,  King  of  Spain,  with  his  wife  Isabella, 
jointly  fitted  out  three  small  vessels  which  sailed  from  Palos  on  the 
3d  of  August,  1492.  Columbus  was  appointed  viceroy  of  all  the 
lands  discovered. 

14.  The  island  of  San  Salvador,  or  Guanahani  (Gzva-na-/ia' 
ni)  was  discovered  Oct.  12.  Other  islands  were  discovered  and 
Columbus  returned  to  Spain,  arriving  March  15,  1493.  Columbia 
made  three  other  voyages  and  planted  various  other  colonies.       He 


31(5  TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 

discovered  the  coast  of  South  America,  1498.  The  haughty  Span- 
ish nobility  were  envious  of  his  fame  and  plotted  against  him.  He 
was  once  sent  to  Spain  in  chains.  The  king  promptly  released 
him,  but  he  never  regained  the  confidence  of  the  royal  family. 
The  grand  old  man  died  poor  and  broken-hearted,  and  was  igno- 
rant of  the  real  extent  of  his  great  discoveries. 

15.  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot  (Cab'ot),  English  explorers, 
discovered  the  continent  of  North  America  in  the  latitude  of  Nova 
Scotia  1496  (some  say  '94,  others  '97).  In  subsequent  voyages  Se- 
bastian Cabot  explored  the  country  as  far  south  as  Albemarle 
Sound  and  claimed  the  country  for  the  English  crown. 

16.  Americus  Vespucius  (Vcs-pu'  s/ic-us),  an  Italian,  made 
a  voyage  to  South  America  in  1499.  He  gave  the  first  written  de- 
scription of  the  country.  Hence  the  name  America  was  first 
applied  to  the  New  World  in  honor  of  his  discoveries. 

17.  In  1512,  Ponce  de  Leon  (Pone1 '  tka  day  £xty-own'\  a 
Spaniard,  discovered  and  named  Florida.  In  152S,  Narvaez  (Xar- 
vah' ctJi)  attempted  to  conquer  Florida,  but  was  defeated  by  the 
Indians  and  afterward  shipwrecked;  only  four  men  of  the  expedi- 
tion finally  escaped.  In  1520,  Magellan  completed  the  first  cir- 
cumnavigation of  the  globe. 

18.  In  1524,  Verazzani  (Ver-rat-sah' nc),  an  Italian  in  the 
service  of  France,  discovered  the  coast  in  the  vicinity  of  Wilming- 
ton, N.  C,  and  explored  as  far  north  as  Nova  Scotia,  claiming  the 
country  for  France. 

19.  James  Cartier  (Kar-tyca')  in  1534  explored  and  named 
the  Gulf  and  River  of  St.  Lawrence,  claiming  the  country  for 
France. 

20.  Ferdinand  De  Soto  attempted  the  conquest  of  Florida, 
1539-42.  lie  landed  at  Tampa  Bay  with  a  fine  army  of  600  men. 
He  passed  westward  and  northward  through  Georgia,  Alabama, 
and  Mississippi.  He  fought  a  terrible  battle  with  the  Indians  at 
Mauville  (Mobile}.  He  reached  the  Mississippi  near  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  State  of  the  same  name  in  1542.  Here  he  died 
and  was  buried  in  the  great  «  Father  of  Waters."  I  lis  army  had 
dwindled  to  a  handful.  A  few  survivors  finally  reached  Mexico 
after  incredible  hardships. 

21.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  in  1584  sent  two  ships  to  America, 
which  explored  Pamlico  and  Albemarle  Sounds.  The  country  was 
named  Virginia,  in  honor  of  Elizabeth,  the  "  Virgin  Queen."  A 
second  expedition  sent  out  by  Raleigh  planted  a  colony  on 
Roanoke   Island,  1 585.      This  colony  perished  to  a  man. 

22.  Henry  Hudson,  sailing  under  the  auspices  of  the  Dutch 
government,  entered  and  explored  the  Hudson  River  1609.  He 
called  the  country  New  Netherlands,  and  claimed  it  for  the 
Dutch. 


HISTORY.  317 


SETTLEMENT. 


23.  The  first  permanent  English  settlement  in  America  was 
made  at  Jamestown,  Va.,  in  1607.  James  I  granted  to  the  London 
Company,  an  association  of  "  nohlemen,  gentlemen,  and  mer- 
chants" all  the  lands  in  America  between  thirty-four  and  thirty- 
eight  degrees  north  latitude.  To  the  Plymouth  Company,  an  asso- 
ciation of  "  knights,  gentlemen,  and  merchants,"  all  the  territory 
between  forty-one  and  forty-five  degrees  north  latitude.  These  ter- 
ritories were  called  respectively  South  and  North  Virginia.  The 
London  Company  immediately  set  about  colonizing  their  new  ter- 
ritories.    Their  first  colony  was  at  Jamestown. 

24.  The  colonists  were  a  class  of  people  ill  fitted  to  endure 
the  hardships  of  the  wilderness.  A  great  majority  of  them  viqxq.  gen- 
tlemen, that  is  scions  of  the  noble  and  wealthy  families  of  England. 
Thev  had  the  aversion  to  work  and  the  proneness  to  insubordina- 
tion incident  to  their  class  under  such  circumstances.  The  "  coun- 
cil" appointed  to  govern  the  colony  began  by  deposing  John 
Smith,  the  ablest  member  of  their  body.  Things  went  badly. 
One-half  the  people  died  the  first  year.  Smith  was  restored  to  his 
seat  in  the  council  and  soon  became  the  leading  spirit  of  the  colony. 

25.  Smith  reduced  the  colony  to  order  and  set  about  the  task 
of  exploring  Virginia.  In  his  various  expeditions  it  is  estimated 
that  he  sailed  2,000  miles.  On  an  expedition  up  the  Chickahominy 
he  was  captured  by  the  Indians  and  condemned  to  death  by  Pow- 
hatan', the  Indian  Chief.  Pocahontas,  "  the  King's  dearest  daugh- 
ter," saved  his  life  by  rushing  between  the  prisoner  and  the  uplifted 
club  of  the  executioner.  Pocahontas  afterward  married  an  English- 
man by  the  name  of  Rolfe.  Some  of  the  oldest  families  of  Vir- 
ginia are  among  her  descendants. 

26.  The  marriage  of  Pocahontas  was  the  means  of  securing  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  Powhatan  which  lasted  several  years.  The 
colony  grew  slowly  and  prospered.  Wives  for  the  young  men 
were  imported  from  England  and  sold  readily  for  from  120  to  150 
pounds  of  tobacco.  African  Slaves  were  introduced  by  a  Dutch 
trading  vessel  in  1620.  In  the  year  1624  King  James  took  away 
the  charter  of  the  London  Company  and  Virginia  became  a  royal 
-province. 

NEW    ENGLAND. 

27.  Plymouth  Colony. — The  first  settlement  in  New  England 
was  made  by  the  Puritans  in  1620  within  the  limits  of  the  present 
State  of  Massachusetts.  The  Puritans  were  persons  who  believed 
in  freeing  the  church  of  England  from  rites  and  practices  which 
somewhat  savored  of  popery.  They  were  bitterly  persecuted  and 
many  settled  in  Holland.  They  determined  to  found  a  colony  in 
America  and    a   number   of  the   exiles   were  joined    at    Plymouth, 


:;i>  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LI  BR  ART. 

England,  by  some  of  their  English  brethren.  Two  ships  were 
chartered,  the  Speedwell  and  the  Mayflower.  The  former  proved 
unseaworthy  and  the  Mayflower  sailed  alone  with  102  persons. 
After  a  stormy  voyage  of  sixty-four  days  they  landed  on  the  New- 
England  coast,  Dec.  21,    1 620. 

28.  The  colonists  had  no  charter  or  sanction  of  any  kind  for 
settlement.  They  agreed  on  their  own  form  of  government.  The 
men,  forty-one  in  number,  signed  a  contract  and  unanimously  chose 
John  Carver  governor. 

29.  The  first  winter  was  one  of  terrible  sufferings.  The  peo- 
ple sheltered  themselves  as  best  they  could  in  log  cabins.  There 
was  much  sickness  and  about  one-half  their  number  died,  among 
whom  was  Governor  Carver  who  was  succeeded  by  William 
Bradford. 

30.  Plymouth  Colony  grew  slowly  but  surely.  It  was  the 
asylum  of  the  Puritans  of  England  who  desired  to  worship  God  in 
their  own  way.  The  colony  maintained  a  separate  existence  till 
1692  when  it  was  incorporated  with  Massachusetts  Bay  colony. 

31.  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. — The  success  of  Plymouth 
Colony  encouraged  the  founding  of  others.  John  Endicott  and 
others  obtained  a  grant  of  land  extending  from  "  three  miles  north 
of  the  Merrimac  to  three  miles  south  of  the  Charles,  and  from 
ocean  to  ocean."  This  grant  was  obtained  from  the  "  Council  of 
New  England  "  which  had  succeeded  the  old  "  Plymouth  Com- 
pany." Charles  I  granted  the  new  "  Massachusetts  Bay  Com- 
pany "  a  charter.  The  government  of  the  colony  was  to  be  in  the 
hands  of  the  company  in  England. 

32.  John  Endicott  with  fifty  or  sixty  others  came  over  in 
Sept.,  1628,  and  settled  at  Salem  ;  others  settled  at  Charlestown. 

33.  In  1630  a  royal  charter  granted  the  colony  the  right  of  self- 
government.  Hence  a  great  many  Puritans  of  influence  determined 
to  emigrate  to  the  new  colony.  During  the  same  year  1,000  to  1,500 
settlers  came  over,  including  John  Winthrop  as  governor  of  the 
colony. 

34.  All  the  colonists  endured    many  hardships  but  the  colonies 

'  grew  rapidly.  Fortunately  the  people  of  the  first  colonies  of 
New  England  were  saved  the  horrors  of  Indian  hostilities  for 
many  years.  A  war  occurred  in  1637  between  the  settlers  of  Ply- 
mouth, Massachusetts  Bay  and  Connecticut,  and  the  Pequots.  The 
whites  were  aided  by  the'  Mohegans  and  the  unfortunate  Pequots 
were  destroyed  as  a  tribe.  After  this  no  Indian  wars  occurred  until 
King  Philip's  in  1675.  This  last  bloody  contest  utterly  broke  the 
power  of  the  savages  of  New  England. 

35.  Connecticut  was  settled  by  people  from  Massachusetts 
The  "Connecticut  "  colony  settled  at  Windsor  1635;  the  Saybrook 
colony  at  Saybrook  in  the  same  year;  the  New  Haven  colony  at 
New  Haven  in   1638. 


HISTORT.  319 

36.  Rhode  Island  was  settled  at  Providence  in  1636  by  Roger 
Williams  who  with  a  few  friends  fled  from  Massachusetts  Bay  to 
escape  persecution  on  account  of  their  religious  views. 

37.  New  Hampshire. —  In    1622   Mason  and   Gorges    (Gor' 
jez), two  Englishmen,  obtained  a  grant  of  land  between  the  Merri- 

mac  and  the  Kennebec  Rivers.  The  next  year  these  proprietors 
made  small  settlements  on  the  Piscataqua.  The  country  continued 
under  the  government  of  various  proprietors  until  1641.  This 
form  of  government  resulted  in  numerous  disputes  and  lawsuits 
until  in  that  year  the  colony  became  a  part  of  Massachusetts.  In 
16S0  New  Hampshire  became  a  royal  province. 

38.  Maine  also  belonged  to  Gorges,  he  having  obtained  a  grant 
in  1639  of  a  tract  between  the  Piscataqua  and  the  Kennebec. 
Massachusetts  claimed  a  part  of  Maine  and  finally  bought  the  terri- 
tory from  the  heirs  of  Gorges.  It  constituted  a  part  of  that  State 
from  1 69 1  to  1S20. 

MIDDLE   STATES. 

39.  New  York  was  originally  settled  by  the  Dutch  under  the 
name  of  New  Amsterdam.  The  first  settlement  was  at  New  Am- 
sterdam (New  York)  in  1623.  The  next  year  Fort  Orange 
(Albany)  was  founded. 

40.  The  Dutch  had  some  trouble  with  the  settlers  of  Connec- 
ticut, also  with  the  Swedes  who  had  settled  in  Delaware.  The 
English  claimed  New  Netherlands  by  virtue  of  the  discoveries  of 
the  Cabots.  In  1664  Charles  II  granted  the  country  from  the 
Connecticut  to  the  Delaware  to  his  brother  the  Duke  of  York.  The 
Duke  sent  a  force  to  take  possession  of  the  colony.  Stuyvesant 
(Sti' '  ves-anf)  the  Dutch  governor,  was  in  favor  of  resisting.  But 
the  people  were  tired  of  Dutch  rule  and  preferred  to  surrender. 
The  whole  colony  contained  only  10,000  people.  In  1673  there 
was  a  Dutch  Restoration  which  lasted  one  year. 

41.  New  York  continued  to  be  governed  by  its  Proprietor 
until  16S9.  There  was  much  dissatisfaction  with  this  form  of  gov- 
ernment and  Edmund  Andros  was  especially  tyrannical  and  ob- 
noxious. 

42.  When  King  William  came  to  the  English  throne  New- 
York  became  a  royal  pi'ovince  ruled  by  governors  appointed  by 
the  king.  He  also  allowed  the  colony  a  legislature,  but  not  a 
charter  of  liberties  like  the  New  England  colonies. 

43.  New  Jersey  was  a  part  of  New  Netherlands,  and  belonged 
to  the  Duke  of  York  who  granted  it  to  Lord  Berkley  and  Sir 
George  Carteret.  These  proprietors  gave  the  colony  a  liberal  con- 
stitution and  entire  freedom  of  religious  worship.  The  first  settle- 
ment was  at  Elizabeth  in    1665. 

44.  In  1674  the  colonv  was  divided  into  Hast  and  West  yer- 
sey.     William  Penn  eventually  became  owner  of  both. 


320  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

45.  Pennsylvania  was  founded  by  William  Penn,  a  wealthy 
English  Quaker.  lie  obtained  a  grant  of  the  land  in  consideration 
of  a  large  sum  of  money  which  the  English  government  owed  to 
his  father,  Admiral  Penn.  Penn  also  bought  the  land  from  the 
Indians  and  thus  secured  to  the  Quaker  colonists  the  friendship  of 
the  Indians  and  a  lasting  peace.  The  first  settlement  was  at  Phila- 
delphia 16S1. 

46.  Penn  obtained  from  the  Duke  of  York  a  grant  of  the 
present  State  of  Delaware  which  had  previously  been  settled  by 
Swedes.  Delaware  remained  a  part  of  Pennsylvania  until  1703. 
Pennsylvania  grew  very  rapidly  in  population.  Popular  discon- 
tent induced  Penn  to  grant  the  people  a  charter  in    1699. 

47.  The  boundary  line  between  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland 
long  in  dispute,  was  settled  in  1767  by  the  the  survey  of  Mason  and 
Dixon.  This  boundary  constitutes  the  celebrated  Mason  and 
Dixon's  Line.  Pennsylvania  continued  to  belong  to  Penn's  sons 
until  the  Revolution,  when  the  Commonwealth  bought  their 
claims. 

SOUTHERN      STATES. 

48.  Maryland  was  settled  by  Roman  Catholics  in  1663.  Lord 
Baltimore  (Calvert)  had  previously  obtained  a  grant  of  the 
territory  from  Charles  I.  There  was  much  trouble  for  a  time 
between  the  Protestants  and  Catholics,  which  resulted  twice  in 
civil  war. 

49.  North  Carolina  was  first  settled  by  emigrants  from  Vir- 
ginia  who  wished  to  escape  the  intolerant  treatment  which  they  re- 
ceived from  the  Episcopal  church,  which  was  the  established  church 
of  Virginia.  A  proprietary  colony  was  also  established  on  Albe- 
marle Sound  and  a  colony  from  Barbadoes  near  the  mouth  of  Cape 
Fear  River. 

50.  South  Carolina  was  first  settled  bv  English  emigrants  at 
Old  Charleston,  in  1670.  A  great  many  Huguenots  (see  Gen. 
Hist.,  Sec.  -70)  settled  in  North  and  South  Carolina.  There  were 
also  many  Dutch  from  New  York  and  Puritans  from  Scotland  and 
England.  These  formed  very  valuable  accessions  to  the  colony. 
The  South  Carolinians  had  much  trouble  with  their  Spanish 
neighbors  in  Florida.  In  1702  an  expedition  was  planned  against 
St.  Augustine,  but  failed.  111*1706  the  French  and  Spanish  at- 
tempted to  capture  Charleston,  but  were  repulsed.  In  1715a  gen- 
eral Indian  war  occurred  with  the  Yamassees.  In  1729  the 
Carolinas  became  separate  royal provinces. 

51.  Georgia  owes  its  settlement  to  James  Oglethorpe,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  English  Parliament.  He  originated  the  idea  of  founding 
a  colony  as  an  asylum  for  the  poor  and  the  unfortunate.  To  him 
and  others  George  II  granted  in  trust  for  the  poor  all  the  land  be- 
tween the  Savannah  and    the   Altamaha    Rivers.     The  first  settle- 


HISTORY.  321 

mcnt   was   made  at   Savannah,  1733.     Florida    was  settled   by    the 
Spaniards,  at  St.    Augustine,    1565. 

52.  Character  of  the  Puritans. — As  we  have  seen,  the  people 
of  New  England  were  chiefly  Puritans.  They  were  a  frugal,  in- 
dustrious, honest  people,  but  very  intolerant.  They  Med  from 
Europe  to  escape  religious  persecution,  and  inaugurated  persecution 
at  home.  In  Massachusetts  the  Quakers  were  imprisoned,  beaten, 
banished,  and  three,  two  men  and  a  woman,  were  hanged.  In  the 
same  colony  the  citizens  were  under  legal  obligations  to  attend 
church.  The  stocks  and  the  pillory  stood  side  hy  side  with  the 
sanctuary,  a  triple  terror  to  evil  doers.  In  New  Haven  Colony  only 
church  members  were  allowed  to  vote.  In  most  of  the  colonies 
the  franchise  was  much   restricted. 

53.  Education  received  early  and  careful  attention  in  New 
England.  Schools  were  everywhere  established.  Harvard  Col- 
lege was  founded  in  1638,  Yale  College  in  1702,  at  Saybrook. 

54.  The  Salem  Witchcraft. — In  1692  a  strange  delusion  ap- 
peared among  the  people  of  Salem  (now  Danvers).  Two  young 
girls  residing  in  the  family  of  one  Parris,  a  clergyman,  complained 
of  being  pinched  and* pricked  with  pins  by  unseen  agencies;  often 
they  would  be  seized  with  convulsions,  and  cried  out  that  witches 
were  affecting  them.  They  accused  an  Indian  girl  of  being  a 
witch.  This  led  to  great  excitement  and  alarm.  The  delusion 
spread  rapidly,  and  many  were  accused  and  imprisoned.  Many, 
to  escape  torture,  confessed  themselves  guilty.  About  twenty 
were  executed.  The  delusion  lasted  about  six  months,  until  many 
of  the  most  worthy  citizens  were  accused.  The  people  then 
saw  how  terribly  they  had  been  deceived,  and  this  strange  delusion 
ended. 

55.  The  Southern  colonies  were  settled  by  many  different 
kinds  of  people.  The  colonists  of  Virginia  were  mostly  worthless 
scions  of  nobility  and  ordinary  laborers.  The  established  church 
was  the  Episcopal.  Puritans,  Quakers,  and  in  fact  all  Dissenters, 
were  vigorously  persecuted.  A  better  class  of  people  soon  settled 
in  Virginia,  but  the  colony  always  felt  proud  of  its  Cavalier  con- 
nections. 

56.  Life  in  the  Colonies  had  many  hardships.  Blpody  Indian 
wars  occurred  everywhere  at  uncertain  intervals.  The  people  were 
poor  and  knew  little  of  the  climate  or  the  productions  best  suited 
to  the  country.  At  times  for  weeks,  and  even  months,  the  game  of 
the  forest  furnished  their  only  subsistence.  The  people  made  their 
own  clothing,  tables,  bedsteads,  chairs,  etc.  Only  such  articles  as 
firearms,  cutlery  and  tools  were  bought,  and  these  were  very  ex- 
pensive. Money  was  often  practically  unknown.  But  amid  all 
these  trials,  hardships  and  dangers,  a  hardy,  patient  and  industrious 
population  was  laying  the  corner-stone  of  liberty  and  the  founda- 
tion   of  the  greatest  nation  the  world  has  ever  produced. 


838  TEACHERS-  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

WARS    WITH    THE    FRENCH    COLONIES     AND    INDIANS. 

57.  New  France,  including  substantially  the  present  Dominion 
of  Canada,  was  first  settled  (1604)  at  Port  Royal,  Acadia  (now 
Annapolis,  Nova  Scotia.)  The  French  settled  Quebec  four  ycais 
later,  and  laid  claim  to  all  the  vast  lake  region  and  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  The  Jesuit  fathers  Marquette,  La  Salle,  Joliet,  Hennepin 
and  others,  carried  the  cross  and  the  Catholic  faith  all  over  the 
western  country  as  far  as  the  Mississippi  in  Illinois  and  Wisconsin, 
and  south  to  the  gulf,  early  in  the  17th  century. 

58.  The  English  had  always  claimed  the  continent  from  ocean 
to  ocean.  The  French  were  the  leading  Cathode  power  of  Europe, 
the  English  the  leading  Protestant  nation.  It  was  evident  that  a 
great  struggle  must  take  place  for  the  possession  of  the  disputed 
territory. 

59.  The  result  of  these  wars  is  briefly  as  follows:— King 
William's  War,  16S9-1697. —  The  French  and  their  Indian  allies 
ravaged  the  frontier  settlements  of  New  England  and  Xew  York. 
An  expedition  against  Canada,  which  failed. 

60.  Queen  Anne's  War,  1702-1713. — Indian  outrages  in  New 
England.  Two  expeditions  against  Port  Royal;  first  unsuccessful, 
second  successful.  Acadia  became  a  British  province  1710.  Great 
Disaster  to  the  British  fleet  by  a  storm  in  the  St.  Lawrence,  171  1  ; 
1,000  men  drowned. 

61.  King  George's  War,  1744-1748. — Capture  of  Louisburg 
by  the  English. 

62.  French  and  Indian  War,  1754-1763. —  (i)  An  English 
and  colonial  company,  called  the  Ohio  Company,  had  been  formed 
with  the  design  of  establishing  colonies  on  the  east  hank  of  the 
Ohio  River.  The  French  hastened  to  possess  themselves  of  strat- 
egic points.  The  English  made  a  settlement  at  Red  Stone,  on  the 
Monongahela,  which  was  captured  by  the  French.  George  Wash- 
ington, then  twenty-one  years  of  age,  was  sent  as  an  embassador 
hy  the  Governor  of  Virginia  to  demand  an  explanation  of  the  out- 
rage. He  was  informed  that  the  French  intended  to  hold  the  ter- 
ritory. (2)  On  the  return  of  Washington  a  party  of  men  was 
sent  out  to  build  a  fort  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio.  This  small  party 
was  driven  off  by  the  French,who  completed  the  fort  and  called  it 
Fort  Du  Quesne  {iioo-katic'  ). 

63.  In  1754  a  force  was  sent  out  from  Virginia  to  dislodge  the 
French.  Washington  with  an  advance  force  hastened  forward  and 
defeated  the  French  at  Great  Meadows.  Was  obliged  to  assume 
the  defensive  at  Fort  Necessity  near  the  Monongahela  River.  Sur- 
rendered with  the  whole  force,  July  4,  1754.  The  colonists  now 
made  a  treaty  with  the  Six  Nations,  or  rroquois.  An  attempt  was 
made  to   form  a  Union  of  the  Colonies,  hut  it  failed. 

64.  1755.  —  Campaigns  were  planned  against  Fort  Du  Quesne, 


HISTORV.  yo- 

Niagara  and  Crown  Point,  on  Lake  Champlain.  Braddock, 
who  commanded  the  force  operating  against  Fort  Du  Quesne, 
was  totally  unused  to  Indian  methods  of  warfare.  Against 
the  advice  of  Washington  and  other  colonial  officers  he  care- 
lessly led  the  army  into  the  vicinity  of  the  enemy  without 
adopting  proper  precautions.  Seven  miles  from  Fort  Du  Quesne, 
in  a  narrow  defile  covered  with  thickets,  the  army  entered  an  am- 
buscade and  were  mercilessly  cut  down  without  the  power  of  re- 
sistance. Braddoek's  Defeat,  as  the  action  is  known,  was  crush- 
ing. Over  1,000  men  fell  in  action,  and  the  shattered  remnant  re- 
treated under  the  skillful  guidance  of  Washinfirton. 

65.  The  expedition  against  Niagara  was  abandoned.  Gen. 
Johnson  advanced  to  Lake  George,  where  an  advanced  detachment 
under  Col.  Williams  was  defeated  by  the  French.  Dieskau  (De- 
es-ko'),  the  French  general,  pursued  the  fugitives  to  Johnson's 
camp,  where  the  Battle  of  Lake  George  took  place.  The  French 
were  defeated  and  their  general  killed.  Johnson  built  Fort  Wil- 
liam Henrv  and  did  nothing  further. 

66.  1756. — The  Marquis  de  Montcalm,  French  commander. 
Capture  of  Oswego  by  the  French  with  large  quantities  of  stores. 

67.  1757. — Montcalm  besieged  and  took  Fort  William  Henry, 
garrisoned  by  2,000  men.  Many  of  the  prisoners  were  massacred 
by  the  Indians. 

68.  1758. — The  British  forces  numbered  50,000,  22,000  reo-u- 
lars  and  2S,ooo  colonials.  Expeditions  were  planned  against 
Louisburg,  which  had  been  retaken  by  the  French,  against  Ticon- 
deroga,'and  Du  Quesne.  Louisburg  surrendered  with  6,000  men 
and  vast  stores.  A  bloody  assault  on  Ticonderoga  was  repulsed. 
Du  Quesne  was  abandoned.  The  English  changed  the  name  to 
Tort  Pitt  (Pittsburgh). 

69.  1759.— The  Capture  of  Quebec  by  General  Wolfe  was 
the  great  event  of  the  war.  Wolfe  landed  his  troops  on  the  river 
bank  at  night,  scaled  the  heights,  and  next  morning  offered  battle 
to  the  astonished  French.  A  bloody  conflict  of  several  hours  en- 
sued, in  which  Wolfe  was  killed  and  Montcalm  mortally  wounded. 
Quebec  surrendered.  Crown  Point,  Ticonderoga  and  Niagara  had 
previously  been  taken,  and  the  war  practically  ended.  The  British 
had  become  masters  of  North  A?ncrica. 

70.  Indian  hostilities  were  kept  up  at  intervals.  In  1763 
Pontiac's  War  broke  out.  This  able  chieftain,  by  means  of  strata- 
gem, obtained  possession  of  many  of  the  Western  forts  of  tin- 
English.  Hundreds  of  people  along  the  border  were  massacred 
before  the  Indians  were  reduced  to  subjection.  The  Southern  In- 
dians also  made  war  on   the  colonies. 

71.  By  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1763,  France  ceded  all  her  terri- 
tories east  of  the  Mississippi,  except  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  to  the 
English.     The  French  and  Indian  wars  had  cost  the  colonies  30,000 


334  TEACHERS'  AND   STUDENTS'    LIBRART. 

men  and  $16,000,000,  but  they  had  taught  the  Americans  their  own 
power.  Another  important  lesson  was  the-  necessity  of  sclf-relianci 
and  political  union  which  turned  the  scale  in  favor  of  America  in 
the  struggle  soon  to  follow     The  Amerk  \\  Revolution. 

THE    AMERICAN     REVOLUTION. 

72.  No  sooner  had  peace  been  established  between  England 
and  France  than  troubles  began  to  rise  between  the  colonies  and 
the  mother  country.  The  causes  of  the  Revolution  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  Remote  and  Immediate. 

73.  Remote  Causes.— (1)  The  love  of  liberty  was  inherent 
and  strong  in  the  colonists.  Many  of  them  had  fled  from  persecu- 
tion and  were  very  jealous  of  their  rights  of  self-government.  (2) 
The  exercise  of  local  government  in  all  the  colonies  had  been  de- 
veloping a  latent  feeling  tending  toward  independence.  (3)  The 
royal  governors  had  in  most  instances  made  arbitrary  power  odious. 
(4)  George  III  was  a  stupid,  non-progressive,  non-English  king, 
who  had  the  most  despotic  notions  of  kingly  prerogatives. 

74.  Immediate  Causes. —(1)  The  English  laws  hampered 
colonial  commerce  and  manufactures.  The  "importation  act" 
levied  onerous  duties  on  rum,  sugar  and  other  commodities.  The 
manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  was  forbidden;  also  the  cutting  of 
timber  on  a  continent  groaning  with  forests.  (2)  The  claim  of 
England  to  tax  the  colonies,  while  allowing  them  no  representa- 
tion in  Parliament.  Subsidiary  to  this  are  the  Stamp  Act  (1765), 
Tea  Duty,  etc.  (3)  The  "Mutiny  Act."  (4)  Boston  Port 
Bill  (June,  1774).  (5)  Riots  in  New  York,  Boston  Massacre,  In- 
surrection in  North  Carolina. 

75.  The  Stamp  Act  was  so  especially  odious  as  to  deserve  par- 
ticular mention.  After  Nov.  1,  176^,  every  bond,  deed,  note,  lease, 
license,  or  legal  paper  of  any  kind  must  be  executed  on  stamped 
paper  furnished  by  the  British  government.  Each  sheet  cost  a  sum 
varying  from  threepence  to  six  pounds,  according  to  the  transac- 
tion. Pamphlets,  almanacs  and  newspapers  were  required  to  be 
printed  on  stamped  paper.  Every  advertisement  was  taxed  two 
shillings.  The  stamp  act  caused  universal  alarm  and  indignation. 
In  the  Virginia  assembly  Patrick  Henry  introduced  vigorous  reso- 
lutions, denying  the  right  of  Great  Britain  to  tax  the  colonists 
without  their  consent,  and  affirming  the  right  of  the  colonies  to 
local  self-government.  Henry  was  greeted  with  cries  of  "Treason, 
treason,'"  but  his  resolutions  passed  by  a  good  majority.  Similar 
resolutions  were  passed  by  the  assemblies  of  New  York  and  Mas- 
sachusetts. The  stamp  act  was  never  enforced.  Most  of  the 
stamped  paper  was  destroyed  or  shipped  back  to  England.  The 
repeal  of  the  act  caused  general  rejoicing,  both  in  England  and 
America. 

76.     The  Boston  Massacre  CM  arch  5,  1770)  caused  intense  ex- 


HISTORr.  325 

citcmetit.  An  altercation  between  the  citizens  and  the  soldiery  led 
to  the  latter  opening  fire  on  the  crowd.  Three  citizens  were  killed 
and  several  wounded.  Thousands  of  excited  men  assembled,  and 
it  was  only  on  the  promise  of  Governor  Hutchinson  that  justice 
should  be  done,  that  they  were  induced  to  disperse. 

77.  On  the  very  day  of  the  Boston  massacre  Parliament  passed 
a  bill  repealing  all  duties  on  American  imports,  excepting-  those  on 
tea.  The  Americans  were  determined  that  they  would  not  be 
taxed  in  any  manner  without  their  consent.  They  refused  to  buy 
tea  at  all.  Finally,  on  Dec.  16,  1773,  a  party  of  men  disguised  as 
Indians  boarded  the  three  tea  ships  in  Boston  Harbor  and  threw 
the  tea  into  the  sea.  At  other  ports  the  people  would  not  allow 
it  to  land.  At  Charleston,  S.  C.,  it  w;is  stored  in  damp  cellars 
and  spoiled. 

78.  In  March,  1774,  The  Boston  Port  Bill  was  passed.  This 
act  closed  the  port  of  Boston  entirely,  and  caused  great  distress  in 
business  circles.  Still  the  people  of  Massachusetts  stood  firm  and 
had  the  sympathy  of  the  people  of  the  other  colonies.  On  the  20th 
of  May,  1774,  the  charter  of  Massachusetts  was  repealed  and 
things  were  ripe  for  war.  The  total  population  of  the  colonies 
at  the  beginning  of  the  struggle  was,  in  round  numbers,  three 
millions. 

79.  The  First  Continental  Congress  met  at  Philadelphia 
Sept.  5,  1774.  All  the  colonies  were  represented  but  Georgia. 
The  congress  agreed  upon  a  declaration  of  rights,  recommended  a 
suspension  of  commercial  intercourse  with  the  people  of  England, 
and  sent  a  petition  to  the  king.  Among  the  most  prominent  of  the 
patriots  who  led  and  counseled  their  people  in  these  trying  times 
were  John  Hancock  and  Samuel  Adams  of  Massachusetts,  Ben- 
jamin   Franklin    of    Pennsylvania,    Patrick    Henry   and     George 

Washington  of  Virginia.  Space  will  not  permit  mention  of  all 
the  leaders,  though  scores  of  others  were  equally  patriotic  and 
equally  persevering  in  the  cause  of  liberty. 

Events  of  the    War. 

80.  1775. — Hostilities  began  at  Lexington,  Mass.,  April  19.  A 
Uritish  detachment  of  Soo  men  was  ordered  to  march  to  Concord 
and  destroy  some  military  stores  collected  there.  At  tin-  little  vil- 
lage of  Lexington  they  encountered  a  party  of  sixty  or  seventy 
minute  men,  who  had  hastily  assembled  at  the  signals,  the  ringing  of 
hells  and  firing  of  guns.  At  the  first  discharge  one-fourth  of  the 
liltk'  hand  lay  bleeding  on  the  grass,  killed  or  wounded.  The 
British  advanced  to  Concord  and  succeeded  in  destroying  the  stores, 
hut  the  country  was  thoroughly  aroused.  Volleys  were  tired  upon 
the  British  from  behind  trees,  rocks  and  fences.  The  British  de- 
tachment finally  escaped  across  Charlestown  Neck  with  a  loss  of 
273    killed,    wounded   and    missing.      The    American    loss    was    49 


326  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

killed,  34  wounded,  5  missing.  The  colonies  made  active  prepara- 
tions for  war.  Soon  20,000  men  had  invested  Boston.  Fort 
Ticonderoga  was  captured  in  May  by  Ethan  Allen  with  a  small 
band,  and  Crown  Point  soon  followed. 

81.  Bunker  Hill. — The  Americans  suspected  that  General 
Gage  intended  to  seize  the  peninsula  of  Charlestown,  opposite  Bos- 
ton, and  determined  to  fortify  the  ground  before  the  enemy  had 
time  to  move.  A  detachment  of  800  men  was  ordered  to  occupy 
and  fortify  Bunker  Hill  on  the  night  of  June  16th.  By  mistake 
the  officers  occupied  Breed's  Hill.  Considerable  earthworks 
greeted  the  astonished  British  in  Boston  on  the  morning  of  the 
1  7th.  General  Howe,  with  3,000  regulars,  crossed  to  storm  the 
earthworks,  which  were  defended  by  1,500  Americans,  commanded 
by  Gen.  Prescott.  Two  assaults  were  repulsed  with  dreadful 
^laughter,  but  the  ammunition  of  the  Americans  failed,  and  the 
third  assault  was  successful.  The  Americans  were  driven  from 
the  works.  The  patriot  Gen.  Warren  was  killed.  British  loss,. 
1,000  men;  American,  450. 

82.  The  Second  Continental  Congress  met  in  May,  at  Philadel- 
phia, and  organized  a  general  government.  They  voted  to  raise  an 
army  of  20,000  men  and  to  issue  3,000,000  of  paper  money.  George 
Washington  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army. 

83.  During  the  summer  all  of  the  royal  governors  were 
driven  out.  Dunmore,  of  Virginia,  in  revenge  bombarded  and 
burned  Norfolk.  The  people  of  Mecklenburg  county,  X.  C,  de- 
clared themselves  independent  in  May. 

84.  Invasion  of  Canada. — It  was  hoped  that  Canada  might  be 
induced  to  join  with  the  colonies  in  the  war.  With  this  view  an 
expedition  was  fitted  out  to  take  possession  of  the  province.  On  the 
last  day  of  the  year  an  assault  was  made  on  Quebec  which  was  re- 
pulsed. Gen.  Montgomery,  the  American  commander,  was  killed. 
Benedict  Arnold  succeeded  in  command.  Next  spring  he  was 
obliged  to  evacuate  the  country. 

85.  The  Tories. — It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  Americans 
were  unanimous  in  their  opposition  to  England.  In  all  the  colonies 
there  were  a  class  of  citizens  who  sided  with  Great  Britain.  These 
were  called  torics.  In  some  of  the  colonies  they  were  sufficiently 
numerous  to  add  greatly  to  the  difficulties  and  dangers  which 
threatened  to  ruin  the  cause  of  liberty. 

86.  1776.  The  Siege  of  Boston. — Washington  closely  invested 
the  city  and  on  the  17th  of  March  Howe  surrendered  the  city  on 
condition  that  he  he  allowed  to  withdraw  with  his  army. 

87.  The  Siege  of  Charleston  was  begun  by  a  large  British  fleet 
and  2,500  men  in  June.  The  harbor  was  defended  by  Fort  Moultrie. 
On  the  2.Sth  a  combined  land  and  naval  attack  was  made.  The 
British  lost  severely  and  were  compelled  to  withdraw.  This  victory 
greatly  revived  the  patriots  all  over  the  country. 


HISTORT.  327 

88.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  was  adopted  by  Con- 
gress, at  Philadelphia,  July  4.  It  caused  universal  rejoicing. 
The  declaration  was  a  masterly  document  from  the  pen  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,  aided  by  others. 

89.  The  Battle  of  Long  Island  decided  the  fate  of  New  York 
city.  Gen.  Howe  arrived  at  Staten  Island  from  Halifax.  lie  was 
reinforced  by  Clinton  who  arrived  from  South  Carolina  and  by  his 
brother  Admiral  Howe  with  a  fleet  from  England.  Washington 
ordered  Gen.  Putnam  with  a  force  of  5,000  men  to  defend  Long 
Island.  A  severe  engagement  took  place  Aug.  27,  in  which  the 
Americans  were  defeated  with  a  loss  of  2,000  men.  The  remnant 
of  the  American  army  escaped  almost  miraculously  in  a  fog  to  New 
York.  Washington  evacuated  New  York  and  retreated  to  White 
Plains,  where  another  engagement  resulted  in  favor  of  the   British. 

90.  Howe  now  determined  to  enter  New  Jersey  hut  first  cap- 
tured Fort  Washington  with  its  garrison  of  3,000  men.  Washing- 
ton left  5,000  men  under  Gen.  Charles  Lee  for  the  defence  of  the 
upper  part  of  New  York  State.  With  the  remainder  of  his  forces 
he  began  the  memorable  retreat  through  New  Jersey. 

91.  Lord  Cornwallis  closely  pressed  the  retreating  army  which 
dared  not  offer  battle  to  his  superior  forces.  Washington  took 
refuge  across  the  Delaware  River,  his  dispirited  army  reduced  to 
3,000  men  by  expiration  of  service,  and  desertion.  Washington  re- 
peatedly ordered  Lee  to  join  him  but  the  latter  failed  to  move.  He, 
it  has  since  been  discovered,  meditated  betraying  his  command  to 
the  enemy. 

92.  A  bold  stroke  was  necessary  to  revive  the  sinking  cause. 
Washington  crossed  the  Delaware  with  1,500  men  amid  great  dan- 
ger from  floating  ice.  He  surprised  the  Hessians  (German  troops 
hired  by  George  III)  at  Trenton  and  captured  1,000  prisoners  with 
a  loss  of  only  four  men.  The  whole  American  army  now  crossed 
to  Trenton.  Cornwallis  resolved  to  make  an  attack.  Washington 
by  another  bold  move  fell  upon  the  British  rear  and  defeated  it  at 
Princeton.  Washington  now  went  into  winter  quarters  at  Morris- 
town. 

93.  The  year  (1776)  closed  in  gloom  for  the  Americans.  Had 
it  not  been  for  the  brilliant  exploits  at  Trenton  and  Princeton  their 
cause  would  have  appeared  utterly  hopeless. 

94.  1777. — There  wem  iivo  campaigns  this  year,  one  conducted 
by  Washington  against  Howe  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  and 
the  other  by  Gates  against  Burgoyne  in  Northern  New  York. 
Gov.  Tryon  also  led  a  party  <>f  British  into  Connecticut.  The 
raiders  burned  the  town  of  Danbury  with  military  stores.  They 
did  not  escape  without  severe  punishment. 

95.  By  May,  Washington  had  10,000  men,  while  the  British 
army  numbered  30,000.  The  object  of  the  latter  was  to  capture 
Philadelphia.      Howe    embarked    from    Staten    Island    an    army    of 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

iS,ooo  men  which  landed  at  Elkton,  Md.,  marched  north  to  the 
Brandywine  River  and  encountered  the  Americans  at  Chad's  Ford. 
A  severe  battle  ensued,  Sept.  n.  The  Americans  were  defeated 
with  a  loss  of  1,200  men.  The  British  occupied  Philadelphia, 
Sept.  26. 

96.  Washington  determined  to  attack  a  British  detachment  at 
Germantown.  The  Americans  were  defeated  Oct.  4,  with  a  loss  of 
1,200.  The  British  wintered  in  Philadelphia.  The  Americans  re- 
tired to  Valley  Forge  to  endure  the  horrors  of  destitution  and  expos- 
ure to  a  rigorous  winter.  During  the  campaign,  Lafayette,  a  young 
French  nobleman,  offered  his  services  to  Washington  and  received 
a  command. 

97.  Burgoyne  invaded  New  York  by  way  or  Lake  Cham- 
plain  early  in  the  spring  with  10,000  men.  Clinton  co-operated 
by  a  movement  up  the  Hudson,  the  object  being  to  cut  New  Eng- 
land off  from  the  other  colonies.  Burgoyne  advanced  from  Crown 
Point  and  captured  Ticonderoga.  The  garrison  retreated  to  Fort 
Edward.  Here  the  American  General  Schuyler  (Ski' ler)  had 
4,000  men.  lie  retreated  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mohawk  and  de- 
laved  the  British  advance  by  felling  trees  across  the  road. 

98.  The  British  began  to  run  short  of  supplies  and  a  detach- 
ment was  sent  to  capture  a  quantity  of  stores  at  Bennington,  Ver- 
mont. Colonel  Stark  with  a  few  hundred  militia  defeated  the 
British,  inflicting  heavy  loss.  A  British  attack  on  Fort  Schuyler 
(now  Home)  also  failed.  The  savage  Indian  allies  of  the  British, 
finding  war  no  pastime,  deserted  rapidly. 

99.  After  great  delay  Burgoyne  advanced  about  the  middle  of 
August  to  Stillwater,  where  occurred  the  indecisive  battle  of  Bemis 
Heights,  Sept.  19.  A  second  battle  Oct.  7,  resulted  in  favor  of  the 
Americans  now  under  Gen.  Gates.  Burgoyne  was  surrounded  at 
Saratoga.  Clinton  had  failed  to  accomplish  his  object.  The  flower 
of  the  British  army  commanded  by  a  proud  representative  of  the 
British  aristocracy,  was  obliged  to  surrender.  The  whole  British 
army  6,000  strong,  laid  down  their  arms  Oct.  17. 

100.  Burgoyne's  surrender  filled  the  land  with  joy.  In  Eng- 
land the  news  was  received  with  profound  consternation.  Com- 
missioners were  sent  (177^)10  America  offering  the  colonies  all 
they  asked  if  they  would  only  become  loyal  subjects  of  the  crown. 
These  proposals  were  promptly  rejected.  In  France  the  news  was 
received  with  rejoicings.  Benjamin  Franklin  was  then  a  commis- 
sioner for  the  United  States  at  the  Court  of  France  to  urge  an  alli- 
ance between  the  two  countries.  Burgoyne's  defeat  paved  the  way 
for  a  complete  understanding,  and  by  the  treaty  entered  into  early 
next  year,  the  king  of  France  pledged  himself  to  aid  the  Americans 
with  troops  and  money. 

101.  L778.— Distinguished  foreigners  now  began  to  oiler  their 

1  t  >      1 

•vices    to    the    American    cause.      Among    them    were    the   I  oles, 


H/STORT.  339 

Thaddeus  Kosciusko  and  Count  Puiaski,  and  the  Germans,  Baron 
De  Kalb  and  Baron  Steuben.  In  April  a  French  fleet  sailed  for 
America  commanded  by  Count  D'Estaing  (Des-tang' .) 

102.  The  British  evacuated  Philadelphia  in  June,  and  marched 
toward  New  York.  Washington  overtook  them  at  Monmouth 
where  a  severe  engagement  occurred  with  indecisive  results.  Gen. 
Lee  positively  refused  to  obey  orders.  He  was  tried  and  relieved 
from  service. 

103.  In  July  the  settlement  of  Wyoming,  in  Pennsylvania,  was 
attacked  by  Tories  and  Indians,  and  the  whole  people  massacred. 
Cherry  Valley  in  New  York  shared  the  same  fate  in  November. 
Next  summer  Gen.  Sullivan  marched  into  the  Indian  country  and 
severely  punished  the  savages  in  retaliation. 

104.  1779.  The  South. — Late  in  December,  1778,  and  early 
in  January,  the  British  overran  Georgia.  The  English  expected 
to  receive  great  aid  from  the  tories.  But  a  party  of  the  latter  were 
totally  defeated  at  Kettle  Creek,  South  Carolina,  by  Col.  Pickens. 
This  tended  to  check  further  risings. 

105.  In  March  Gen.  Lincoln,  then  in  command  of  the  army 
in  the  South,  attempted  to  regain  Georgia,  but  the  force  sent 
under  Gen.  Ashe  was  defeated  by  Gen.  Prevost,  at  Brier  Creek. 
In  September  the  French  fleet  under  D'Estaing  appeared  off 
Savannah  with  6,000  troops,  and  Gen.  Lincoln  co-operated, 
with  a  view  to  capturing  the  place.  The  allies  were  repulsed 
with  a  loss  of  1,000  men.  Among  the  killed  was  the  brave 
Pulaski. 

106.  In  the  North.— The  British  inaugurated  a  merciless 
predatory  warfare.  Two  successive  expeditions  ravaged  Connec- 
ticut. Another  partially  destroyed  Norfolk  and  Portsmouth  in 
Virginia.  An  expedition  from  New  York  captured  Stony  Point 
and  Verplank's  Point. 

107.  Stony  Point  was  recaptured  by  Gen.  Anthony  Wayne. 
A  night  assault  was  made  and  the  whole  garrison,  1,500  strong, 
surrendered.  This  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  victories  of  the 
war.  Paulas  Hook  was  also  surprised  by  the  Americans  under 
Major  Henry  Lee. 

108.  A  brilliant  naval  victory  was  achieved  by  Paul  Jones 
off  the  coast  of  Yorkshire,  England.  He  commanded  the  Bott 
Homme  Richard.  That  vessel  fell  in  with  the  Scrapis,  a  fine  Eng- 
lish frigate,  which,  with  a  smaller  vessel,  was  convoying  a  fleet  of 
merchantmen.  After  a  desperate  and  bloody  struggle  the  enemy's 
ships  surrendered.  The  Richard  sunk  soon  after  the  engagement, 
allowing  barelv  time  for  the  transfer  of  her  crew. 

109.  The  year  1779  was  a  gloomy  one  for  the  Americans. 
They  iiad  achieved  no  lasting  success.  The  Continental  money 
was  so  depressed  in  value  that  from  thirty  to  sixtv  dollars  were  re- 
quired to  equal  one  dollar   in    ;pe<  To    purchase    supplies    with 


:;:;<)  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

such  money  was  impossible.      The  Continental  soldiers  were  desti- 
tute, and  beginning  to  murmur. 

110.  1780.  The  South. —  In  April  Gen.  Clinton  began  the 
siege  of  Charleston.  Attempts  to  relieve  the  garrison  failed  and 
Gen.  Lincoln,  with  5,000  men,  surrendered  May  12.  Clinton 
sailed  for  New  York  and  left  Lord  Cornwallis  in  command.  Gen. 
Gates  was  appointed  commander  of  the  American  forces. 

111.  The  two  armies  met  near  Camden  and  the  Americans 
were  defeated  with  heavy  loss.  After  the  battle  the  British  treated 
the  inhabitants  with  great  barbarity.  Ever  since  the  surrender  of 
Charleston,  Marion,  Sumter,  and  other  leaders,  had  been  carrying 
on  an  active  and  successful  partisan  warfare.  Several  of  these 
chiefs  united  their  forces  and  attacked  a  large  body  of  British  and 
Tories  at  King's  Mountain.  The  enemy  were  completely  routed 
with  a  loss  of  1,100  killed,  wounded  and  missing.  The  patriots 
lost  only  twenty  men.  In  December  Gates  was  superseded  by 
Nathaniel  Greene. 

112.  1781. — In  January  Greene  sent  Gen.  Morgan  with  1,000 
men  to  check  the  British  in  western  South  Carolina.  Morgan 
completely  defeated  Col.  Tarleton  at  Cowpens,  Jan.  17.  Corn- 
wallis at  once  started  with  his  main  force  in  pursuit  of  Morgan. 

113.  Greene  joined  Morgan  and  with  great  skill  succeeded  in 
escaping  from  Cornwallis  across  the  Dan  River  into  Virginia. 
Cornwallis  withdrew  into  North  Carolina.  Greene  followed.  A 
severe  but  indecisive  engagement  took  place  at  Guilford  Court 
House  March  15.  Cornwallis  withdrew  toward  Wilmington  and 
soon  marched  into  Virginia.  The  British  forces  left  in  South  Car- 
olina were  under  command  of  Lord  Bawdon.  Greene  determined 
to  push  the  enemy  in  that  quarter.  Greene  attacked  the  British  at 
Hobkirk's  Hill,  and  although  the  advantage  was  with  the  British, 
Rawdon  retreated  in  the  direction  of  Charleston.  In  May  the 
Americans  assaulted  Ninety-Six,  but  were  repulsed.  On  Sept.  S 
a  bloody  but  indecisive  engagement  occurred  at  Eutaw  Springs. 
The  British  retreated  to  Charleston  and  at  the  close  of  the  vear 
that  city  and  .Savannah  were  the  only  points  of  importance  held 
by  them  in  the  South.  Gen.  Greene,  though  never  winning  a  de- 
cisive battle,  had  proved  a  successful  general. 

114.  Arnold's  treason  was  the  event  of  greatest  importance 
in  the  North.  Arnold  agreed  to  surrender  Stony  Point,  with  all 
its  valuable  stores,  to  the  enemy  for  10,000  pounds  sterling  and  a 
commission  in  the  British  army.  Major  Andre  (An-dray'\  was 
senl  up  the  Hudson  by  Gen.  Clinton  to  conduct  the  negotiations. 
Andre  was  arrested  while  passing  the  lines,  by  three  militiamen. 
lie  was  tried  and  hung  as  a  spy.      Arnold  escaped. 

115.  In  the  summer  of"  1780  a  French  fleet  with  6,000  soldiers 
arrived  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  commanded  by  Count  de 
Rochambeau    {Rosh-atn-bo'  ).      This  force  did  nothing  that  year. 


HISTORT.  331 

116.  1781.  Mutiny. —  The  privations  of  the  American  soldiers 
had  been  very  great  in  their  winter  quarters  at  Morristown,  New 
Jersey.  On  New  Year  day,  1,300  of  the  Pennsylvania  line  quit 
camp  with  the  intention  of  marching  to  Philadelphia  and  demand- 
ins  relief  of  Congress.  Promises  of  relief  induced  them  to  return 
to  duty.  A  number  of  the  New  Jersey  troops  mutinied  soon  after. 
In  this  crisis  Congress  appointed  Robert  Morris,  of  Philadel- 
phia, as  financial  agent  of  the  government.  He  was  a  wealthy 
merchant  of  Philadelphia  and  an  able  financier.  lie  and  his  friends 
pledged  their  private  fortunes  to  the  payment  of  debts  to  be  con- 
tracted.     Affairs  were  soon  in  much  better  condition. 

117.  The  Final  Campaign. — Benedict  Arnold,  with  1,600  men, 
invaded  Virginia.  He  advanced  from  Norfolk  as  far  as  Richmond, 
committing  great  depredations.  In  the  meantime,  Cornwallis  as- 
sumed command  of  all  the  British  forces  in  Virginia.  La  Fayette 
was  ordered  to  watch  his  movements.  Clinton  ordered  Cornwallis 
to  take  up  a  position  near  the  coast.  He  feared  that  Washington 
would  attack  New  York,  and  wanted  the  forces  under  Cornwallis 
to  be  ready  to  take  ships  and  come  to  the  assistance  of  that  place. 
Cornwallis  chose  Yorktown  and  fortified  the  place. 

118.  Washington  kept  up  the  pretense  of  preparing  to  attack 
New  York,  while  really  marching  the  main  body  of  his  army  to- 
ward Virginia.  Washington,  with  the  combined  American  and 
French  armies,  appeared  before  Yorktown,  Sept.  2S,  and  at  once 
began  the  siege.  A  French  fleet  under  Count  de  Grasse  (  Grass) 
blockaded  the  Chesapeake.  A  naval  battle  occurred,  in  which  the 
British  were  worsted. 

119.  The  besieged  numbered  8,000;  the  forces  under  Wash- 
ington amounted  to  16,000.  The  bombardment,  kept  up  by  100 
guns,  was  terrible,  and  the  British  loss  heavy.  The  besiegers  grad- 
ually advanced.  On  the  night  of  Oct.  14th  the  "outer  works  were 
carried  by  storm.  One  portion  of  the  work  had  been  assigned  to 
the  Americans,  another  to  the  French.  So  eager  were  the  as- 
sailants that  they  entered  the  different  redoubts  almost  simultan- 
eouslv.  Seeing  resistance  hopeless,  Cornwallis  surrendered  his  en- 
tire force  of  over  7,000  men.  Seventy-five  brass  and  thirty-one 
iron  cannons  were  among  the  war  material. 

120.  A  swift  courier  carried  the  news  to  Congress  at  Philadel- 
phia. That  body  went  to  church  and  turned  the  afternoon  into  a 
thanksgiving.  The  rejoicing  was  great  everywhere,  for  the  people 
realized  that  the  war  was  over.  In  England  the  war  party  were 
beside  themselves  with  mortification.  But  a  great  many  were 
secretly  glad.      A  new  ministry  was  formed  favorable  to  peace. 

121.  In  17S2  Parliament  appointed  Richard  Oswald  to  confer 
with  the  American  commissioners  in  Paris.  Oswald  on  the  part  <>f 
Great  Britain  and  Benjamin  Franklin,  John  Adams,  Henry  Laurens 
and  John  Jay  on  the  part  of  the  United  States,  signed  a  preliminary 


882  TEACH E US  AXD  STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

treaty  of  peace,  Nov.  30,  1782.  The  final  Treaty  of  Paris  conclud- 
ing peace  between  all  the  nations  at  war,  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  France,  Spain  and  Holland  was  signed,  Nov.  3,  1783,  £*V/// 
years  after  the  beginning  of  the  war.  In  December  of  the  same 
year  Washington  delivered  an  address  to  Congress  then  sitting  at 
Annapolis  and  resigned  his  commission  as  commander-in-chief.  » 

122.  The  Treaty  granted  fully  the  independence  of  the  United 
States,  with  territory  extending  to  the  Mississippi  excepting  Florida, 
which  Great  Britain  re-ceded  to  Spain.  The  citizens  of  the  United 
States  were  guaranteed  the  free  right  of  navigating  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Great  Lakes. 

THE     CONFEDERATION. 

123.  The  imperfections  in  the  form  of  government  were  very 
apparent.  The  confederated  government  might  contract  debts  but 
had  no  power  to  levy  taxes  for  their  payment;  Congress  could  only 
recommend  that  each  colony  pay  its  just  indebtedness.  Some  of  the 
colonies  provided  for  their  debts  while  others  found  themselves 
unable  to  do  so  through  poverty  and  the  ravages  of  war.  The 
conflict  had  cost  the  colonies  exclusive  of  private  losses  about 
$130,000,000.  There  was  great  popular  discontent  which  threat- 
ened the  very  existence  of  the  government. 

124.  In  Massachusetts  the  people  to  the  number  of  2,000 
assembled  in  arms  to  demand  the  suspension  of  the  taxes.  The 
malcontents  were  led  by  one  Daniel  Shay,  hence  the  rising  was 
called  Shay's  Rebellion.     It  was  quelled  without  bloodshed. 

125.  Finally  it  was  agreed  to  call  a  "  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion "  for  the  purpose  of  remodeling  the  government.  The  Con- 
vention met  at  Philadelphia,  in  May,  1787.  Geo.  Washington  was 
elected  presiding  officer.  After  four  months'  deliberation  a  "  Con- 
stitution "  was  agreed  on  and  signed  to  go  into  effect  as  soon  as  two- 
thirds  of  the  States  should  ratify  it.  The  States  were  slow  to  ratify 
it  as  they  were  jealous  of  signing  away  their  powers.  It  was 
finally  adopted  by  all  and  went  into  effect,  March  4,  1789.  (See 
Civil  Gov't.)  George  Washington  was  elected  first  President. 
On  the  subject  of  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  there  were  two 
parties,  Federalist  and  Anti-Federalist.  The  latter,  a  numerous 
party,  were  opposed  to  granting  too  great  powers  to  the  general 
government.  » 

THE     (  ON'STITUTIONAI.    PERIOD,    I  789 —  1SS2. 

Washington's  Administration,  1789 — 1797- 

126.  Washington  was  inaugurated  at  New  York,  then  the 
capital,  April  30,  1789.  yohn  Adams  had  been  elected  Vice-Presi- 
dent. Congi  ess  decreed  that  four  departments  should  pertain  to 
the  executive   branch   of  the  government,   State,    Treasury,    War 


1IISTORT.  383 

and  JLaxv.  The  heads  of  these  were  respectively  TJws.  yeffcrson, 
Alexander  Hamilton,  Henry  Knox  and  Edmund  Randolph.  These 
four  constituted  the  Cabinet.  Hamilton  at  once  adopted  wise 
financial  measures.  By  his  advice  the  war  debt  of  the  general 
government  and  of  the  States  was  funded  and  afterward  paid. 
The  old  Continental  Money  was  never  redeemed.  With  improved 
finances  a  period  of  great  prosperity  set  in. 

127.  Important  Events. — Northwestern  Territory  organized 
1789,  included  all  territory  from  the  Ohio  to  the  Mississippi  and  the 
lakes.  Southwest  territory  organized,  1790.  Population,  first 
census,  3,929,214.  Capital  located  in  District  of  Columbia.  St. 
Clair  defeated  by  the  Indians  in  Ohio,  1791.  The  French  Minister, 
Genet,  tries  to  embroil  the  country  in  war  with  England,  1793. 
Wayne  totally  defeats  the  Indians  on  the  Maumec,  i794«  Whiskey 
insurrection  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  1794.  .States  admitted — 
Vermont,  1791;  Kentucky,  1792;  Tennessee,  1J96. 

"John  Adams's Adwi nist tuition,  1797 — 1801. 

128.  Federalist  Victory. — The  country  continued  prosper- 
ous. Difficulties  with  the  French  Republic  almost  resulted  in 
war.  France  felt  affgfrieved  that  the  United  States  did  not  assist  her 
in  her  war  with  England.  The  United  States  wisely  determined 
to  remain  strictly  neutral.  The  French  adopted  oppressive  trade 
regulations  which  greatly  injured  American  commerce.  Their 
privateers  captured  many  American  vessels,  Congress  authorized 
reprisals,  and  war  actually  began  on  the  ocean.  The  U.  S.  frigate 
Constellation  after  a  desperate  engagement  captured  the  French 
frigate  Insurgent,  Feb.,  1799.  Napoleon  who  came  into  power  the 
same  year  concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  with  this  country.  The 
death  of  Washington  which  occurred  at  Mount  Vernon  Dec.  14, 
1799,  caused  universal  grief  among  the  American  people. 

129.  Important  Events. — The  seat  of  government  was  per- 
manently removed  to  Washington,  1800.  Population  by  the 
second  census  (1800)  5,308,483.  "  Alien  and  sedition  laws"  were 
stringent  acts  against  unfriendly  aliens.  These  laws  were  very 
unpopular. 

Thomas   Jeffersorfs  .  Administration,  id'oi — 1809. 

130.  Jefferson,  a  native  of  Virginia,  was    elected    as    an    Anti- 
federalist  or  as  the  party  then  began  to  be  called,    a   Republican. 

One  of  the  great  issues  of  the  campaign  was  the  expediency  of 
continuing  the  "Alien  and  sedition"  laws.  The  first  law  gave  the 
President  the  right  of  expelling  foreigners  from  the  country;  the 
second  subjected  any  person  saying  or  publishing  anything  false  or 
malicious  about  the  President  or  Congress,  to  fine  or  imprison- 
ment. The  Republicans  opposed  these  laws.  They  expired  by 
limitation. 


334  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

131.  Important  Events. — Jefferson  introduced  great  simplicity 
into  the  etiquette  of  the  capital.  Economy  in  government  expendi- 
tures. Purchase  of  Louisiana  for  $15,000,000  from  France.  It 
included  a  large  part  of  the  vast  region  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
War  with  Tripoli  1S01-1S03.  The  frigate  Philadelphia  cap- 
tured by  the  Tripolitans.  Recaptured  and  burned  by  the  Ameri- 
cans. Commodore  Preble  bombards  Tripoli.  The  bashaw  com- 
pelled to  sue  for  peace.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  exploring  expedition 
across  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  down  the  Columbia,  1804. 
Hamilton  killed  in  a  duel  at  Weehawken,  N.  Y.  by  Aaron  Burr, 
July,  1804.  Burr  accused  of  designing  to  establish  a  Southwestern 
Empire  with  capital  at  New  Orleans.  Tried  for  treason  and 
acquitted.      Believed  guilty. 

132.  Difficulties  with  England  and  France. —  In  Europe  a 
great  war  was  going  on  between  France  and  England,  the  latter 
allied  at  various  times  with  most  of  the  other  nations  of  Europe. 
The  United  States,  being  neutral,  found  it  very  profitable  carrying 
the  "-oods  of  those  nations  whose  vessels  had  been  swept  from  the 
seas.  In  the  Berlin  Decree  Napoleon  declared  the  British  Islands 
in  a  state  of  blockade  and  all  British  property  of  any  kind  found 
within  the  dominion  of  France  or  her  allies,  subject  to  seizure. 
England  declared,  by  "  Orders  in  Council,"  a  blockade  of  the  coast 
of  Europe  from  Brest  to  the  Elbe,  Jan.  7,  1S07.  Napoleon  in  turn 
issued  his  Milan  Decree,  which  subjected  to  seizure  any  vessel  trading 
to  or  from  any  British  port  whatsoever.  Between  the  two  belliger- 
ents the  commerce  of  the  United  States  was  swept  from  the  seas. 

133.  The  British  government  also  claimed  the  right  of  search, 
that  is  of  searching  American  vessels  for  the  purpose  of  reclaiming 
deserters  and  impressing  sailors  born  in  Great  Britain  into  the 
British  navy.  In  June,  1S07,  the  British  frigate  Leopard  demanded 
four  men  on  board  the  American  frigate  Chesapeake.  The 
American  captain  refused  and  the  Leopard  at  once  opened  fire,  kill- 
ing three  men  and  wounding  eighteen.  The  Chesapeake,  unpre- 
pared for  action,  struck  her  colors.  Three  of  the  men  taken  proved 
to  be  American  citizens. 

134.  Jefferson  issued  a  proclamation  forbidding  all  British  ves- 
sels from  entering  American  ports  until  reparation  was  made.  An 
embargo  was  decreed  in  December  by  Congress.  All  American 
vessels  were  forbidden  from  taking  cargoes  from  our  ports.  This 
measure  caused  much  distress  and  did  no  good.  Matters  grew 
gradually  worse  between  England  and  the  United  States  and 
soon  ended  in  war.  The  slave  trade  was  abolished  by  law 
Jan.  1,  1 80S. 

James   Afadisorfs  Administration,  180Q-1817. 

135.      Madison  was  a  Republican,    but   that    party    now  began 
to  be  called  Democrats.      In  March,    1S09,   the    Non-Intercourse 


•t  HISTORT.  335 

Act  was  passed,  forbidding  all  commerce  with  England  and  France. 
This  also  failed  to  remedy  the  evils.  An  Indian  war  broke  out  in 
Indiana.  Gen.  Harrison,  governor  of  the  territory,  defeated  the 
Indians  in  the  severe  battle  of  Tippecanoe,  near  the  present  city  of 
Lafayette  (1811). 

WAR     WITH    GREAT    BRITAIN. 

136.  In  November,  1S10,  France  revoked  the  "  Milan  decree," 
as  far  as  the  United  States  were  concerned.  The  President  then 
declared  thixtjrce  commerce  existed  with  France.  The  non-inter- 
course act  was  rigidly  enforced  against  Great  Britain,  and  the  latter 
continued  seizing  vessels  as  prizes  and  exercising  the  right  of 
search.  The  country  was  largely  in  favor  of  war,  and  the  motto, 
"  Free  Trade  and  Sailors'  Rights"  resounded  through  the  land. 

137.  In  May,  1811,  the  American  frigate  President,  when  off 
the  capes  of  Virginia,  hailed  the  British  sloop-of-war  Little  Belt. 
A  shot  was  returned  for  an  answer.  A  brisk  action  ensued,  and 
the  British  vessel  was  soon  disabled,  with  a  loss  of  eleven  killed 
and  twenty-one  wounded.  This  affair  caused  great  satisfaction, 
for  during  the  eight  years  preceding  nine  hundred  American  mer- 
chantmen had  been  captured  by  the  British.  The  country  was 
prosperous  and  well  able  to  seek  satisfaction.  The  population  by 
the  third  census  (18 10)  was  7,239,881. 

138.  1812. — War  was  declared  June  19.  Gen.  Henry  Dear- 
born was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  arm  v.  Events  in 
the  West. — Invasion  of  Canada  determined  on.  Hull  crosses  at 
Sandwich,  but  retreats  to  Detroit.  Surrenders  Detroit  without 
firing  a  shot.  Great  indignation  at  Hull's  incompetency.  Fort 
Dearborn  (Chicago)  captured  and  part  of  the  garrison  massacred  by 
the  Indians.  In  the  East  the  Americans  crossed  the  Niagara 
River  from  Lewiston  and  attacked  Queenstown  Heights.  The 
attack  failed  chiefly  because  the  American  militia  refused  to  cross 
the  river  to  support  the  attacking  column. 

139.  Naval  Victories. — To  compensate  for  want  of  success 
on  land  the  United  States  navy  won  a  series  of  brilliant  victories 
which  were  desperately  contested.  The  American  frigate  Essex, 
Capt.  Porter,  captured  the  sloop-of-war  Alert.  The  Constitution, 
Captain  Hull,  captured  the  frigate  Guerriere  (  Gare-yarc'  )  off  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  The  Wasp,  Capt.  Jones,  captured  the  brig 
Frolic  off  Virginia;  Wasp  at  once  recaptured  by  the  Poictiers. 
The  frigate  United  States,  Commodore  Decatur,  captured  the 
frigate  Macedonian  south  of  the  Azores.  The  frigate  Constitution 
captured  the  frigate  Java  off  Brazil.  Privateers  took  about  300 
British  vessels. —  Madison  re-elected. 

140.  1813.  In  the  West. —  The  American  General  Winches- 
ter surrenders  at  Frenchtown  ('Mich).  "Massacre  of  the  River 
Raisin."      Many  of  the  prisoners  butchered  by  the  Indian  allies  of 


396  TEACHERS'  A.VD  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

the  British.  Gen.  Harrison  besieged  at  Fort  Meigs,  at  the  Maumee 
rapids.  British  compelled  to  retire.  Brave  defence  of  Fort  Ste- 
phenson (Fremont,  O.)  by  Col.  Croghan.  British  repulsed  with 
great  slaughter.  Com.  Perry  superintends  the  building  of  a  fleet 
and  captures  the  British  squadron  on  Lake  Erie.  Harrison  invades 
Canada  and  defeats  the  British  and  Indians  in  the  battle  of  the 
Thames,  Oct.  5.     Tecumseh,  the  celebrated  chieftain,  slain. 

141.  The  Army  of  the  Center  captures  York  (now  Toronto ). 
Gen.  Dearborn  takes  Fort  George  and  the  whole  of  the  Canada 
side  of  the  Niagara  River.  The  British  recapture  Fort  George  and 
invade  New  York,  plundering  and  burning.  The  Army  of  the 
North  moves  from  Lake  Champlain  to  capture  Montreal,  hut  the 
expedition  comes  to  naught. 

142.  Naval  Battles. — The  American  sloop-of-war  Hornet 
captures  the  brig  Peacock.  The  British  frigate  Shannon  captures 
the  Chesapeake,  Capt.  Lawrence,  off  Boston.  The  Pelican  captures 
the  American  brig  Argus.  The  British  vessel  Boxer  captured, 
off  Maine,  by  the  Enterprise.  A  British  squadron  ravages  the 
shores  of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  commits  shocking  brutalities  at 
Hampton,  Va. 

143.  1814.  Northern  Campaign. —Gen.  Brown  invades  Can- 
ada and  takes  Fort  Erie,  July  3.  British  defeated  at  Chippewa, 
Jul)-  5,  and  at  Lundy's  Lane,  July  25.  Loss  in  the  latter  battle  800 
on  each  side.  The  British  besiege  Fort  Erie  5,000  strong.  Arc 
repulsed.     Americans  evacuate  the  fort  ami  return  to  New  York. 

144.  Battle  of  Lake  Champlain. — Sir  George  Prevost  invade- 
New  York  with  an  army  14,000  strong.  Advances  to  Plattsburg. 
Four  days"  heavy  skirmishing.  Com.  McDonough,  commanding 
the  American  squadron,  captures  the  greater,  part  of  the  British 
fleet  after  a  desperate  battle  lasting  two  hours  and  a  half,  Sept.  II. 
Precipitate  retreat  of  the  British  with  a  loss  in  all   of  2,500. 

145.  In  the  South. — A  large  British  squadron  entered  the 
Chesapeake,  in  August,  with  the  intention  of  capturing  Washing- 
ton. Gen.  Winder  with  4,000  men  prepared  to  meet  the  enemy 
under  Gen.  Boss  with  5,000  men.  In  the  battle  of  Bladensburg 
the  Americans  were  defeated.  The  British  sacked  Washington 
and  burned  the  capitol,  Aug.  ^4.  Ross  sailed  from  Washington  to 
Baltimore.  He  landed  at  North  Point  and  was  killed  in  a  skirmish. 
Fort  MeHenry  was  vigorously  bombarded,  hut  no  impression  was 
made  on  it,  and  the  British    withdrew. 

146.  Naval  Battles. — On  the  28th  of  March  the  Essex,  Com- 
modore Porter,  was  captured  by  two  British  vessels,  the  Phoebe 
and  Cherub,  after  a  desperate  engagement,  while  in  neutral  waters 
off  Valparaiso,  Chili.  The  Frolic  was  captured  by  :i  British  ves- 
sel.    The  Peacock  and  Wasp  each  captured  a  British  vessel. 

147.  Tohopeka.— On  March  jy  Gen.  Jackson  defeated  the 
hostile  Creeks  al   Tohopeka,  on  the  Tallapoosa  River,  in  Alabama. 


HISTORY .  337 

Nearly  1,000  Indians  fell.  The  remainder  of  the  tribe  sent  in 
their  submission. 

148.  1815.— The  Battle  of  New  Orleans,  Jan.  8,  was   the  last 

great  battle  of  the  war.  Gen.  Jackson  hastily  fortified  the  city. 
His  army  numbered  about  6,ooo  men;  the  British  army  numbered 
twice  as  many,  under  Sir  Edward  Pakenham.  The  British  cap- 
tured the  American  fleet  on  Lake  Borgne  and  advanced  to  assault 
the  breastworks.  They  were  repulsed  with  terrible  slaughter, 
losing  2,000  men,  including  Pakenham  killed,  while  the  American 
loss  was  only  eight  killed  and  thirteen  wounded.  A  Treaty  of 
Peace  had  meantime  been  signed  Dec.  14,  1814. 

149.  Naval  Battles. — On  Feb.  20  the  Constitution  captured 
two  British  vessels,  the  Cyane  and  the  Levant.  On  March  2$  the 
Hornet  captured  the  British  Penguin  off  Brazil.  This  ended 
hostilities. 

150.  The  treaty  of  Ghent  really  settled  none  of  the  questions 
involved.  It  was  silent  as  to  the  "  right  of  search"  and  the  seizure 
of  vessels.  But  the  wholesome  chastisement  received  by  Great 
Britain  taught  her  a  lesson  on  these  points  which  she  never  forgot. 
Our  flag  was  now  respected  by  all  nations.  Peace  caused  universal 
joy  throughout  the  country,  and  gave  no  less  satisfaction  in  Great 
Britain.  Our  commerce  was  ruined  and  our  debt  was  $100,000,- 
000,  but  jjrosperity  at  once  set   in. 

151.  A  War  with  the  Barbary  States  occurred  in  iS  1 5.  Com. 
Decatur  captured  some  Algerian  vessels  ami  compelled  the  Dey  to 
sign  a  treaty  which  put  an  end  to  piracy  in  the  Mediterranean. 
Tunis  and   Tripoli  were  also  punished. 

y antes  Monroe's  Administration,  1817-1823. 

152.  Important  Events. — Gen.  Jackson  invaded  Florida,  which 
led  to  complications  resulting  in  the  purchase  of  the  territory  for 
$5,000,000,  1S19.  The  slavery  question  began  to  cause  angry 
discussion.  By  the  terms  of  the  Missouri  Com  promise  Missouri 
was  admitted  as  a  slave  State,  but  slavery  was  prohibited  for  the 
future  in  all  territory  north  of  360  30'.  The  Monroe  Doctrine 
promulgated  by  the  President.  The  principle  of  this  doctrine  is 
that  foreign  powers  should  not  be  allowed  to  exercise  undue  influ- 
ence upon  the  American  continent. 

John  §>uincy  Adams's  Administration,  1825-1829. 

153.  Important  Events.  Adams  was  elected  by  the  /dons, 
of  Representatives.  lie  was  originally  a  Federalist,  but  became 
a  Whig.  The  Whigs  were  a  new  party  organized  about  this  time. 
Their  opponents  continued  to  tie  called  Democrats.  John  Adams 
and  Thomas  Jefferson  both  died  July  4,  1826.  A  protective  tariff 
was  enacted  by  Congress,  1828.  The  tariff  question  has  often 
caused  much  discussion  in  American  politics. 

22 


33b  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

Andrew  Jackson's  Administration,  1829— 1837. 

154.  Important  Events. — Jackson  was  a  radical  Democrat  and 
politics  caused  much  excitement  during  his  administration.  In 
1832  occurred  the  Black  Hawk  War  in  Illinois.  The  Indians  were 
defeated  and  compelled  to  give    up  their   lands.     Nullification. — 

Resistance  to  the  protective  tariff  was  mosl  pronounced  in  the  ag- 
ricultural States,  which  profited  nothing  hy  protection  of"  ///a//ufac- 
turcs.  South  Carolina  was  specially  violent  in  her  opposition,  led 
by  John  C.  Calhoun.  The  people  of  the  State  in  convention  de- 
clared that  the  law  should  he  null  and  void  there.  Jackson  issued 
a  proclamation  saving  the  law  should  he  enforced.  This  effectually 
quelled  Nullification.  At  the  same  time  a  gradual  reduction  of 
duties  was  provided  for.  The  Seminole  War  in  Florida  lasted 
several  years.  The  Indians  finally  consented  to  he  removed  west 
of  the  Mississippi. 

Marti//   ]  'a//  Suren's  Administration,  1837-1841. 

155.  Important  Events. — Elected  by  the  Democrats.  The 
great  financial  "panic  of  '37  "  caused  widespread  distress  Rebel- 
lion in  Canada,  which  threatened  to  implicate  Americans,  1837. 

William  Henry  Harrisorfs  Administration  (onemontfi),and  yah/; 

Tyler's,  1841-1843. 

156.  During  the  campaign  there  was  intense  excitement.  The 
Whigs  had  a  large  majority  of  the  electoral  vote.  Harrison  died 
in  office,  April  4,  1841,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  Tyler. 

157.  Important  Events. — The  Whigs  wished  to  re-establish 
the  United  States  Dank,  the  hill  for  which  had  been  vetoed  by 
Jackson.  A  new  hill  was  passed,  and  was  vetoed  by  Tyler.  The 
Whigs  were  highly  indignant  at  this  and  considered  it  as  apostaey 
from  their  party  hy  the  President.  Dorr  Rebellion  in  Rhode 
Island  over  the  adoption  of  a  new  constitution.  Settled  amicably. 
Agitation  for  the  Annexation  of  Texas.  The  scheme  favored  by 
the  slave  States  and  opposed  by  the  free  States. 

James   K.    PoiPs  Administration,  1 843-1849. 

158.  Polk  was  a  Democrat.  The  great  event  of  his  adminis- 
tration was  the  Mexican  War.  Texas  had  become  a  part  of  the 
Union  July  4,  1815.  But  her  own  independence  had  never  been 
fully  acknowledged  hv  Mexico.  Texas  claimed  the  territory  to 
the  Rio  Grande,  while  Mexico  claimed  that  her  territory  should 
extend  only  to  the  Neuces.  The  United  States  government  also 
had  large  claims  against  the  Mexican  government  for  damages  in- 
dicted hy  citizens  of  Mexico  upon  citizens  of  the  United  Stales. 
Mexico  showed  no  disposition  either  to  pay  these  claims  or  to  put 
a  stop  to  border  outrages.       This  year  a   dispute  arose   with   Great 


HISTORY.  339 

Britain  over  the  Oregon  boundary.     Americans  cried  "54°  40'   or 
•fight."     The  boundary  was  fixed  at  490. 

159.  1846.— In  1S45  Gen.  Taylor  advanced  to  the  Rio 
Grande  and  built  Fort  Brown  (Brownsville).  Open  hostilities 
began  April,  1S46.  On  May  S,  Taylor,  with  2,300  men,  defeated 
6,000  Mexicans  at  Palo  Alto,  and  the  next  day  at  Besaca  de  la 
Palma  (Ray-sah'  kah  day  la  Paid' mah).  The  Mexican  loss  was 
1,000;  the  American  about  one-tenth  that  number.  On  the  18th 
Taylor  took  possession  of  Matamoras. 

160.  In  September,  Taylor,  with  6,000  men,  advanced  to  Mon- 
terey. He  besieged  the  place,  which  was  defended  by  9,000 
Mexicans.  After  a  four  days'  siege  the  city  surrendered.  The  Amer- 
icans soon  after  took  Saltillo  {Sahl-teel' yo). 

161.  The  Americans  took  possession  of  New  Mexico  and 
California.  In  the  latter  State  the  American  settlers,  who  acted 
under  the  advice  of  Col.  Fremont,  proclaimed  their  independence, 
July  5,  and  defeated  the  Mexicans  in  a  number  of  skirmishes. 

162.  1847. — Santa  Anna,  the  Mexican  commander-in-chief, 
collected  an  army  of  20,000  men  and  met  the  Americans  under 
Taylor  in  the  mountain  pass  of  Buena  Vista,  Feb.  23.  After  a 
bloody  struggle  the  Mexicans  were  completely  defeated. 

163.  Scott's  Campaign. — Gen.  \Y infield  Scott  (now  com- 
mander-in-chief) bombarded  the  castle  of  San  Juan  de  Ulloa 
{Sahn  ivahn'  day  Oo-lo' ah)  which,  with  the  city  of  Vera  Cruz, 
surrendered  March  29.  The  Americans  now  took  up  their  march 
for  the  City  of  Mexico.  The  mountain  pass  of  Cerro  Gordo  was 
stormed  and  the  Mexicans  routed.  In  August  the  Americans, 
12,000  strong,  reached  the  vicinity  of  the  capital.  The  Mexicans 
numbered  fully  30,000  men.  They  were  defeated  at  Contreras 
(Con-tray' r as),  Churubusco  {Choo-roo-boos' ho),  Molino  del  Rey 
(Mo-lee' no  del  ray),  and  at  Chapultepec  (Cka-pool-ta-pck').  On 
Sept.  14  the  army  entered  the  City  of  Mexico. 

164.  Peace  was  concluded,  Feb.  2,  1S48,  by  the  treaty  of 
Guadaloupe  Hidalgo  (Gziad-a-loop' ay  hee-dahl'  go).  New  Mex- 
ico, California  and  Utah  were  ceded  to  the  U.  S.  Mexico  re- 
ceived $15,000,000. 

Zachary  Taylor's  Administration,  March  4,  1849 — July  9,  1830, 
and  Filhnore's  July  9, 1849 — March  4,  i8jj. 

165.  Important  Events. — Taylor  was  elected  by  the  Whigs. 
The  agitation  of  the  slavery  question  was  renewed  with  bitterness. 
A  compromise  bill  introduced  by  Henry  Clay  finally  became  a 
law,  Sept.,  1850.  It  provided:  (1)  for  the  admission  of  California 
a^  a  free  State;  (2)  the  territory  of  Utah  was  organized  with  no 
mention  of  slavery;  (3)  the  territory  of  New  Mexico  was  organ- 
ized without  mention  of  slavery;  (4)  Texas  was  paid  $10,000,000 
for  lands  taken  from  her;  (5)  the  slave  trade  was  abolished  in  the 


340  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

District  of  Columbia,  and  a  more  rigorous  law  passed  for  the  re- 
turn of  fugitive  slaves.  The  Omnibus  bill,  as  it  was  called  for  a 
time,  allayed  the  excitement  on  the  subject  of  slavery. 

166.  Henry  Clay  and  Daniel  Webster  both  died  during  the 
year  1852. 

Franklin    Pierce }s   Administration,  f^'SJ—^<^S7- 

167.  Important  Events. — Pierce  a  Democrat.  By  a  new 
treaty  with  Mexico  the  United  States  paid  $20,000,000  for  an  ad- 
ditional portion  of  territory  in  Arizona,  called  the  "Gadsden  Pur- 
chase." The  Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  introduced  into  Congress  by 
Stephen  A.  Douglas,  provided  for  the  establishment  of  two  new 
territories,  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  The  question  of  slavery  was 
left  to  the  people  of  those  territories.  This  bill  was  a  violation  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise  (see  Sec.  152),  nevertheless  it  became  a 
law.  The  struggle  of  the  opposing  pro-slavery  and  anti-slavery 
parties  resulted  in  open  war  in  Kansas.  The  old  Whig  party 
practically  ceased  to  exist,  and  the  new  Republican  party,  opposed 
to  slavery,  sprang  up. 

yames  Buchanan's  Administration,  iSj;j-jS6i. 

168.  The  canvass  was  very  active,  and  the  Republicans  hoped 
to  elect  their  candidate,  John  C.  Fremont,  but  the  Democrats 
elected  Buchanan  by  a  good  majority. 

169.  A  Mormon  rebellion  broke  out  in  Utah,  in  1857,  which 
was  quelled  only  by  the  presence  of  a  U.  S.  army.  These  people 
had  caused  much  trouble  at  Nauvoo,  111.,  where  they  had  settled  at 
an  early  day.  They  also  had  difficulties  with  the  people  of  Mis- 
souri. The  Mormon  doctrines  are  unclean,  un-American  and  dan- 
gerous. These  people  have  spread  rapidly,  and  the  solution  of 
the  Mormon  question  is  to-day  one  of  difficulty  and  danger. — Emi- 
grant aid  societies  were  formed  in  the  North  for  the  colonization 
of  Kansas  with  "free  soil"  settlers.  The  South  sent  numerous  col- 
onists, and  scenes  of  violence  and  bloodshed  between  "Border  Ruf- 
fians" and  "Jay  Hawkers"  were  of  frequent  occurrence.  Among 
the  anti-slavery  men  John  Brown  was  conspicuous.  The  Terri- 
tory had  at  one  time  two  constitutions  and  two  capitals.  Kansas 
was  admitted  as  a  free  State  Jan.  30,  1861. 

170.  On  Oct.  16,  1859,  John  Brown  with  twenty-one  fol- 
lowers, seized  the  arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry,  V a.,  with  the  intention 
of  exciting  a  slave  rising.  He  was  overpowered  by  .State  and  Fed- 
eral troops,  and  several  of  his  party  killed.  He  and  six  associates 
were  hanged  by  the  authorities  of  Jefferson  county,  Ya. 

Abraham    Lincoln's   Administration,   j6'6i-iS6^. 

171.  The  campaign  in  the  fall  of  '6o  was  one  of  the  greatest 
excitement.      Tin    Democratic   party   was  split    on    the    subject   of 


HISTORY.  341 

Slavery.  The  Northern  wing  nominated  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of 
Illinois,  as  their  candidate;  the  Southerners  nominated  John  C 
Breckenridgc,  of  Kentucky;  the  remnant  of  the  old  Whig  party 
nominated  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee;  the  Republicans,  now  confident 
of  success,  nominated  Abraham  Lincoln,  of  Illinois.  Lincoln  re- 
ceived the  electoral  vote  of  every  Northern  State  except  New- 
Jersey,  and  had  a  large  majority  in  the  electoral  college,  although 
he  received  a  minority  of  the  popular  vote.  The  South  at  once 
began  to  prepare  for   war. 

CAUSES    OF    THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION. 

172.     Slavery  was  the  chief  cause  of  the  war,  but  there  were 
other  very  important  causes: 

i.  Among  the  founders  of  our  government,  both  North  and 
South,  there  was  a  decided  opposition  to  the  perpetuation  of  slavery, 
which  then  existed  in  all  the  colonies.  The  Northern  colonists 
gradually  freed  their  slaves.  In  the  South  slave  labor  paid,  hence 
there  was  a  tendency  to  ignore  the  moral  aspects  of  the  institution, 
and  look  only  at  the  'pecuniary.  The  invention  of  the  cotton  gin 
made  the  production  of  cotton  on  a  large  scale  very  profitable. 
This  could  be  accomplished  only  by  slave  labor,  hence  slavery  was 
considered  a  necessity. 

2.  The  South  was  exclusively  an  agricultural  community, 
and  was  not  benefited  by  the  tariff  laws  for  the  protection  of 
Northern  industries. 

3.  State  Rights. — The  Southern  States  have  always  held 
that  this  government  really  consisted  of  a  confederation  of  repub- 
lics which  had  delegated  to  the  general  government  certain  pow- 
ers. These  powers,  it  was  held,  might  be  resumed  at  any  time  by 
the  States.  The  right  of  secession  was  an  inevitable  consecmence 
of  this  theory. 

4.  .  Iggrcssivencss  of  Slavery. — The  slaveholders  wished  to 
occupy  new  territories  ami  establish  new  slave  States.  This  was 
contrary  to  the  sentiment  of  a  majority  of  the  Northern  people. 

5.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  North  in  wealth  and  population 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  Northern  people  settled  the  Great 
West,  were  a  constant  source  of  jealousy  to  the  South.  As  inci- 
dents in  this  great  struggle  for  supremacy  were:  (a)  the  Missouri 
Compromise  of  1820;  (b)  the  compromise'  of  1S50;  (c)  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  bill  of  [854;  (d)  the  formation  of  the  Republican  party 
hostile  to  slavery;  (e)  the  "Died  Scott  Decision"  of  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court  declaring  the  Missouri  compromise  unconstitutional 
and  affirming  the  right  of  slaveholders  to  take  their  slaves  into  an\ 
part  of  the  Union;  (f)  the  "Personal  Liberty  bills"  passed  In- 
Northern  States  declaring  all  slaves  who  entered  those  States   free 

6.  The  want  of  intercourse  between  the  two  sections.  The 
people  did  not  understand  each   other. 


342  TEACHERS"  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

7,  The    evil    influence     of    demagogues     and      sectional 
publications. 

8.  Immediate  Causes. — The  John  Brown  raid,  the  struggle 
in  Kansas,  the  election   of  Lincoln. 

i  VENTS    OF    THE    WAR,    1S61-1865. 

173.  On  the  election  of  Lincoln  the  extreme  Southern  States 
began  to  agitate  the  question  of  Secession.  South  Carolina  led  the 
way.  A  convention  called  to  consider  the  question  passed  an 
ordinance  of  secession  Dec.  20,  i860.  By  the  first  of  Feb.,  1861, 
seven  States,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana  and  Texas  had  seceded.  Nearly  all  the  govern- 
ment property  in  these  States  with  the  exception  of  Fort  Pickens 
at  Pensacola  and  Fort  Sumter  at  Charleston,  had  been  seized.  A 
government  was  established  called  the  confederate  states  of 
AMERICA  with  its  capital  at  Montgomery,  Alabama.  Jefferson 
Davis  was  elected  President. 

174.  1861. — Lincoln  was  duly  inaugurated  March  4.  The 
President  determined  to  possess  and  hold  the  forts  and  government 
property  in  the  South.  An  attempt  was  to  be  made  to  relieve 
Fort  Sumter,  but  the  Confederates  determined  on  its  immediate 
reduction.  The  fort  was  vigorously  bombarded,  April  12  and  13. 
Major  Anderson  the  commandant,  with  a  handful  of  men, 
surrendered. 

175.  The  wildest  excitement  prevailed  North  and  South. 
Lincoln  called  for  75,090  men  to  serve  for  three  months.  The  call 
was  eagerly  responded  to.  Virginia,  Arkansas,  North  Carolina 
and  Tennessee  successively  seceded.  The  Confederate  capital  was 
removed  to  Richmond,  Va.  April  19,  Massachusetts  troops 
mobbed  in  Baltimore. 

176.  In  the  East.— -Gen.  McLellan  occupied  West  Virginia 
after  a  few  unimportant  battles.  That  State  adhered  to  the  Union 
cause.  Union  troops  under  Gen.  Butler  repulsed  at  Big  Bethel, 
Va.,  June  10.  Battle  of  Bull  Run. — The  Union  army  35,000 
strong  under  Gen.  McDowell,  attempted  to  advance  on  Richmond. 
The  Confederate  army  about  equal  in  number,  was  commanded  by 
Gen.  Beauregard.  At  Bull  Run  a  bloody  battle  occurred  July  21. 
The  advantage  was  with  the  Union  troops  till  about  2  o'clock  when 
the  arrival  of  a  fresh  body  of  Confederates  under  Johnston  turned 
the  scale.  The  Union  troops  were  defeated  and  the  defeat  became 
a  rout.  The  Union  army  precipitately  fell  back  on  Washington. 
The  Union  loss  was  in  round  numbers  3,000  killed,  wounded  and 
prisoners;  the  rebel  loss  2,000.  This  the  first  great  battle  of  the 
war  struck  consternation  into  the  North  and  correspondingly  elated 
I  he  South. 

177.  Ball's  Bluff. — Oct.  21,  a  body  of  2,000  Union  troops 
crossed  the  Potomac  at  Ball's   Bluff.      They   were  attacked   by   the 


HISTORY.  343 

Confederates  and  driven  back  with  great  slaughter,  losing  800  men, 
including  (Jen.  Baker,   killed. 

178.  In  the  West. —  Early  in  the  summer  a  struggle  began 
for  the  possession  of  Missouri.  The  secessionists  were  gradually 
driven  into  the  southwestern  part  of  the  State.  Here  they  were 
reinforced  by  troops  from  the  South,  all  commanded  by  Sterling 
Price.  A  battle  took  place  at  Wilson's  Creek  near  Springfield, 
Aug.  10.  The  Union  troops  were  defeated  and  Gen.  Lyon  killed. 
Col.  Mulligan  was  obliged  to  surrender  to  a  superior  rebel  force  at 
Lexington,  Mo.,  Sept.  20.  Nov.  7,  Brigadier  General  U.  S.  Grant 
crossed  to  Belmont,  Missouri,  from  Kentucky.  A  severe  battle  took 
place  and  Grant  retreated. 

179.  Early  in  the  year  the  President  declared  all  the  coast  of 
the  seceding  States  under  blockade.  The  combined  fleet  and  army 
captured  the  Forts  at  Hatteras  Inlet,  N.  C,  Aug.  29,  and  took  Port 
Royal,  S.  C,  Nov.  27. 

180.  May  19,  Great  Britain  recognized  the  Confederate  States 
as  belligerents.  France,  Spain  and  Portugal  soon  after  did  the 
sinic.  This  gave  the  Confederates  the  right  to  be  treated  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  war  instead  of  as  mere  rebels.  In  November 
Mason  and  Slidell,  confederate  commissioners  to  England  and 
France,  were  taken  from  the  British  steamer  Trent  by  the  frigate 
San  jfacinto.  Great  Britain  at  once  began  preparing  for  war. 
The  prisoners  were  released. 

181.  A  special  session  of  Congress  provided  for  the  issue  of 
legal  tenders  (Greenbacks)  to  carry  on  the  war,  and  authorized 
the  President  to  call  for  500,000  volunteers.  The  people  of  the 
Border  Slave  States  were  much  divided  in  regard  to  the  war.  A 
majority  of  the  people  however  in  Maryland,  Kentucky,  Missouri, 
West  Virginia  and  East  Tennessee  adhered  to  the  Union  cause. 

182.  1862.  In  the  West. — Operations  began  by  the  capture 
of  Mill  Spring,  Ky.,  by  the  Union  forces  under  Gen.  Thomas. 
The  Confederate  Gen.  Zollicoffer  was  killed.  In  February  Gen. 
Grant  with  the  co-operation  of  the  gunboats  invested  and  captured 
Forts  Henry  ami  Donelson  on  the  Tennessee  line  situated  respec- 
tively on  the  Tennessee  and  Cumberland  Rivers.  About  9,000 
men  surrendered  at  Fort  Donelson,  Feb.  20.  Nashville  was 
occupied  soon  after.  Island  No.  10,  in  the  Mississippi,  the  defense 
of  that  river,  was  captured  by  Gen.  Pope,  April  7.  The  Confed- 
erates were  defeated  March  6,  7,  8,  at  Pea  Ridge,  Arkansas,  after  a 
severe  battle. 

183.  The  Confederates  everywhere  unsuccessful,  attempted  to 
surprise  the  Union  army  at  Pittsburg  Landing  on  the  Tennessee 
River.  A  desperate  and  bloody  conflict  took  place  (Battle  of 
Shiloh),  April  6  and  7.  But  for  the  timely  arrival  of  Buell's  force 
Grant's  army  would  doubtless  have  been  almost  ruined.  The  first 
day   the  Confederates  under  Beauregard  carried  everything  before 


:'AA  TEACHERS'  AXD   STUDENTS'   LI  UK  ART. 

them.      On  the  following  day  they  were  checked  and  eventually 

retreated  to  Corinth,  Miss.  The  Confederate  Gen.  Albert  Sidney 
Johnston  was  killed  in  the  first  day's  fight.  The  Union  loss  was 
about  15,000,  the  rebel  loss  11,000. 

184.  Gen.  Halleck  took  command  of  the  Union  forces  and 
confident  of  success,  pressed  on  to  the  siege  of  Corinth.  The 
.Southern   army  escaped  uninjured. 

185.  Gen.  Bragg  succeeded  Beauregard  in  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Southwest.  lie  suddenly  advanced  in  August  from 
Chattanooga  and  invaded  Kentucky  where  he  was  joined  by  Kirbv 
Smith.  A  severe  but  indecisive  battle  was  fought  at  Perryville, 
Oct.  8.  The  Confederates  retired  from  Kentucky  with  immense 
spoils.  Rosecrans  succeeded  Buell  in  command  of  the  army  of 
the  Cumberland.  On  the  31st  of  December,  1S62,  the  Confed- 
erates under  Bragg  attacked  the  army  of  the  Cumberland  com- 
manded by  Gen.  Rosecrans,  near  Murfreesboro.  This  bloody 
engagement,  called  the  battle  of  Stone  River,  continued  on  New 
Year's  day.  It  was  a  drawn  battle.  Union  force  47,000,  Confed- 
erate 35,000,  Union  loss  14,000,  killed,  wounded  and  missing; 
Confederate  loss    10,000. 

186.  In  the  East,  the  Union  forces  were  commanded   by   Gen. 
Geo.  B.  McLellan  and  the  Confederates  by  Gen.  Joseph  E.  John- 
ston and  afterward  by  Gen.  Robt.  E.  Lee.      McLellan  advanced  up 
the    "Peninsula"    from    Yorktown    to    capture    Richmond.        A 
severe  battle  took  place  May   31    and  June    1,  at  Seven  Pines  and 
Fair  Oaks  on   the  Chickahominy.      In   the   meantime   Banks  who 
was  to  march  up  the  Shenandoah  Valley   and  co-operate  with   Mc- 
Lellan, was  defeated  at   Strasburg  by  Stonewall  Jackson   and  sent 
flying  down  the  valley.  Fremont  advanced  to  intercept  Jackson  and 
the    latter  in   turn    retreated.     Jackson   struck    Shield's    division    at 
Port   Republic   completely  defeating   it,  and    marched   to  join   Lee. 
The  contest  near  Richmond  was  renewed    with   terrible  slaughter, 
Jackson  returned  and  joined  Lee.      The  Union   troops  were  driven 
from  their  position  at  Gaines's  Mill  with  heavy  loss  June  26  and  27. 
McLellan  was  obliged  to  change  base  to  the  James   River  and   on 
his  retreat  occurred  the  bloody  battle  of  Savage's  Station   June  29, 
Glendale,  June  30,  and  Malvern  Hill,  July    1.      In  the   last  action 
Lee  was  checked;  after  seven  days  incessant  fighting  the  rebels 
had  lost  about  20,000  men.      The  Union  loss  was  smaller  but   Mc- 
Lellan with   1  50,000  splendid  troops  had    failed    to  take   Richmond. 

187.  Lee  determined  to  invade  the  North  and  marched  rapidly 
toward  Washington.  In  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run  the  Union 
troops  commanded  by  Pope  were  defeated  with  terrible  loss  A.Ug. 
28-31.  McLellan  moved  by  transports  rapidly  up  the  Potomac. 
Stonewall  Jackson  had  meanwhile  captured  I  !  ,000  prisoners  at 
Harper's  Ferry.  The  two  armies  met  at  Antietam,  Md.,  where 
one  of  the  bloodiest  battles  of  the  war  was  fought,  Sept.  17.     The 


HIS  TORT.  345 

contest  was  indecisive  but  Lee  was  compelled  to  recross    the   Poto- 
mac.    McLellan  was  relieved  by  Gen.  Ambrose  E.  Burnside. 

188.  Burnside  advanced  to  Fredericksburg.  In  attempting 
to  cross  the  Rappahannock  he  was  repulsed  with  fearful  carnage, 
Dec.  ii  and  12.  The  Union  loss  was  nearly  11,000  men,  the 
rebel  loss  a  little  over  5,000. 

189.  Naval  Operations. — The  Confederate  ironclad  Merrimac 
emerged  from  Norfolk  harbor  March  S,  and  sunk  the  frigate  Con- 
gress and  sloop-of-war  Cumberland.  Next  day,  the  Monitor  hav- 
ing arrived  in  the  night,  a  drawn  battle  took  place  and  the  Merri- 
mac returned  to  Norfolk.  The  invention  of  the  Monitor  by  Capt. 
Ericsson  was  a  turning  point  in  the  war. 

190.  Farragut,  with  a  powerful  fleet,  passed  Forts  Jackson 
and  St  Philip  and  captured  New  Orleans  in  April.  The  priva- 
teers Florida  and  Alabama  committed  great  depredations  on 
Northern  shipping. 

191.  1863. — The  President  proclaimed  the  freedom  of  all 
slaves  on  New  War's  day.  In  the  East,  Gen.  Hooker  was  in 
command.  lie  crossed  the  Rappahannock  and  was  attacked  at 
Chancellorsville  May  2  and  3.  The  Union  forces  were  badly  de- 
feated with  a  loss  of  17,000  men.  The  rebel  loss  was  about  12,000, 
but  their  brilliant  leader  Stonewall  Jackson*  was  shot  through  mis- 
take by  his  own  men,  and  died  three  days  later.  The  Union  forces 
in  this  battle  were  90,000  men,  the  Confederate,  half  as  many. 

192.  Lee  again  determined  to  invade  the  North.  His  army 
arrived  in  Pennsylvania  late  in  June  and  both  sides  collected  every 
available  man  for  the  deadly  struggle.  The  Union  army  under 
Gen.  Meade  took  position  at  Gettysburg.  The  battle  began  July 
I  and  lasted  three  days.  On  the  first  day  the  Confederates  were 
successful,  on  the  second  the  Union  troops  maintained  their  ground, 
on  the  third  the  Confederates  at  midday  opened  a  terrific  cannonade 
from  two  hundred  guns  concentrated  toward  Cemetery  Hill.  The 
cannonade  ceased  and  the  Confederate  line,  three  miles  long, 
headed  by  Pickett's  Virginians,  advanced  to  storm  the  Union  line. 
After  an  awful  carnage  Lee  was  obliged  to  fall  back.  His  Loss 
was  30,000  men.  The  Union  loss  23,000.  Lee  withdrew  behind 
the  Rappahannock. 

193.  In  the  West,  Gen.  Grant  moved  early  in  the  season  for 
the  capture  of  Vieksburg  and  Port  Hudson,  which  commanded 
the  Mississippi.  His  plan  was  to  attack  from  the  rear  and  cut 
Pemberton  off  from  assistance.  In  the  battle  of  Raymond,  Miss., 
the  rebels  were  defeated  May  12,  at  Jackson  on  the  14th,  Champion 
Hills  on  the  1 6th, and  :it  Big  Black  River  on  the  17th.  Pemberton 
was  now  shut  up  in  Vieksburg  and  Johnston  was  outside  unable  to 
relieve  him.  After  a  siege  of  six  weeks,  during  which  the  be- 
sieged   suffered    the    direst    extremities,  the   city,  with   about  30,000 


*  His  real  name  •    is  Thorn  is  Jonathan  Jackson. 


340  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS  LIBRARY. 

nun  and  great  military  munitions,  surrendered  July  ^,thc  same  day 
that  Lee  retreated  from  Gettysburg. 

194.  Port  Hudson  (La.)  had  also  been  invested  by  Gen. 
Bank-.  After  the  surrender  of  Vicksburg  it  was  useless  for  that 
place  to  attempt  to  hold  out,  though  a  desperate  assault  was  re- 
pulsed. The  town  surrendered  July  9.  The  Confederacy  was 
now  completely  cut  into  t~co  parts. 

195.  In  September  Rosccrans  occupied  Chattanooga  and  ad- 
vanced into  Georgia.  Here  the  rebel  army,  reinforced  by  Long- 
street's  corps,  hurriedly  sent  from  Virginia,  attacked  the  Union  army 
at  Chickamauga.  One  of  the  bloodiest  battles  of  the  war  took 
place  Sept.  19  and  20.  The  Union  troops  were  driven  from  the 
field.  The  losses  were  frightful,  being  about  nineteen  thousand  on 
each  side. 

196.  The  Union  army  succeeded  in  retiring  safely  into  Chatta- 
nooga. Bragg  occupied  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary 
Ridge,  overlooking  the  city.  Gen.  Grant  had  been  appointed  to 
the  command  of  all  the  forces  in  the  West  and  took  the  direction 
of  affairs.  Lookout  Mountain  was  stormed  by  Gen.  Hooker  Nov. 
23.  On  the  following  day  the  entire  available  Union  force  stormed 
Missionary  Ridge  and  Bragg  was  compelled  to  retreat. 

197.  Morgan's  raid  occurred  in  the  summer  of  ''63.  With 
3,000  cavalry  he  started  from  Sparta,  Tenn.,  crossed  Kentucky,  en- 
tered Indiana,  thence  passed  entirely  across  Ohio,  and  endeavored 
•<>  escape  into  West  Virginia.  He  had  frequent  skirmishes  on  his 
march  and  his  exhausted  troops  rapidly  dwindled  in  numbers. 
The  remnants  of  the  force,  with  their  leader,  were  captured  near 
New  Lisbon,  O. 

198.  The  siege  of  Charleston  was  begun  early  in  the  summer. 
An  assault  upon  Fort  Wagner,  one  of  the  defenses,  was  repulsed 
with  terrible  slaughter  July  18. 

199.  A  great  draft  riot  occurred  in  New  York  City  in  July. 
Those  opposed  to  the  war  anil  conscription  rose,  and  many  scenes 
of  bloodshed  and  violence  occurred.  The  riot  was  promptly  sup- 
pressed. A  large  number  of  people  in  the  North  considered  the 
war  a  failure  and  desired  "peace  at  any  price."  The  Unionists 
called  this  party  "Copperheads,"  "Butternuts,"  "Traitors,"  etc. 
There  was  great  bitterness  of  feeling. 

200.  1864. —  Lieutenant  General  Grant  was  now  in  command 
of  all  the  Union  armies.  He  crossed  the  Rapidan  with  a  splendid 
army  of  140,000  men  and  attacked  Lee,  whose  force  was  very 
much  less.  The  bloody  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  May  5,  6,  7,  en- 
sued, with  nothing  gained.  Grant  tried  to  outflank  Lee,  and 
another  desperate  battle,  lasting  several  days,  was  fought  further 
south  at  Spottsylvania.  This  battle  was  indecisive.  Grant  again 
moved  southeast  and  Lee  again  confronted  him  at  Cold  Harbor, 
twelve  miles  from  Richmond.      The   Union   troops  charged   and  a 


HISTORY.  347 

terrible  carnage  ensued,  nearly  10,000  Federals  falling  in  half  an 
hour.  When  ordered  to  charge  a  second  time  the  Union  troops 
silently  disobeyed.  The  total  losses  of  the  Union  army  in  this 
short  campaign  had  been  nearly  60,000  men,  the  Confederate  over 
half  that  number. 

201.  A  column  under  vSigel  had  been  ordered  to  co-operate 
with  Grant  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  while  another  under  Butler 
threatened  Richmond  by  advancing  up  the  James.  Sigel  with 
S,ooo  men  was  defeated  at  New  Market  by  Breckenridge.  Butler 
advanced  up  the  James  and  moved  toward  Petersburg,  but  was 
checked  and  fell  back  on  City  Point. 

202.  Grant  soon,  after  the  battle  of  Cold  Harbor  transferred 
his  entire  force  of  150,000  men  south  of  the  James.  There  was  se- 
vere fighting  in  front  of-  Petersburg,  but  the  Confederates  held 
their  ground.  Gen.  Early  crossed  the  Potomac  and  threatened 
Washington  in  July.  He  retreated,  carrying  off  vast  plunder.  A 
cavalry  force  under  Stuart  burned  Chambersburg,  Pa.  Sheridan 
was  sent  against  Early.  He  defeated  the  Confederates  at  Win- 
chester Sept.  19,  and  again  at  Fisher's  Hill  Sept.  22.  Early, 
stung  by  defeat,  fell  upon  Sheridan's  army  near  Winchester,  Oct. 
19,  and  routed  it.  Sheridan,  who  was  absent,  returned  in  time  to 
turn  defeat  into  victory.  Early's  army  was  ruined.  Sheridan  had 
previously  devastated  the  Shenandoah   Valley. 

203.  Sherman's  March  to  the  Sea. — When  Grant  moved  on 
the  Rapidan  he  ordered  Sherman  to  advance.  The  latter  moved 
from  Dalton  May  6.  He  tried  to  outflank  his  opponent,  Gen. 
Joseph  E.  Johnston.  The  latter  retreated,  and  Sherman  pursued 
the  same  tactics.  Severe  battles  took  place  at  Resaca  May  14  and 
15,  Dallas  May  25-28,  at  Kenesaw  Mountain  June  22  to  July  3. 
In  the  latter  the  Federals  were  repulsed  with  terrible  loss.  John- 
ston continued  to  retreat  in  good  order.  He  was  superseded  by 
Hood,  who  determined  to  fight  at  all  hazards.  Desperate  battles 
were  fought  around  Atlanta  and  the  city  surrendered  Sept.  2.  The 
losses  had  been  fully  30,000  on  each  side.  Hood  now  tried  to 
compel  Sherman  to  retreat  by  threatening  his  base  of  supplies. 
Hood  advanced  north  and  was  roughly  handled  at  Franklin,  Tenn., 
Nov.  30,  and  routed,  Dec.  15,  at  Nashville.  He  had  sacrificed  the 
only  respectable  Confederate  army  in  the  West.  Sherman  ad- 
vanced from  Atlanta  and  marched  to  Savannah  without  opposition. 
That  city  surrendered  Dec.  2  1 . 

204.  Other  Operations. — An  expedition  under  Gen.  Banks  up 
the  Red  River  in  March  failed.  Farragut  destroyed  the  rebel 
Meet  in  Mobile  Bay  in  July.  Fort  Fisher,  N.  C,  was  taken  Jan. 
15.  A  previous  assault  had  been  repulsed  with  great  loss  to  the 
Federals.  Fort  Pillow  (Tenn.)  was  captured  by  Gen.  Forrest  and 
its  negro  garrison  massacred. 

205.  1865.     Final    Campaign. — The  beginning   of    the   year 


•64H  TEACHERS-  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

found  the  weakness  of  the  Confederacy  every  where  apparent.  The 
most  rigid  conscription  failed  to  fill  the  depleted  ranks.  On  the 
Other  hand,  tlie  Northern  armies  were  stronger  than  ever.  The 
President  had  in  July,  [864,  called  for  500,000  volunteers  and  in 
December  for  300,000  more.     And  he  got  them. 

206.  Sherman  continued  his  march  northward  toward  North 
Carolina,  driving  all  the  small  Confederate  forces  before  him.  His 
object  was  to  meet  Grant  and  crush  the  Confederates  between  two 
splendid  armies.  Lee's  condition  was  hopeless.  He  assaulted  and 
captured  Fort  Steadman,  March  25,  but  was  compelled  to  retire 
within  his  lines  again.  Grant  assumed  the  offensive  and  defeated 
the  Confederates  at  Five  Forks,  April  I.  The  line  in  front  of 
Petersburg  was  carried  at  various  points.  Lee  evacuated  Rich- 
mond and  Petersburg,  April  3.  Grant  pushed  the  retreating  force 
and  after  various  partial  engagements  Lee  surrendered  at  Appo- 
matox  Court  House,  April  9.  Johnston  surrendered  to  Sherman 
near  Raleigh,  April  26. 

207.  Jefferson  Davis,  while  seeking  to  reach  the  sea  coast, 
was  captured  in  Georgia.  He  was  confined  in  Fortress  Monroe 
and  finally  released  on  $100,000  bail.  The  last  Confederate  force 
was  west  of  the  Mississippi  under  Kirby  Smith.  It  surrendered 
May  26.  The  long  struggle  was  over  and  the  people  of  the  North 
were  wild  with  joy.  En  the  midst  of  their  rejoicing  President 
Lincoln  was  assassinated  in  Washington  by  John  Wilkes  Booth, 
an  actor,  on  the  evening  of  April  14.     Joy  ended  in  bitterest  sorrow. 

208.  Important  Facts. — The  total  number  of  men  enrolled 
in  the  Union  armies  was  in  round  numbers  2,700,000.  The  Con- 
federacy  enrolled,  according  to  the  most  reliable  sources,  493,000 
men.  The  Union  losses  were  estimated  at  300,000  killed  or  died 
of  disease,  and  400,000  wounded.  Total  losses  on  both  sides 
1,000,000  men.  The  expenses  of  the  war  on  the  part  of  the  gov- 
ernment were,  during  [864-5,  tnree  and  a  half  millions  Per  dav- 
The  National  debt  at  the  close  of  the  war  was  $2,749,000,000. 

209.  The  prisoners  of  war  on  both  sides,  as  a  consequence, 
suffered  much.  The  sufferings  of  I  lie  Union  prisoners  at  Ander- 
sonville,  Salisbury  and  Libby  prisons  were  horrible.  This  was 
caused  partly  by  the  inability  of  the  Confederacy  to  furnish  sup- 
plies of  clothing,  food  and  medicine.  But  a  large  share  of  the  suf- 
fering can  be  ascribed  only  to  deliberate  cruelty.  The  Sanitary  and 
Christian  Commissions,  organized  in  the  North,  did  much  to  al- 
leviate the  sufferings  of  the  sick  and  wounded  soldiers.  Noble 
women  left  their  comfortable  homes  to  wait  upon  the  soldiers  on 
the  battle  field  and  in  the  hospital. 

Andrew    Johnson's   Administration,  1865-186Q. 

210.  Important  Facts. — Almost  at  the  outset  of  his  adminis- 
tration the  President  had  difficulty  with  Congress  in  regard    to   re- 


HISTORY.  :349 

construction.  Congress,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  the  President, 
imposed  very  rigid  conditions  on  the  revolted  States  as  necessary  to 
their  admission  to  the  Union.  These  conditions  related  chiefly  to 
the  security  of  the  colored  race  in  their  freedom  and  civil  rights 
as  citizens.  The  13th  and  14th  amendments  to  the  Constitu- 
tion bore  on  this  point.  The  difficulties  with  the  President  culmi- 
nated in  his  impeachment  by  the  House,  but  the  Senate  accpiitted 
him.  The  French  intervention  in  Mexico  failed  of  its  object. 
Maximilian,  the  new  emperor,  was  captured  and  shot  by  the  Mexi- 
cans, 1867.  Alaska  was  purchased  from  Russia  for  $7,000,000, 
1S6S.      Amnesty  proclamation,  Dec.  25,1868. 

Ulysses  S.  Granfs  Administration,  i86g-/8j/. 

211.  Important  Facts. — Remaining  seceded  States  admitted. 
Fifteenth  Amendment  adopted.  Civil  rights  bill,  granting  colored 
people  all  rights  in  hotels,  cars,  etc.,  granted  to  whites,  under  heavy 
penalties.  Ku-Klux  suppression  act.  Credit  Mobilier  scandal,  in- 
volving members  of  Congress,  1S71.  Chicago  fire,  Oct.  9,  1871. 
Geneva  Tribunal  (1872)  awards  $15,000,000  to  be  paid  by  Great 
Britain,  for  damages  committed  by  the  privateer  Alabama.  Great 
panic  begins  with  the  failure  of  Jay  Cooke  &  Co.,  1873.  Long 
continued  depression  of  business  ending  1879.  The  Centennial 
Exposition,  1876. 

Rutherford  B.  Hayeses  Admh/istratiou,  18JJ-1881. 

212.  Grave  troubles  arose  as  to  whether  Hayes  or  his  competi- 
tor, Samuel  J.  Tilden,  was  elected.  The  difficulty  was  finally  set- 
tled by  an  electoral  commission  of  fifteen  appointed  by  Congress. 
Hayes  was  declared  elected,  having  received  1S5  electoral  votes  to 
1 84  cast  for  Tilden,  the  Democratic  candidate. 

213.  The  great  railroad  strike  of  July,  1S77,  caused  the  loss 
of  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  property  at  Pittsburgh  and  else- 
where before  it  was  settled. 

"James  A.    Garfield's  Administration,  March  4,  1881 — Sept.  iq, 

1881. 

214.  Garfield  was  nominated  by  the  National  Republican 
Convention,  at  Chicago,  in  June,  1SS0.  Gen.  Grant,  contrary  to 
the  wise  precedent  of  all  his  predecessors,  allowed  himself  to  be 
put  forward  persistently  as  a  candidate  lor  a  third  term.  This  ex- 
cited the  greatest  opposition  in  the  party,  Garfield  was  nominated 
after  a  long,  bitter  contest,  as  the  most  available  candidate,  lli^ 
Democratic  opponent  was  Gen.  Winfield  Scott  Hancock.  Gar- 
field's inaugural  was  one  of  the  most  imposing  which  ever  oc- 
curred. At  the  very  outset  the  President  had  difficulties  with 
Senator  Conkling,  of  New  York,  over  certain  Federal  appoint- 
ments.     This  difficulty  ended  in  the  resignation  of  both  New  York 


350  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

Senators.  Garfield  was  assassinated  in  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio 
Railroad  depot  in  Washington,  July  2,  hy  Chas.  J.  Guiteau.  He 
died  at  Elberon,  N.  J.,  Sept.  19.  His  death  caused  universal  sorrow. 
Expressions  of  profound  sympathy  came  from  foreign  lands. 

GROWTH    OF    THE    COUNTRY. 

215.  A  history  of  the  growth  of  the  Union  would  in  itself  fill 
a  volume.  Only  a  few  important  facts  can  he  given.  All  the 
great  region  known  as  the  "  Northwest  Territory,"  extending  from 
the  Ohio  River  to  the  great  lakes  had  been  claimed  by  Virginia. 
The  territory  now  comprising  the  State  of  Kentucky  also  belonged 
to  the  same  State.  All  this  extensive  region  was  ceded  hy  Vir- 
ginia to  the  general  government.  A  portion  of  Northern  Ohio 
was  claimed  by  Connecticut.  She  gave  up  all  hut  the  part  known 
as  the  «  Western  Reserve,"  in  the  northeast  corner  of  the  State, 
ami  that,  too,  was  admitted  as  a  part  of  Ohio.  Great  States  rap- 
idly grew  out  of  this  Northwest  Territory.  Alabama  and  Missis- 
sippi  were  formed  from  the  "Southwest  Territory."  Tennessee 
was  originally  a  part  of  North  Carolina.  The  manner  in  which 
the  other  territory  of  the  U.  S.  was  acquired  from  France,  Spain, 
Mexico  and  Russia  has  been  fully  explained  elsewhere.  The  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  California,  in  184S,  created  a  great  excitement 
throughout  the  civilized  world.  A  great  State  with  a  commercial 
metropolis  (San  Francisco)  sprang  up  as  if  hy  magic.  The  dis- 
covery of  silver  in  Nevada,  Colorado  and  elsewhere,  in  connection 
with  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  and  Australia,  marked 
an  epoch  in  the  production  of  precious  metals,  which  now  became 
more  abundant  than  ever  before,  and  consequently  slightly  cheap- 
ened in  value.  The  commercial  growth  of  the  United  States  has 
been  indeed  marvelous.  Her  manufactured  articles  are  found  in 
every  market  on  the  globe,  equaling  in  quality  those  of  the 
nations  of  Europe,  and  successfully  competing  with  them  in  price. 
American  breadstuff's  supply  the  markets  of  Western  and  Southern 
Europe  at  prices  which  are  daily  ruining  the  fanners  iA~  England. 
In  the  great  -rain  tie  bis  of  the  Northwest,  planted  and  harvested 
by  labor-saving  machinery,  wheat  is  now  produced  on  a  scale  of 
magnitude  never  before  equaled.  The  corn  crop  of  the  United 
States  produces  pork  for  the  civilized  world.  The  great  plains  of 
the  Rocky  Mountain  regions  and  Texas,  have  almost  the  capacity 
to  furnish  beef  enough  for  civilized  man.  Cities  have  sprung  up 
with  a  growth  never  equaled  elsewhere  in  the  world.  The  most 
notable  examples  are  New  York,  the  commercial  and  financial 
metropolis  of  the  East,  and  Chicago,  the  new  metropolis  of  the  great 
West.  The  American  people  annually  appropriate  large  sums  of 
money  for  the  benefit  of  public  ScAools,  sums  which  in  most  other 
countries  art'  spenl  in  military  preparations  for  the  enslavement  of 
the  people,  or  the  conquest  of  neighboring  nations. 


HISTORY 


351 


216.     Table    showing-  the   important  facts  in  the  history  of  the 
States : 


State 


Virginia 

New  York 

Massachusetts..  . 
New  Hampshire. 

Connecticut 

Maryland 

Rhode  Island.. .  . 

Delaware 

North  Carolina.. 

New  Jersey 

South  Carolina.  . 
Pennsylvania. . . . 
Georgia 


Vermont 

Kentucky.  .  .  , 
Tennessee..  . . 

Ohio 

Louisiana. 

Indiana 

Mississippi.  . .  , 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Maine 

Missouri 

Arkansas.  .  .... 

Michigan 

Florida 

Texas , 

Iowa.  ...%.. 

Wisconsin 

California 

Minnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West  Virginia. 

Nevada 

Nebraska 

Colorado 


Area 
Sq.  Mis. 


When,  where,  and  by  whom  settled. 


Dist.  of  Columbia. 


4--45U 
49,170 

8.315 
9.305 

1>99° 

1 2, 210 

1.250 
2 ,050 

5-.  250 
7>Sl5 
3°. 5  7" 
45,2i5 
59,475 
9,565 
40,400 

42,050 
41,060 
48,720 

36,350 
46,810 

56,-0° 
52,250 

33,040 
69,415 
53,850 
58,9'5 
58,680 

265, 7S0 
56,025 
56,040 

158,360 

83,365 
96,030 
82,080 
24,780 
110,700 

76,855 
^3,925 

70 


607 
614 
620 
623 
633 
634 
636 

638 
6=;o 
664 
670 
6S2 
733 
724 

774 
76S 

7S8 
700 

699 
693 
702 

755 
685 

701 

565 

7»S 

833 
745 
769 
838 
Sn 


Jamestown 

New  York 

Plymouth 

Portsmouth 

Windsor 

St.  Mary's. 

Providence 

Wilmington 

Albemarle  Sound. 

Elizabeth 

Ashley  River 

Philadelphia 

Savannah 

Brattleboro' 

Harrodsburg 

Watauga  River.. . 
Marietta 


Vincennes. . 

Biloxi 

Ka-kaskia... 
Mobile  Bay. 


St  Genevieve. 
Arkansas  Post. 

Detroit 

St.  Augustine. 


Dubuque.  . 
Green  Bay. 
San  Diego. 
St.  Paul.... 
Astoria 


English, 

Dutch, 

English, 

English, 

English, 

English, 

English, 

Swedes, 

English, 

English, 

English, 

English, 

English, 

English, 

English, 

English, 

Americans, 

French, 

French, 

French, 

French, 

French, 

English, 

French, 

French, 

French, 

Spaniards, 

Spaniards, 

French, 

French, 

Spaniards, 

Americans, 

Americans. 


£ 

<_ 

in 
<u 

a 

*« 

c 

'So 


a 


791 
792 
796 

802 

SI2 
816 
817 
818 
819 
820 
821 
836 
837 
845 
845 
846 

848 

850 

858. 
859 

861 
863 
864 
867 
876 


Total  area  of  the  United  States,  3,025,600  square  miles. 
PROGRESS. 

217.  The  United  States  stands  among  the  first  of  civilized  na- 
tions in  all  that  constitutes  true  greatness*  She  equals  the  world  in 
nearly  all  things,  and  excels  in  many.  From  a  nation  of  three 
millions  she  has  grown  to  one  of  fifty  millions.  Her  inventive 
genius  has  given  to  the  world    the   lightning-rod,   the   steamboat, 


ap)2  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

the  cotton-gin,  the  sewing  machine,  the  electric  telegraph,  the 
telephone,  the  Brush  and  the  Edison  electric  lights,  the  Atlantic 
cable,  the  safety  air-brake,  the  Goodyear  rubber  process,  photog- 
raphy, the  stereopticon,  and  a  li< >st  of  minor  inventions  oi  great 
importance.  The  number  of  miles  of  railroad  in  the  U.S.  is  about 
95,000;  of  telegraph,  miles  of  line,  about  95,000;  miles  of  wire, 
,000.  The  day  has  long  since  passed  when  "  nobody  reads  an 
American  hook."  The  works  of  American  authors  have  been 
translated  into  all  the  -real  literary  languages  of  the  world.  The 
number  of  periodical  publications  of  all  sort-.,  daily,  weekly, 
monthly,  quarterly,  etc.,  is    considerably  over  11,000. 

218.  Conclusion. — Americans  should  justly  he  proud  of  their 
country.  Though  the  Fourth-of-July  orator  may  at  times  make  us 
appear  ridiculous,  the  fact  remains  that  we,  as  a  people,  enjoy  more 
real  freedom  than  any  other  on  the  globe.  It  is  no  egotism  to  say 
that  Americans  are  by  far  the  best-fed,  best-clothed,  best-housed, 
most  intelligent,  richest  and  happiest  people  in  the  world. 

***  Topical  Reviews  should  occur  often.  Let  the  pupil  prepare  outline- 
for  such  reviews,  after  the  model  given  at  the  heginning  of  Ancient  History. 
Review  the  Presidents  by  means  of  the  headings  for  their  administrations. 

HINTS    ON     TEACHING     HISTORY. 

1.  History  is  often  taught  very  unsatisfactorily.  In  a  veiy 
great  number  of  cases,  in  our  public  schools,  the  study  of  history  is 
unpopular.  Pupils  dislike  the  study,  and  often  adopt  almost  any 
expedient  to  he  relieved  from  the  history  class.  From  the  nature  of 
the  subject  it  is  difficult  to  lay  down  definite  rules  for  the  teaching 
of  history.  The  methods  which  succeed  with  one  teacher  may 
partially  fail  with  another,  and  the  course  adopted  for  one  class  of 
pupils  might  not  be  suitable  for  a  class  under  different  circumstances. 

2.  The  chief  difficulty  is  that  teachers  require  pupils  to  mem- 
orize the  text.  This  is  the  worst  possible  method.  The  following 
objections  may  be  raised  to  it:  (1)  Many  pupils  find  it  utterly  im- 
possible to  commit  to  memory  the  text,  with  all  its  confusing  de- 
tails and  numerous  dates.  Hence  they  become  discouraged  and 
disgusted  with  history,  and  this  prejudice  usually  extends  to  alter 
life.  (  1  ,  By  this  method  the  lessons  are  necessarily  short,  thus 
consuming  more  lime  than  the  ordinary  pupil  can  give  to  the  suh- 
ject.  The  besl  pupil-  progress  only  as  fast  as  die  poorest,  and  de- 
spair of  ultimately  completing  the  study.  (3)  Confining  the  study 
to  one  hook,  thus  Studying  a  text-book  instead  of  history.  No  one 
text-book  can,  without  being  too  voluminous,  furnish  the  variety  of 
detail  in  biographical  sketches,  noted  events,  curious  customs,  re- 
ligions, etc., to  arouse  thoroughly  the  interest  of  the  ordinary  pupil, 
and  cause  him  to  like  history.  ( -\  )  Memorizing  the  text  fails  to 
develope  the  reasoning  power.  Little  real  mental  culture  results 
from  such  a  course  of"  training. 


HIS  TORI'.  353 


Methods. 


The  author  used  successfully  for  several  years  the  following 
methods  in  his  classes. 

3.  Assigning  Lessons. — A  certain  amount  of  matter,  say  from 
four  to  twelve  pages  according  to  circumstances,  was  assigned  to 
the  class  to  be  read  through  carefully  once  at  least.  This  reading 
was  not  with  the  view  of  memorizing,  but  merely  that  the  pupil 
might  understand  the  text  as  far  as  possible.  All  difficult  words  or 
references  were  to  be  looked  up  in  the  dictionary  and  encyclo- 
pedias, so  that  each  pupil  was  prepared  to  pronounce  correctly 
every  word. 

4.  At  the  next  recitation  this  matter  was  again  read  as  a  read- 
ing lesson  by  the  class  with  corrections,  explanations  and  remarks 
by  the  teacher. 

5.  Note  Books. — Each  pupil  was  provided  with  a  good  sized, 
well  bound  note  book. 

6.  After  the  second  reading  of  the  matter  assigned,  the  teacher 
dictated  and  the  pupils  copied  a  brief  synopsis  covering  the  chief 
points    of   the    entire    lesson.       In  dates  only  the  most  important 


were  given. 


7.  These  notes  were  committed  to  memory  and  recited  either 
the  next  day  or  at  some  future  time.  This  plan  reduces  the 
memorizing  to  a  minimum. 

8.  Reviews  were  frequent.  These  were  not  set  for  Fridays  or 
an)'  especial  day.  They  came  when  a  natural  break  in  the  subject 
made  them  proper.     Let  them  occur  often. 

9.  Focal  Dates. — A  definite  space  in  the  note  books  was 
reserved  for  such  important  dates  as  the  teacher  thought  should  be 
indelibly  fixed  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  These  dates  always 
indicated  great  events  and  usually  marked  the  limits  of  different 
epochs.  For  example,  such  were  the  Concpjests  of  Alexander,  the 
Fall  of  Carthage,  the  Fall  of  Rome,  the  Crowning  of  Charlemagne 
as  Emperor  of  the  West,  the  Discovery  of  America,  etc.  These 
dates  with  the  accompanying  events  were  thoroughly  learned  and 
often  reviewed.  They  serve  as  a  sort  of  historical  milestones.  It 
is  objected  to  this  plan  that  the  pupil  will  often  fail  to  know 
whether  a  given  event  occurred  say  ten  years  before  or  after  a  given 
date,  or  one  hundred  years.  This  may  be  true  but  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  only  the  critical  student  ever  masters  the  details 
of  history,  and  that  after  years  of  hard  study. 

10.  Extraneous  Matter. — The  teacher  will  find  that  usually 
the  interest  in  history  lies  not  in  what  is  inside  of  the  book  but  in 
what  is  outside  of  it.  Many  schools  have  no  libraries  hut  there  is 
hardly  a  family  in  which  you  may  not  find  some  kind  of  book  on 
history.  These  may  he  all  profitably  utilized  in  greatly  increasing 
the  interest  in  the  class. 

23 


354  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

11.  Compositions. — The  best  way  to  utilize  this  additional 
matter  is  by  means  of  written  compositions.  In  this  direction 
Biography  is  a  fruitful  field.     The  teacher  should    prepare    from 

time  to  time  and  keep  constantly  on  hand  a  list  <>f  good  subjects. 
Assign  to  each  pupil,  several  days  in  advance  of  the  time  set  for 
reading  the  compositions,  such  a  subject  as  will  best  suit  that  par- 
ticular pupil.  Bv  assigning  fruitful  subjects  to  the  best  pupils  and 
easier  ones  to  the  dull,  you  can  thus  give  all  plenty  to  do  and  at  the 
same  time  keep  your  class  together.  Do  not  require  too  much  at 
the  start  and  allow  no  one  to  shirk  his  duty  even  if  you  should 
sacrifice  the  whole  time  of  the  next  recitation  attending  to  delin- 
quents. Do  not  call  these  written  exercises  compositions,  simply 
say,  "  Write  what  you  can  find  out  about  Benjamin  Franklin,"  etc. 
Never  let  the  pupils  copy  sentences.  Have  them  reconstruct  the 
language  of  the  book  entirely. 

12.  Subjects. — The  following  will  illustrate  sufficiently  the 
general  tenor,  taking  the  Revolutionary  period  of  our  own  coun- 
try:— Patrick  Henry,  the  Treason  of  Arnold,  Battle  of  Cowpens, 
How  the  people  lived  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  etc.  Pay 
especial  attention  to  manners,  customs,  religions,  etc. 

13.  Criticism. — All  inaccuracies  of  statement  should  be  cor- 
rected by  the  class  and  the  teacher  after  each  pupil  has  read.  By 
exchange  of  papers  and  careful  criticism  of  spelling,  punctuation 
and  syntax  this  exercise  may  well  serve  for  the  time  instead  of  the 
regular  composition  exercises  of  the  school.     Insist  on  neatness 

14.  Outlines. — Teach  the  pupil  to  outline  his  subject  in  logical 
order  before  beginning  to  write.  At  first  these  outlines  may  con- 
sist of  a  few  simple  heads.  The  outlining  of  any  subject  is  a  very 
valuable  and  necessary  part  of  its  study. 

15.  Difficulties  of  the  Teacher. — To  teach  history  well  the 
teacher  must  himself  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  history,  lie  should 
constantly  read  ahead  of  the  class,  so  that  he  may  have  a  definite 
knowledge  of  what  he  is  assigning  for  a  lesson.  Otherwise  he 
will  probably  assign  too  much  or  too  little.  He  should  read  other 
books  besides  the  text  book.  If  he  does  not  own  them  he  can 
usually  borrow,  though  there  is  little  need  of  that  in  these  days 
when  a  good  outline  history  of  the  world  may  be  had  for  a  price 
not  exceeding  three  dollars,  and  special  works  of  history  are  repub- 
lished in  the  ten-cent  libraries.  The  teacher  who  cannot  afford 
such  an  outlay  is  indeed  a  poor  teacher  in  more  senses  of  the  word 
than  one. 

Without  a  little  extra  reading  and  study  it  is  difficult  to  dictate 
notes  as  suggested  in  paragraph  six,  and  it  is  impossible  to  give 
explanations  extending  beyond  the  text  book. 

16.  Referenco  Books.  —  Another  difficulty  is  that  most  schools 
have  insufficient  reference  books,  or  none.  The  teacher  must  in  the 
latter  case  depend  entirely  upon  the  books  in  the  libraries  of  the 


II IS  TOR  J' .  355 

children's  homes.  He  should  ascertain  what  these  are  and  by  a 
little  trouble  may  find  out  the  extent  of  their  availability.  Remem- 
ber,there  are  many  sources  of  historical  information.  Articles  in 
newspapers  and  magazines  often  furnish  the  needed  material. 

17.  Maps  of  the  countries  studied  should  be  referred  to  con- 
stantly. This  will  serve  to  give  the  pupil  a  much  clearer  idea  of 
what  he  studies,  and  serve  to  fix  the  facts  more  firmly. 

18.  Avoid  routine  as  you  would  the  small -pox.  Routine 
begets  dislike,  and  dislike  is  fatal  to  history.  Pupils  may  dislike 
Arithmetic  and  yet  study  it  diligently  because  they  see  that  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  commonest  education.  History  on  the 
other  hand,  though  really  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
branches  of  knowledge,  is  considered  a  luxury  by  the  ignorant  or 
the  young,  because  its  use  is  not  so  apparent. 

19.  These  methods  may  be  varied  greatly,  still  following  the 
same  general  plan.  For  example  the  author's  class  at  times" con- 
tinued the  first  reading  for  several  successive  days.  Then  perhaps 
several  days  were  occupied  exclusively  in  taking  notes  and  after- 
ward sufficient  time  employed  in  recitation. 

20.  Whatever  methods  you  may  adopt  never  emplov  the 
memoriter  which  consists  of  vainly"  attempting  to  commit  to 
memory  so  many  paragraphs  of  a  "certain  book.  This  method 
unrelieved  by  any  change  is  hopeless  and  inevitable  failure. 

21.  Reflections  on  the  lessons  of  history.  The  pupil  should  be 
constantly  incited  to  think  about  what  he  "studies.  Causes  should 
be  studied  carefully  and  their  connection  with  the  succeeding  events 
properly  traced.  The  position  which  nations  occupy  in  the  scale 
of  civilization,  their  influence  upon  one  another,  the  character  of 
their  people,  etc.,  should  all  receive  due  attention. 

22.  The  teacher  should  always  remember  that  a  thorough, 
intelligible  knowledge  of  history  cannot  be  obtained  from  any  one- 
short  book.  This  little  work  does  not  pretend  to  be  anything  but 
a?i  outline  of  history.  As  a  consequence  it  contains  more  dates 
than  the  pupil  should  try  to  remember,  and  gives  only  a  suggestion 
of  many  topics  which  should  be  read  up  in  full  elsewhere. 

QUESTIONS  ON    HISTORY. 

ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

1—4.  Define  history.  Political  history.  Philosophy  of  history  <— 12 
Name  the  kindred  branches  of  study.  Philology?  Ethn8lo£y?  ArchreoWv? 
Antiquity  of  man?  s- 

13.  Races?     15.  Languages?     Turanian?     16.  Arvan?      17.  Semitic?     18 
Name  the  divisions  of  history. 

19.  Name  the  most  ancient   nations.     20.  Antiquity  of  E°-ypt?     ->i     Hiero 
glyphics?     22.  Rosetta  Stone?     23.  Race?     24.  Government"     2=;.  Laws'     26 
—27.  Political  history.     28.  Pyramids.     29.  Exodus?     30.  Great  temples?     31 
Power  of  Egypt?     32— 36.  Art  and  science?     37— 38.  Religion?     39.  Embal 
mg?     Learning?     40.  Caste?     41.  Resources?     42.   Was  the  government  a 
polity  of  Egypt  based  on  the  welfare  of  the  people?    (State  reasons) 


m- 
and 


;:,<;  TEACHERS1  -LVD  STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

43.  What  records  have  preserved  to  us  the  history  of  Assyria  and  Chaldea? 
44.  Race,  language  and  character  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians?  46.  De- 
scribe- Babylon?  47.  When  did  the  countries  cease  to  be  independent?  48. 
Arts  and  sciences?  Social  life?  49.  Pursuits?  50 — 53.  Give  a  brief  sketch  of 
Judea  and  Phoenicia. 

57.  What  was  the  character  of  the  Persians?  58.  Religion?  59—61. 
Name  their  greatest  monarchs,  with  something  each  did.  <<2.  Civilization? 
63.  State  the  language  and  religion  of  the  Hindoos.  The  Vedas?  64.  Trans- 
migration of  souls?  65.  Buddhism?  66.  Name  the  castes.  What  is  caster 
Effects  of.     67.  Give  a  synopsis  of  the  striking  features  of  Oriental  history. 

GREECE. 

S.  Race,  name  and  language  of  the  Greeks.  69.  Geography  of  Greece. 
70.  Branches  of  the  Hellenic  race.  71.  The  heroic  age?  72 — 74.  Trojan  war. 
75.  Striking  features  of  heroic  age.  77.  Sparta?  Spartan  laws?  78.  Govern- 
ment? 79.  Character?  80.  Athens?  Lawgivers?  Si.  Government?  82. 
"Tyrants"  ?     83.  Athenian  character? 

S4.  Cause  of  the  Persian  war?  85.  First  invasion?  S6.  Second  invasion? 
85 — 90.  Name  the  great  battles  of  the  war.  Name  the  leaders  on  both  sides. 
91.  Results?  92 — 93.  What  can  you  say  of  the  "  Age  of  Pericles  "  ?  Leaders 
of  the  time?  94.  Condition  of  the  people?  95.  Causes  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war.  96—98.  Synopsis  of.  Result?  99.  "Retreat  of  the  10,000"?  100. 
Sparta  and  Thebes?  101.  Philip  of  Macedon?  Philippics?  102.  Alexander 
the  Great?  102 — 103.  Conquest  of  Persia.  104.  Effect  of.  105.  Alexander's 
successors?     106.  "  Leagues  of  Greece  "  ? 

107.  The  civilization  of  Greece?  10S.  Politics?  109.  Religion?  110. 
Oracles?  in.  Temples?  112.  Art?  113.  Literature?  114.  Festivals?  115. 
Food?  Table  manners?  116.  Houses?  117.  Dress?  11S.  Education?  119. 
Influence  of  Greek  civilization? 

ROME. 

120.  Race,  language,  geography?  121.  Origin?  122.  Early  wars?  123. 
Earlv  government?     124.  Patricians  and   Plebeians? 

The  Republic. — 125.  Periods  in  the  history  of.  126.  Form  of  government? 
127.  Earlv  laws?  128.  Tribunes  of  the  people?  129.  Laws  of  the  twelve 
tables?  130.  The  consulate?  131.  The  public  lands.-  Licinian  laws?  132. 
The  nations  of  Italy  conquered  by  the  Romans?  133.  Give  a  brief  synopsis  of 
Roman  colonial  polk- v. 

134.  Describe  Carthage  and  her  people.  135.  Give  a  synopsis  of  the  first 
Punic  war.  136.  The  second  Punic  war?  Hannibal?  137.  What  great  de- 
feats sustained  bv  the  Romans?  13S.  Battle  of  Zamal  139.  Third  Punic  war: 
140.  Conquests  in  the  East?  141.  How  were  the  provinces  governed?  142. 
Military  strength  of  Rome?  Causes  of  her  superiority  ?  143.  Public  improve- 
ments in  the  citv  of  Rome?  144.  Luxury?  145.  Public  morals?  1 46.  Society  ? 
147.  Seditions  of  the  Gracchi?  148.  The  "  Social  war"?  149—150.  Wars  ot 
Mar ius  and  Sulla?  150.  Proscription?  151.  The  Triumvirate?  Julius  Cesar? 
152.  Battle  of  Pharsalia?  153.  Caesar'6  policy?  154.  His  death?  Second  tri- 
umvirate- Battle  of  Phihppi?  Antony's  character?  Actium?  (For  lives  of 
celebrated  men  of  ancient  times  see  "  Plutarch's  Lives.") 

The  Empire. — 159.  Extent?  Population?  Armies?  160.  Civilization? 
161.  Policvof  Augustus?  162.  The  Golden  Age?  163—165.  Public  works  of 
Rome?  [66.  Walls?  167.  Topography  of  Rome?  Forum?  Campus  Mar 
tins?  168  169.  Successors  of  Augustus?  170.  1  )i vision  of  the  empire?  171. 
Growth  Of  Christianity?  172.  Persecutions?  173.  First  Christian  emperor? 
174.  Roman  character?  175.  Religion?  176.  Houses?  177.  Furniture? 
Decorations?  17S.  Daily  life?  179.  Meals?  180.  Dress?  181.  Marriage? 
182.  Schools?  183.  Public  games?  1S4.  Slaves?  185.  Art?  186— 187. 
Downfall  of  Rome?  The  barbarians?  188.  The  Eastern  empire?  ^.Influ- 
ence of  Rome  on  the  modern  world? 


HISTORT.  35T 

MODERN  HISTORY. 

190.  Define  Middle  ages.  Dark  ages.  Mediaeval.  Character  of  the  Ger- 
mans? Fusion  of  races?  The  Franks?  191  — 192.  Charlemagne?  193.  The 
Saracens?  194.  Mohammedanism?  195.  The  caliph?  196.  Civilization  of  the 
Saracens? 

197.  England  in  the  middle  ages?  19S.  Settlers?  First  king?  The  Nor- 
mans? 199.  Alfred  the  Great?  200.  Canute?  201.  The  Norman  Conquest? 
202.  Battle  ot  Hastings?  203.  Condition  of  the  Saxons  under  the  Normans? 
204.  The  Plan tagenets?  205.  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion?  206.  Magna  Charta 
(Kar'ta)}  207.  Conquest  of  Wales?  207—208.  Wars  with  Scotland?  208. 
Robert  Bruce?  209.  Give  an  outline  of  the  principal  events  of  the  wars  with 
France.  Causes?  Results?  210.  Insurrection  headed  bv  Wat  Tyler.  211. 
Wars  of  the  Roses? 

212.  France  in  the  middle  ages?     213.  The  Jacquerie?     214.    Italy  in    the 
middle  ages?     215.  Italian  republics?     216.  Germany  in  the  middle  ages?     In- 
dependence of  Switzerland?     217.  Hanseatic  league?      21S.    The  Huns?     219 
TheSeljuks?     The  Mongols?    Jenghiz  Khan?      The  Ottomans?     The   Great 
Mogul? 

220.  What  was  the  feudal  system?  221.  Growth  of?  Define  liege,  suze- 
rain, vassal,  fief,  villain.  223.  Influence  of  feudalism?  Causes  of  its  decline?  224. 
Origin  of  chivalry?  225—227.  Its  principal  features?  Vows?  228.  Armor? 
229.  The  tournament?     230 — 231.  Influence? 

232—233-  Rise  of  Popery?  234.  Titles  of  the  Pope?  235.  Origin  of  the 
temporal  power.  236.  Quarrel  of  the  popes  and  German  emperors.  237.  Ex- 
communication of  Henry  IV.  238.  Influence  of  the  papacv.  Truce  of  God? 
End  of  the  temporal  power. 

239.  What  were  the  crusades?  240.  Peter  the  Hermit?  241—242.  Forces 
of  the  first  crusade?  243.  Battle  of  Nice,  Dorvkeum  ?  244.  Siege  of  Antioch? 
245.  Storming  of  Jerusalem.  246.  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem?  Second  crusade? 
247.  Third  crusade?  24S.  Siege  of  Acre?  Saladin?  Results?  249.  Influ- 
ence of  the  crusades. 

250.  Civilization  of  the  middle  ages.  251.  Who  were  the  most  learned 
classes?  252.  Materials  of  books?  253.  Trial  of  battle?  Ordeal?  254.  Con- 
dition of  the  people?  The  Jews?  255.  Conveniences  of  life?  256.  Cathedrals. 
257.  Causes  of  Revival?  258.  The  Universities.  259.  The  New  Literature. 
Science?  260.  Inventions.  262.  Name  the  "Great  Powers  "  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury.    263.  Changes  of  the  century.     264.  Maritime  enterprises? 

265.  Causes  of  the  Reformation.  266.  Martin  Luther.  Luther's  course 
toward  the  Papacy.  267.  Political  influence  of  the  Reformers.  268.  Effort  to 
crush  the  Reformation  ?  Charles  V.  269.  Diet  of  Worms?  270.  Diet  of 
Spires?  Chief  features  of  the  reformed  religion?  271.  Treaty  of  Augsburg? 
272.  The  Reformation  in  England?     Henrv  VIII. 

273.  The  Dutch  Republic.  Character  of  the  Dutch?  274.  The  Inquisition? 
275.  William,  Prince  of  Orange.  276 — 279.  The  Huguenots?  Plots  at  the 
French  court.  280.  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  281.  Edict  of  Nantes?  282. 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  283.  Philip  Hot"  Spain.  2S4— 285. 
The  Invincible  Armada?  "286.  Fate  of  the  Armada?  287.  Condition  of  Eng- 
land during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

2SS— 289.  The  Stuarts.  290.  Difficulties  between  Charles  I  and  Parlia- 
ment. 291.  Cavaliers.  Roundheads.  292.  Oliver  Cromwell.  Civil  war?  293. 
The  Commonwealth  ?     294.  The  Restoration  ?     295.    Revolution  of  16SS. 

296—298.  The  Thirty  Years  War.  29';.  Gustavus  Adolphus.  300.  Rav- 
ages of  the  war?  301.  Reign  of  Louis  XIV.  302.  Cardinal  Richelieu?  303. 
Foreign  wars  of  Louis.  Oppression  of  Protestants.  304.  War  of  the  Spanish 
succession.     305.  Condition  of  the  people  in  tin    17th  century. 

306.  The  Russians.  307.  Peter  the  Great.  Charles  XII.  309.  Rise  of 
Prussia.  310.  The  Seven  Years  War.  311.  Fall  of  Poland.  312.  Name  the 
chief  events  in  the  reign  of  the  Georges  of  England.  313.  Conquest  of  India. 
314.  William  Pitt? 


358  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

315.  Causes  of  the  French  Revolution.  316 — 31S.  Meeting  of  the  States 
General.  319.  First  outbreak.  320.  The  "Joyous  Entry  ?  "  321.  Confiscation 
of  property.  $22.  The  Allies?  323.  Leaders  of  the  Revolution?  324.  The 
Massacre  <>l  September?  325.  Proclamation  of  the  Republic.  326.  Fall  of  the 
Girondists.  327.  The  Reign  of  Terror.  Worship  of  Reason?  32S.  Fall  of 
Robespierre.     329.  The  Directory?     Napoleon. 

Chief  Events  in  the  Career  of  Napoleon. — Lodi?  Battle  of  the  Nile?  Mar- 
engo?  Hohenlinden?  Northern  mercantile  league?  Codification  of  French 
law?  First  Consul?  Emperor?  Coalitions?  Austerlitz?  Trafalgar?  Jena? 
Auerstadt?  Eylau?  Friedland?  Kingdoms  governed  by  Napoleon's  brothers? 
Milan  decree  (U.S.  Hist., Sec.  132)?  Contest  in  Spain?  Wagram  and  capture 
of  Vienna?  Strength  of  the  Grand  Army  ?  Borodino?  Burning  of  Moscow? 
Losses  of  the  Grand  Army?  Leipsic?  Abdication?  Waterloo?  Death  of 
Napoleon? 

331.  China  and  Japan?  ^2 — 334.  France  after  the  Revolution.  335.  Re- 
form in  Great  Britain.  336.  Sepoy  rebellion?  337.  Revolution  in  Hungary? 
33S.  Crimean  War?  339.  Unification  of  Italy?  Garibaldi?  340.  Unification 
of  Germany'?  341.  Franco- Prussian  War?  342.  Russo-Turkish  War?  343. 
Chili  and  Peru?  344.  The  Irish  Land  League?  The  Boers?  The  Zulus?  345. 
Inventions  of  nineteenth  century?  346.  State  three  conclusions  which  you 
draw  from  comparing  ancient  and  modern  history. 

HISTORY     OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

2 — 3.  The  Indians?  4.  Number  of  Indians?  5.  Mode  of  Life?  6.  Lan- 
guage?    7.  Origin?     8.  Civilization  of  the  most  advanced? 

10.  The  Northmen?  11 — 13.  Columbus.  14.  His  discoveries?  15.  The 
Cabots?  16.  Vespucius?  17.  Ponce  de  Leon?  Magellan?  iS.  Verrazzani?  19. 
Cartier?     20.  De  Soto?     21.  Raleigh?     22.   Hudson? 

Settlements. — 23-24.  Jamestown?  25.  John  Smith?  Pocahontas?  26.  Sale 
of  wives?  African  slaves?  23  and  26.  Charter  of  Virginia?  27.  Plymouth 
colony?  The  Puritans?  Landing.  2S.  Government?  29—30.  Hardships 
and  growth?  31 — 33.  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.  34.  Growth  of  the  colonies? 
Indian  Wars?  35.  Connecticut?  36.  Rhode  Island?  37.  New  Hampshire? 
38.  Maine? 

39.  First  settlers  of  New  York?  40.  The  English  conquest?  41 — 42. 
Government  of  New  York?  43 — 44.  New  Jersey?  45.  Pennsylvania?  Wil- 
liam Penn?  46.  Charter?  47.  The  Commonwealth?  4S.  Maryland?  49. 
North  Carolina ?  50.  South  Carolina?  51.  Georgia?  Objects  of  the  colony? 
Oglethorpe?     Florida? 

52.  Character  of  the  Puritans?  53.  Education?  54.  Salem  wUchcraft?  55. 
Character  of  the  Southern  colonists?     56.  Life  in  the  colonies? 

Wars  -with  the  French  and  Indians. — 57.  Settlement  of  New  France.  The 
Jesuit  Fathers?  5S.  English  claims  upon  the  northern  part  of  the  continent? 
59.  King  William's  War?  60.  Queen  Anne's  War  ?  61.  King  George's  War? 
62.  The  "French  and  Indian  War."  63.  First  operations?  64.  Braddock's  de- 
feat? 65.  Battle  of  Lake  George.  66.  Capture  of  Oswego?  67.  Massacre  of 
Port  William  Henry?  68.  English  forces  in  1758?  Louisburg?  Ticonderoga? 
69.  Capture  of  Quebec?  Wolfe?  Montcalm?  70.  Pontiac's  War?  71.  The 
"Treaty  of  Paris"  ?     Results  of  the  war? 

72.  The  Revolution.  — 73.  Remote  causes  of?  74.  Immediate  causes  of  ? 
75.  The  Stamp  Act  76.  The  Boston  Massacre  ?  77.  The  tea  riot.  7S.  Boston 
Port  Bill  ?     79.  First  Continental  Congress.     Name    some  prominent   patriots. 

So.  Battle  of  Lexington.  81.  Bunker  Hill.  82.  Second  Continental  Con- 
gress. 83.  Royal  governors?  84.  Invasion  of  Canada.  S5.  The  Tories?  S6. 
Siege  of  Boston?  87.  Siege  of  Charlestown.  88-  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence? 89.  Battle  of  Long  Island.  90 — 91.  What  important  events  followed 
the  battle  of  Long  Island?  92.  Trenton?  Princeton?  The  Hessians?  93. 
Condition  of  American  cause? 


HIS  TORT.  359 

94.  What  campaigns  were  planned  for5 '77?  95.  Brandy  wine?  96.  Valley 
Forge?  97—99.  Burgoyne's  campaign  ?  100.  Effect  of  Burgoyne's  surrender? 
101.  What  foreigners  in  the  American  service?  102.  Monmouth?  103.  Wy- 
oming? 104—105.  Operations  in  the  South?  107.  Stony  Point?  108.  Paul 
Jones?  109.  Continental  money  ?  no.  Surrender  of  Charleston?  1 11.  Marion 
and  Sumter?  Camden?  112.  Battle  of  Cowpens?  113.  Greene's  retreat. 
Eutaw  Springs?     Ninety-six?     Hobkirk's  Hill.     114.  Treason  of  Arnold? 

116.  Mutiny?  Robert  Morris  ?  117  — 119.  Siege  of  Yorktown  and  surren- 
der of  Cornwallis?  Effect?  121.  Negotiations  for  peace?  122.  The  treaty? 
123.  Cost  of  the  war?  124.  Dorr's  rebellion  ?  125.  The  Constitutional  Con- 
vention? 

Constitutional  Period.^126.  Departments  of  the  government  ?  127.  Name 
some  important  events  of  Washington's  administration.  128.  Who  was  the 
second  President?     Difficulties  with  France.     129.  Seat  of  government? 

130.  What  were  the  political  parties  of  the  time  called  ?  What  were  the 
"  alien  and  sedition  "  laws  ?  131.  What  was  the  character  of  Jefferson's  admin- 
istration ?  Purchase  of  Louisiana  ?  Lewis  and  Clarke?  Hamilton  and  Burr  ? 
132.   Difficulties  with  England  and  France.     133.  "  Affair  of  the  Chesapeake"? 

134.  Embargo?     135.  The  non-intercourse  act.    Tippecanoe.     136.  "  Free  Trade 
and  Sailors'  Rights  "  ?     137.  The  President  and  Little  Belt?     Population,  1S10? 

135.  Land  operations  for  the  year  1812. 

139.  Naval  battles,  1812?  140.  Military  operations  in  the  West  in  1S13? 
141.  Operations  in  the  East  and  North?  142.  Naval  battles?  143.  The  North, 
ern  campaign  of  18 14.  144.  Battle  of  Lake  Champlain.  145.  Events  in  the 
South.  146.  Naval  battles.  147.  Tohopeka?  14S.  Battle  of  New  Orleans? 
150.  The  treaty?     151.  Barbary  powers? 

General  Questions. — Give  the  causes  of  the  war  of  1S12.  What  was  the 
"  Milan  Decree  "  ?  Name  five  of  the  most  important  battles.  Name  three  gen- 
erals  on  each  side  and  state  some  important  event  in  the  career  of  each.  Was 
the  war  of  1S12  a  necessity  on  the  part  of  the  United  States  ?  In  what  direction 
were  our  most  brilliant  Successes? 

152.  Nam£  three  important  events  of  Monroe's  administration.  153.  Three 
of  John  Quincy  Adams's  administration.  154.  Andrew  Jackson?  John  C. 
Calhoun?  Nullification?  Seminole  War?  155.  Panic  of  '37  ?  Rebellion  in 
Canada?     156.  William  Henry  Harrison  ?     157.  Course  of  Tyler  ?     Dorr. 

155.  What  was  the  chief  question  before  the  people  at  the  beginning  of 
Polk's  administration  ? 

159 — 160.  Give  full  particulars  of  the  opening  battles  of  the  Mexican  War. 
161.  What  took  place  in  California  and  New  Mexico?  162.  Battle  of  Buena 
Vista?  163.  Scott's  campaign?  164.  Treaty  of  peace?  Why  were  the  Ameri- 
cans uniformly  successful  against  overwhelming  numbers?  Was  the  war  justi- 
fiable? Name  the  chief  generals  on  either  side.  In  an  economic  sense  what 
were  the  results  of  the  Mexican  War  toward  the  U.  S.? 

165.  Zachary  Taylor?  Compromise  bill  of  1S50?  166.  What  great  states- 
mendied  in  1S52'?  167.  The  "Kansas-Nebraska  Bill"?  16S.  James  Buchan- 
an's election?  169.  The  Mormon  rebellion.  Border  troubles.  170.  Raid  on 
Harper's  Ferry  ? 

171.  Name  and  tell  briefly  what  each  of  the  great  parties  was  from  the 
founding  of  the  government  to  the  present.  The  campaign  of  '60.  172.  Causes 
of  the  war  of  secession?  173.  Secession  of  the  States.  174.  Fort  Sumter  ?  175. 
First  call  for  volunteers? 

176.  Affairs  in  West  Virginia.  Bull  Run.  177.  Ball's  Bluff?  178.  Affairs 
in  Missouri.  Wilson's  Creek?  Lexington?  Belmont?  179.  The  blockade? 
180.  Belligerents t     Mason  and  Slidell?     181.  Greenbacks?    The  Border  States  ? 

182.  Opening  operations  in  the  West?  Fort  Donelson  ?  Pea  Ridge? 
Island  No.  10?  1S3.  Shiloh?  184.  Siege  of  Corinth?  185.  Perrvville?  Stone 
River? 

156.  Beginning  of  the  campaign  of  '62  in  the  East.  Strasburg?  Port 
Republic?     The  seven  days  battles ?     187.  Second  battle  of  Bull    Run?     Antie- 


360  TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS'   LfBRART. 

lam?     iSS.  Fredericksburg?     189.    Merrimac  and    Monitor?     190.    Farragut? 

191.  Emancipation?  Chancellors  ville?  [92.  Gettysburg?  193 — 194.  Opera- 
tions of '63  in  the  West?  195.  Chickamauga?  196.  Lookout  Mountain? 
Missionary  Ridge?  197.  Morgan's  raid  ?  10S.  Siege  of  Charleston.  [99. 
Draft  riots?     Were  the  events  of  1863  decisive  V 

200 — 202.  Campaign  of  the  "Army  of  the  Potomac"  in  '04.  201 — 202.  Opera- 
tions in  the  Shenandoah  Valley.  203.  Sherman's  march  to  the  sea.  204. 
Mobile  Bay?  Fort  Pillow?  205.  Strength  of  the  armies?  206.  Final  cam- 
paign? 207.  Capture  of  Jeft".  Davis?  Assassination  of  Lincoln  ?  208.  Forces 
enrolled?     Losses?     Expenses?     209.  The  prisoners  of  war ? 

General  Questions. — Name  five  Union  generals  and  state  some  important 
eno-a^ement  in  which  each  participated.  Five  Confederate  generals.  Was  the 
war  justifiable  on  the  part  of  the  South?  Name  some  important  results  of  the 
war.  What,  in  your  opinion,  contributed  chiefly  to  the  success  of  t'.ie  North? 
How  were  the  sympathies  of  foreign  nations  enlisted  ? 

210.  What  difficulties  did  Andrew  Johnson  have  with  Congress?  What 
amendments  were  made  to  the  Constitution  in  the  interest  of  the  colored  race? 
Impeachment?  The  French  in  Mexico?  211.  Fifteenth  amendment?  Civil 
Rights  bill?  Ku-Klux?  Credit  Mobilier?  Geneva  Tribunal?  Great  panic? 
212!  Election  difficulties  of '77  and  '78?  213.  Great  strike  of '77?  214.  Nom- 
ination of  Garfield.  The  Federal  appointments?  Assassination  of  Garfield? 
21=;.  Give  a  synopsis  of  the  territorial  growth  of  the  U.  S.  Of  their  industrial 
interests.     Silver  and  gold?     Schools? 

216.  Where,  when,  and  by  whom  was  Virginia  settled?  Massachusetts? 
North  Carolina?  Georgia?  Kentucky?  Wisconsin?  Illinois?  Arkansas? 
California?  217.  What  rank  dies  the  United  States  occupy  in  the  scale  of  civ- 
ilization?    Name  some  inventions  produced  by  Americans. 

QUESTIONS   ON    TEACHING    HISTORY. 

1 — 2.  What  difficulties  have  you  noticed  in  teaching  History?  Can  you 
mention  any  besides  those  enumerated  here?  What  is  the  result  of  attempting 
to  memorize  history?  3 — 7.  How  do  you  assign  lessons  ?  Do  you  make  any 
use  of  note-books  in  teaching  history  ?  Should  pupils  be  required  to  learn 
manv  dates?  8.  What  is  your  custom  in  regard  to  reviews?  9.  Would  you  at- 
tempt to  give  a  definite  idea  of  historical  time  by  memorizing  the  dates  of  par- 
ticular great  events  ?  10.  Do  you  confine  your  class  to  the  text-book?  11 — 13. 
Do  you  have  any  sort  of  written  work  in  teaching  history?  14.  Do  you  re- 
quire your  pupils  to  outline  subjects?  15.  What  are  some  of  the  difficulties 
every  teacher  must  surmount?  16.  Do  you  attempt  to  use  reference  books? 
17.  Maps?  iS.  Have  you  one  unvarying  method?  21.  What  methods  do  you 
employ  to  have  your  pupils  think  about  what  they  are  studying? 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


1.  Book-keeping  is  briefly  defined  as  the  Science  of  Ac- 
counts. 

2.  The  books  necessary  to  show  the  desired  results  of  a  series 
of  business  transactions  are  termed  a  Set. 

3.  A  set  of  books,  properly  kept,  will  show:  (i)  the  Re- 
sources or  capital  on  hand,  whether  it  be  actual  property,  as  cash, 
merchandise,  or  evidence  of  value  due  the  Business  as  notes,  per- 
sonal accounts,  etc.;  (2)  Liabilities,  value  of  any  kind  owed  by 
the  business;  (3]  the  changes  which  occur  from  day  to  day;  (4) 
the  results    of  such   changes. 

4.  The  fund  of  written  information  necessary  to  conuuet  dif- 
ferent branches  of  business,  or  even  different  grades  of  the  same 
branch,  varies  greatly  with  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  enter- 
prise. Hence  we  have  an  endless  variety  of  books  varying  in  effi- 
ciency from  the  simplest  forms  of  Single  Entry  to  the  most  com- 
plicated of  Double  Entry. 

5.  Single  Entry  is  defective  as  a  system,  and  can  never  be 
employed  in  a  business  of  any  magnitude,  for  the  reason  that  it  is 
only  designed  to  keep  a  record  of  personal  accts ;  (16)  or  accounts 
with  individuals  or  companies.  It  has  many  advantages,  however, 
which  commend  it  to  those  whose  business  is  limited  and  who  are 
not  especially'  anxious  to  know  just  Jioxv  or  where  their  gains  or 
losses  accrue,  but  are  satisfied  with  general  results. 

These  are:  (  1  )  the  number  and  simplicity  of  its  principles, 
and  the  ease  with  which  they  are  learned  and  applied;  (2)  the  sav- 
ing of  labor,  as  the  work  is  much  less  than  in  Double  Entry;  (3) 
the  number  of  books  used. 

6.  The  simplest  form,  and  the  one  most  used  in  country  stores, 
consists  of  a  -ingle  book,  ruled  with  two  columns  on  the  right 
for  debits  and  credits,  and  one  on  the  left  for  dates.  The  first  pages 
are  used  for  an  index,  and  upon  them  are  written,  in  alphabetical 
order,  the  names  of  time  customers,  and  the  page  upon  which  the 
account  is  recorded.  Turning  to  the  page  indicated,  we  find  at  the 
heading  the  name  of  the  party,  and  just  to  the  right,  over  the  first 
column,  Dr.  (debtor),  and  over  the  second,  Cr.  (creditor).  To  the 
left  is  the  column  for  dates,  and  between  this  and  the  Dr.  a  blank 
space  for  entering  the  transactions.  These  are  (or  should  be) clear 
and  concise  statements  of  the  transactions,  as  they  occur  from  day 
to  dav.      The  amount  is  entered  in  the  Dr.  column  when  the    party 


362 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 


whose  name  is  at  the  heading  owes  the   business,    and    in    the    Cr. 
when  the  business  owes  t he  party. 

When  accounts  are  kept  in  this  way  there  should  he  an  explana- 
tory entry,  at  the  heading  of  the  first  page,  stating  the  purposes  and 
conditions  of  the  business,  and,  if  there  are  two  or  more  proprietors, 
the  amount  and  nature  of  the  investments  of  each,  also  the  debts 
assumed  by  the  firm. 

7.  Another  form  of  Single  Entry  hooks  in  common  use  con- 
sists of  a  Day-Book,  a  Ledger,  and  sometimes  a  Cash-Book,  Bill- 
Book  and  others.  The  Day- Book  is  the  same  in  form  as  the  one 
described  in  sec.  6,  but  the  manner  of  recording  the  entries  is  very 
different  as  will  be  seen  in  the  example  given  below.  This  form 
may  be  used  in  any  retail  business  of  moderate  dimensions.  Such 
is  the  one  from  which  the  following  transactions  are  taken: — 

DAY— BOOK. 


1880. 

July- 


J.  C.  Campbell. 

By  Investment,  as  follows: — 
Mdse  per  Inventory, 
Cash  in  F.  N.  Bank,     - 
Note  @  30  ds.  on  J.  II.  Lynn, 

Dr.— 


To  Jas.  A.  Bowen,  on  Ok 
'  Note  (a;  10  ds.  fav.  O.  J.  Nichols, 


R.  M.  Harter. 
By  Investment,  as  follows: — 
Mdse.  per  Inventory, 
Cash, 


James  A.  Bowen. 

By  amt.  due  him  from  J.  C.  C. 


T.  A.  Adams. 

To  15  yds.  American  Prints  uv  8^, 

"     "     "     English         "  @  9^, 

"  25      "     Ingrain  Carpet,  @$i, 

"     4      "     Best  Black  Cloth,  @  $6, 


Cr. 


By  Cash  on  acct. 


Cr. 

$1375 
1000 

500 


Cr. 


Cr. 


375 


51 


287S 


55 


2500 


75 


30 


BOOK-KEEPING* 
DAY-BOOK. 


363 


1880. 
July. 


Aug. 


10 


12 


John  W.  Miller, 

To  20  yds.  Bleached  Muslin,  mi    12^, 


James  A.  Bowen, 
To  18  yds.  Best  Black  Silk,  @  $2, 
"  12     "     Irish  Linen,  @  75^, 

"14     "     Gingham,  @  20^, 


Cr. 


16 


By  order  on  T.  A.  Adams, 


T.  A.  Adams, 

To  order  from  Jas.  A.  Bowen, 


Thomas  Powell, 

To  10  yds.  French  Cassimere,  @  $2, 
"  3  "  Blue  Broad  Cloth,  @  $5, 
11     2  Boys'  Hats,  @  $i, 

"     6  yds.  Extra  Red  Flannel,  @  50^, 


Cr. 


By  his  note  @  30  ds.  in  full  of  <fc, 


20 


Samuel  B.  Henkle, 

To  2  Linen  Table  Cloths  @  $2, 


John  W.  Miller, 

To  12  yds.  Union  Sheeting,  @  15^, 
"15     "     Brilliantine,  @  50^, 


-Cr. 


By  Cash  in  full  of  ajc, 


A.  L.  Douglas, 
To  1   Ottoman, 

"  20  yds.  Alpaca  Poplins,  @  25^, 
"     6     "    Duck  Drilling,    @  15^, 


Dr 


Dr 

$36.00 

-      9.00 

2.80 


Dr. 


Dr 

$20 

2 
3 


Dr. 


Dr. 

$1.80 
7-5o 


Dr 
$5.00 
5.00 
'.90 


Samuel  B.  Henkle,  Dr 

To  1  Fine  Wool  Hat,        -        -        .  -      $4  00 

"  xpr.Blk.  Kid  .Gloves,      -         -        -  2.00' 

"  2  Under  Shirts,  ea.,  $1.25,     -         -  .        2.150 

"   l/z  doz.  prs.  Cotton  Hose,  @  $1.50,  -      .75 


4° 


47 


So 


20 


40 


9  3° 


10 


90 


25J 


40 


n 


70 


304 


TEACHERS1  AND  STUDENTS  LIBRAR1  . 
DA  V— BOOK. 


1SS0. 

Aug. 

I 

It 

S 

u 

u 

(( 

M 

Josiah  Markov, 
To  20  yds.  Sheeting, 
"     5     "     Towel  Linen, 
■•    >),  doz.  Linen  1  Idkf-. 

-Cr. 
By  Load  of  20-inch  Wood, 
"  2   tbs.  Choice  Family  Butter,  (3  J5, 


@  10^, 

"'  -50. 


Dr 

$3.00 

1.50 


$ 


$1.50 

■5" 


A.  L.  Douglas, 

By  Cash  in  full  of  «Jfc,  20th  ult., 


Cr. 


Samuel  B.  Henkle, 

Bv  1  pr.  Blk.  Kid  Gloves,  returned, 


Cr. 


A.  L.  Douglas, 

By  Cash  borrowed  on  °/c., 


Cr. 


$ 


10 


100 


90 


8.  At  the  close  of  each  day's  business  the  names  entered  should 
be  transferred:  (1  )  to  the  Dr.  of  the  account  to  which  they  belong 
in  the  Ledger,  if  found  upon  the  Dr.  side  of  the  Day  Book;  (2)  to 
the  Cr.  if  found  upon  the  Cr.  side.  This  is  called  posting.  The 
preceding    Day-Book  entries   will  appear  in  the  Ledger  as  below: 

Entries  in  Italics  are  to  be  written  in  red  ink.  In  closing  an  account  rule  up 
with  red  ink.  Also  rule  red  lines  under  names  of  accounts  in  ledger  and 
between  dates  in  Journal  and  Day  Book. 


Dr. 


LEDGER. 

y.  C.  Campbell. 


C> 


iSSo. 

July 

Aug. 


To  Sundries, 
To  Balance, 


$  375 
2P™ 


TO 


l88o. 

July 

Aug. 


10 


By  Investment, 
"    y2  net  gain, 


$  2875 
135 

joio 


10 


10 


D 

r. 

R.  M. 

liar 

tet 

• 

Cr. 

1880. 

Aug. 

1.5 

To  Balance, 

$*6jS 

10 
10 

1 8&  >. 

J«iv 

Aug. 

1 
15 

By   Investment, 
"    'i  net  gain 

$  2500 
135 

10 

i     2635 

2635 

HI 

Dr. 


yames  .  I.  Bowen. 


Cr. 


1  SS. », 
July 
Aug 


To  Mdse. 
'•  Balance, 


$     47 

47 

95 


iSSo. 
So  J  ul  v 


Bj  J.  CC'sf 
'■order  on  T.A.A. 


75 
20 

95 


Dr. 


BOOK-KEEPING. 
T,  A.  Adams. 


365 
Cr. 


iSS<.. 


To  Mdse. 
"    order  of  J.A.B 


$ 


7i 


55 


55 


iS8u. 

J«iy 

Aug. 


By  Cash 
"  Balance 


$      30 
4* 


\55 
55 


D, 


John   IV.  Miller. 


a 


1880. 

July 

10 

To  Mdse 

CI 

16 

il                   U 

1 1 


1880. 
July 


16 


By  Cash  in  full 


$       11 


1 1 


70 
70 


Dr. 


Thomas  Powell. 


C? 


1880. 
July 


[2 


To  Mdse. 


$      40 


40 


1 88c. 
July 


12 


By  note  @  30  ds. 


$      40 


40 


Dr. 


Samuel  B.  Henklc. 


Cr. 


1880. 

Tulv 

16 

To  Mdse 

Aug. 

1 

it         11 

4 
9 


13 


1880. 
Aug 


81  By  Gloves,  ret. 


15 


"    Balance 


$        2 
ji 


13 


*5" 

25 


Dr. 


A.  Z.  Doug- las. 


Cr. 


1880, 
July 

Aug 


20 


To  Mdse. 


15    "  Balance, 


$       10 
1 00 


no 


90 


'/' 


1SS1. 
Aug. 


By  Cash 


$      10 
100 


no 


90 
90 


Dr. 


1880. 
Aug. 


yosiah  Mar  key. 


C> 


To  Mdse 


% 


1880 
Aug. 

Aug. 


By  Sundries 
"  Balance 


$ 

2 
3 

5 

00 

366 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 


Statement  of  Results,  August  ij,  1880. 


Assets  or  Resources^)  at  Closing 
Merchandise  on  hand  as  per  Inventory,     - 
T.  A.  Adams  owes  on  °/c,      - 
Samuel  B.  Henkle,     do.,    - 
Josiah  Markey,  do. 

J.H.  Lynn,  on  note  @  30  ds.,    - 
Interest  on  same  for  15  ds.,    - 
Thomas  Powell,  on  note  @  30  ds.,    - 
Cash  in  Bank,  $1000;  in  Safe,  $820.90  - 
Total       - 
Liabilities  (2)  at  Closing. 
Amount  due  Jas.  A.  Bowen  on  o/c. 
"  "     A.  L.  Douglas      - 

Total, 
Net  Capital  at  Closing,    - 
"  "         "  Beginning   - 

Net  Gain,    - 
*j.  C.  Campbell's  one-half,  $135.10 
R.  M.  Harter's       "      "         135.10 

Total     -        -    270.20 


$  3000 

41 
11 

3 

500 

1 

40 

1820 


47 
100 


55 
25 


5 
90 

20 


$5417 


H7 


5270 
5000 


270 


95 

20 
20 


*  Credit  each  of  the  proprietors  with  his  share  of  the  net  gains  in  the  Ledger. 

9.  We  now  proceed  to  consider  a  system  which  has,  no  doubt, 
reached  the  acme  of  perfection.  Its  principles  have  long  been  in 
use,  and  its  forms  are  the  most  convenient  that  the  ingenuity  of 
man  can  devise. 

This  system  is  known  as  Double  Entry,  from  the  fact  that 
every  transaction  affects  at  least  two  accounts,  one  of  which  is 
debited  and  the  other  credited.  The  number  and  kind  of  books 
used  varies  with  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  business.  In  an  or- 
dinary mercantile  establishment  the  following  books  may  be 
kept : — 

10.  An  Historical  Day-Book  (26)  in  which  is  recorded:  (1) 
a  comprehensive  statement  of  the  nature  and  conditions  of  the  bus- 
iness; (2)  the  amount  and  kind  of  value  invested  by  each  of  the 
proprietors,  and  the  debts  of  each  assumed  by  the  firm;  (3)  a  com- 
plete memorandum  of  each  transaction,  the  date,  and  such  expla- 
nations as  may  be  necessary  to  insure  a  perfect  understanding  of 
whatever  may  be  of  special  interest;  (4)  the  manner  of  disposing  of 
the  losses  or  gains  at  the  close  of  the  term  of  business. 

This  is  called  a  book  of  original  entry,  because  it  contains  the 
first  record  of  the  transactions.  Hence,  it  is  the  only  book  allowed 
in  court  as  evidence  in  case  of  trial. 

11.  A  Journal  which  is  simply  mediatory  and  serves:  (1) 
to  reduce  the  Day-Book  entries  to  a  more  condensed  form;  (2) 
to  classify  the  debits  and  credits  preparatory  to  entering  them  in 
the  Ledger. 

This  is  a  difficult  book  to  keep,  and  an  extensive   knowledge 


BOOK-KEEPING.  367 

of  the  relations  of  the  various  accounts  to  the  btcsiness  is  necessary 
to  insure  success. 

12.  Two  classes  of  accounts  are  clearly  defined,  viz: — 

I.  Representative  (19)  Those  kept  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  the  financial  status  of  the  business.  They  simply  repre- 
sent value  and  have  no  immediate  connection  with  the  losses  and 
gains.  Thev  invariably  close  into  Balance,  whenever  the  two 
sides  of  the  account  are  unequal,  thus  showing  a  resource  or  a 
liability. 

13.  Those  of  most  frequent  occurrence  are:  (i)  Cash,  the 
Dr.  side  of  which  shows:  (i)  the  amount  on  hand  at  beginning, 
as  per  investment;  (2)  the  amount  received  during  the  term  of 
business;  and  the  Cr.  side  shows  the  amount  of  cash  paid  out. 
The  difference  between  the  two  sides  will  always  be  the 
the  amount  on  hand.  Hence,  in  entering  this  account  in  the  Jour- 
nal or  Cash-Book,  Debit  all  cash  on  hand  at  beginning,  or  received 
during  the  term  of  business,  and  credit  all  cash  paid  out. 

14.  (2)  Bills  Payable,  the  Dr.  of  which  shows  the  amount 
of  notes  redeemed  or  paid,  by  the  business,  and  the  Cr.  the  amount 
of  notes  issued.  The  difference  between  the  two  sides  will  always 
be  a  liability,  inasmuch  as  a  note  must  be  issued  before  it  can  be 
redeemed. 

15.  (3)  Bills  Receivable,  the  Dr.  of  which  shows  the 
amount  of  notes  received  by,  and  payable  to  the  business  and  the 
Cr.  the  amount  of  notes  disposed  of.  The  difference  between  the 
two  sides  of  the  account  in  the  Ledger  will  always  show  a 
resource. 

16.  (4)  Personal  Accounts,  the  Dr.  of  which  shows  the 
amount  due  the  business  from  individuals  or  companies,  and  the 
Cr.  the  amount  owed  by  the  business  to  individuals  or  companies. 
Hence,  all  persons  should  be  debited  in  the  foztrnal  when  they  be- 
come indebted  to  the  business,  and  credited  when  the  business 
becomes  indebted  to  them.  The  difference  between  the  two  sides 
of  the  account  will  show  a  resource  if  the  Dr.  be  the  larger  and  a 
liability  if  the  opposite  be  true. 

17.  (5)  Bank  Acct. — This  is  but  another  name  for  a  per- 
sonal account,  and  whatever  is  true  of  one  is  applicable  to  the 
other.  The  following  rule  should  be  observed : — Debit  the  bank 
when  a  deposit  is  made,  and  credit  it  when  a  draft  is  drawn. 

Note. — The  Bank  acct.  is  frequently  kept  in  a  small  hook  designed  expressly  for  that  pur- 
pose, in  which  case  it  is  not  necessary  to  enter  it  in  the  Journal.  It  is  convenient,  however,  to 
nave  it  entered  in  both  books. 

18.  (6)  Stock  Account,  the  Dr.  of  which  shows  capital  with- 
drawn and  the  Cr.  the  amount  of  capital  invested.  This  account 
represents  the  proprietor's  interest  and  is  used  in  the  same  way  as 
his  name  would    be   used    were   it  preferred    as  the   heading  of  the 


368  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS   LIBRARY. 

account.  When  two  or  more  persons  are  engaged  in  a  partnership 
business  it  is,  in  fact,  customary  to  enter  the  amount  invested  by 
each  to  the  credit  of  his  own  name.       Hence  the  rule,  Debit  stock 

with  capital  withdrawn  and  credit  it  with  capital  /'//vested. 

19.  II.     Speculative  (12),  those  designed  to  show  the  progress 

of  the  business — the  losses  and  the  gains. 

In  all  such  accounts  the  Dr.  side  shows  expenditure  for,  or 
cost  of  the  article  or  things  specified,  and  the  (Jr.  side  the  amount 
realized  tor  the  same.  Merchandise,  Real  Estate,  Interest,  Ex- 
pense, Services,  etc.,  are  familiar  examples.  The  general  rule  for 
all  accounts  of  this  class  is,  Debit  the  account  when  it  costs  value 
and  credit  when  it  returns  value.    They  close  into  Loss  and  Gain. 

20.  A  Cash  Book  in  which  are  entered  all  cash  transactions, 
the  law  of  debits  and  credits  being  the  same  as  those  given  under 
the  cash  acco/t/it  in  the  Journal.  Its  province  is  sometimes  so  en- 
larged that  accounts  other  than  cash  are  recorded  in  it.  This  oc- 
curs when  Purchase  and  Sale  Books  or  others  limited  to  a  special 
class  of  accounts  is  substituted  for  the  Journal,  in  which  case  it  will 
sometimes  happen  that  the  transaction  cannot  properly  he  entered 
in  anyone  of  the  books  kept. 

The  proper  debits  and  credits  may  be  shown  in  the  Cash- 
Book,  however,  in  the  following  manner:  Suppose  it  becomes 
necessary  to  debit  Interest  and  credit  Bills  Receivable,  it  can  be 
accomplished  by  entering  Bills  Rec.  on  the  Dr.  and  Interest  on 
the  Cr.  side  of  the  cash  account. 

For  in  every  Double-Entry  Cash-Book  the  amounts  entered 
upon  the  Dr.,  debit  cash  and  credit  the  thing  for  which  cash  is  re- 
ceived, while  upon  the  Dr.,  they  credit  cash  and  debit  that  for 
which  cash  is  paid.  Since  the  amounts  will  always  be  the  same, 
in  such  entries  the  cash  Balance  will  not  be  changed. 

21.  A  Ledger  which  contains  a  complete  summary  of  all 
the  accounts  found  in  the  other  books,  thus  enabling  the  pro- 
prietor to  know  at  a  glance  the  condition  of  his  business.  This 
hook  is  generally  ruled  with  a  heavy  medial  line  drawn  through 
the  page  from  top  to  bottom.  The  debits  are  written  upon  the  left 
and  the  credits  upon  the  right  of  this  line.  It  is  convenient  to  have 
the  Stock  acct.  entered  upon  the  first  page  where  it  can  be  readily 
found. 

The  other  accounts  may  then  be  entered  in  the  order  that 
they  occur  in  the  Journal.  At  the  close  of  every  day's  husiness 
the  entries  which  have  been  made  in  the  Day  Book  should  be 
transferred  to  the  Journal,  and  thence  to  the  Ledger. 

22.  Posting  is  a  purely  mechanical  operation,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  instructions:  (l)  Record  the  name  of  the  ac- 
count and  tin'  page  on  which  it  is  found  in  the  index  of  the  Ledger; 
(2  )  turn  to  the  page  indicated  and  write   in  a  full  bold    hand  at  the 


BOOK-KEEPINi,.  369 

top  the  Ledger  title;  (3)  Transfer  to  the  Dr.  side  all  the  accounts 
on  the  Dr.  of  Journal  having  the  same  name  as  the  heading  of  the 
account,  with  dates,  what  Dr.  to,  the  page  of- the  Journal  from 
which  the  account  is  taken,  and  the  amount.  This  done,  transfer 
those  found  on    the  Cr.  of  the  Journal    to  the  Cr.  of  the   Ledger. 

23.  Immediately  following  each  account  in  the  Journal  enter 
the  page  of  the  Ledger  to  which  it  is  taken.  When  all  the  ac- 
counts in  the  Journal  have  been  thus  severally  carried  to  the  Ledger 
the  hook-keeper  prepares  from  them  a  Trial  Balance  which  contains: 

(1)  the  total  amount  to  the  debit  of  each  account;  (2)  the  total 
amount  to  the  credit  of  each  account ;  (3 )  the  difference  between  the 
two  sides  of  the  unbalanced  accounts.  The  (  1 )  and  (2)  are  called 
footings,  and  are  arranged  in  two  columns,  Dr.  and  Cr.  The  differ- 
ences are  also  arranged  in  two  columns,  Dr.  if  the  Dr.  side  of  the 
acct.  be  the  larger  and  Cr.  if  the  opposite  be  true.  The  sums  of 
the  Dr.  and  Cr.  columns  must  be  equal  in  the  footings,  and  the  same 
must  be  true  of  the  differences,  else  the  work  is  not  correct.  This 
is  true  because,  in  every  jfournal  entry  the  sum  of  the  debits  must 
equal  the  sum  of  the  credits. 

24.  If  the  Trial  Balance  is  satisfactory  he  proceeds  to  close  his 
books,  in  the  following  manner:  (1)  the  goods  remaining  unsold 
are  overhauled,  priced  and  listed;  such   list  is    called  an  Inventory / 

(2)  the  inventories  are  entered  on  the  Cr.  side  of  their  accts., 
in  red  ink,  if  they  represent  resources,  and  on  the  Dr.  side  if  they 
represent  liabilities  ;  (3)  the  speculative  accounts  are  closed  by  en- 
tering the  difference  between  the  two  sides  on  the  smaller,  calling 
it  Loss  and  Gain;  (4)  the  Representative  accounts  are  closed  by  en- 
tering the  difference  on  the  smaller  side,  calling  it  Balance.  (The 
inventories  are  also  entered  under  the  name  of  Balance;)  (5)  a  red 
line  is  drawn  under  each  of  the  accts.,  the  footings  recorded,  and 
below  two  lines  are  carefully  drawn  to  indicate  that  the  account  is 
closed;  (6)  an  account  is  opened  with  Jioss  and  Gain,  under  which 
are  recorded  all  the  accounts  of  the  same  name  found  in  the  Ledger, 
— if  they  represent  loss,  on  the  Dr.,  and  if  gain,  on  the  Cr.  This 
separates  the  losses  from  the  gains,  and  shows,  by  taking  the  differ- 
ence of  the  two  sides,  the  net  loss  or  net  gain.  This  difference  is 
entered  on  the  smaller  side  under  the  title  stock  if  there  be  but  one 
proprietor,  and  each  man's  share  of  the  gain  or  loss  under  his  own 
name,  if  there  be  more  than  one.  Thence  it  will  be  taken  to  the 
credit  of  Stock,  if  it  be  a  gain,  and  to  the  debit  if  it  be  a  loss.  The 
Stock  account  is  now  closed  into  Balance  and  a  Financial  .State- 
ment made  out,  in  which  the  balances  shown  in  the  various 
accounts  of  the  Ledger  are  collected  and  entered,  on  the  Dr.  side  if 
they  represent  a  resource,  and  on  the  Cr.  if  a  liability.  The  two 
sides  of  this  account  must  always  be  equal. 

25.  In  a  more  extensive  business   a   Purchase  Book   may   1>' 
kept,  in  which  is  recorded :  (1)  the  date  ^2j,  from  whom  bought  (3!, 


370  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

whether  time  or  cash  ^4),  kind  and  price  of  merchandise;  a  Sales 
Book  in  which  is  recorded:  (i)  date  of  sale  (2),  to  whom  sold  (3), 
time  or  cash  (4),  kind  and  price  of  merchandise,  and  a  Bill-Book, 
in  which  is  kept  a  complete  and  orderly  account:  (1)  of  all  notes 
received  bv  the  business,  and  (2)  of  all  notes  issued  by  the  husincss. 
Tins  book  is  kept  for  convenience  only,  as  nothing  is  carried 
from  it  to  the  Ledger. 

(When  these  two  books  .ir    used,  the  Day -Book  and  Journal  may  both  be  dispensed   with.) 
SET  I.— BUSINESS   OF  A  GRAIN  DEALER. 

26.  Day-Book.  (10) 

Indianapolis,  IiuL,  Sept.  /,  /SSo. — Commenced  business  this  day  with  Cash  Cap- 
ital $10,000.  (/j)  (/<?).  .  .  .Deposited  with  First   National   Hank,   $S,oco.  (17) 

. . .  .Bo'tof  Isaac  N.  Miller  (/6)  on  "jc  1000  bu.  Amber  Wheat  (/?)  @  90c.; 

of  Dan'l  Myers,  on  our  note  (14)  at  30  ds.,  600 bu.  White  Mediterranean,  @ 

95c.;  of  Wm.  II.  Brown,  for  cash,  (/j>)  500  bu.  Red  Wheat  (S  85c. 
Sept.  2.     Paid  per  check  (17),  for  one  month's  rent  of  store,  $80;  for  blank  books 

and  stationery,  $20. ..  .Sold  C.  N.  Iladley  &  Co.   2000  bu.   Wheat   @    $1, 

ree'd  in  payment  order  on  J.  A.  Lambert  (/o)  $1000,  draft  on  F.  N .  Bank  for 

balance. 
Sept.  3.     Bo't   of  G.    Williamson,   800   bu.    Barley  (/g)  @    80c;  500  bu.   Oats 

(/<?)  @  40c.,  and  450  bu.  White  Wheat  @$i.     P'd  cash  $500  and  our  note 

(14)  @  10  ds.  for  balance. 
Sept.  4.     Bo'tof  O.  M.  Eddingfield  (16)  on  fc,  1000  bu.  Corn  @  45c;  100  bu. 

Rye  (/<?)  @  75C.;5obu.  Buckwheat  (19)  @   60c...  Sold   F.   M.  Jackson   \ 

Co.,  500  bu.  Wheat  @  $1.05,  on  c/c.  . .  .Sold  J.  A.   Lambert,   for  cash,  800 

bu.  Barley  @  90c;  500  bu.  Oats   @  45c.  ..  .Deposited   with   F.    N.    Bank 

$  1 000. 
Sept.  6.     Bo't  of  Isaac  N.  Miller,  500  bu.  Red  Wheat  @  90c.      Paid    him    cash 

$500,  and  check  on  F.  N.  Bank  to  balance  acct.,  $850. 
Sept.  7.     Sold  Wright  &  Morton,  N.  Y.,  for  cash,  550  bu.  Wheat  (<?>  9SC. ;  50  bu. 

Buckwheat  @  75c 
Sept.  8.     Rec'd  of  J.  A.  Lambert,  per  order  C.  N.  Hadley,   cash    $1000,    which 

we  deposit  with  bank. 
Sept.  10.     Bo't  of  Jas.  H.Lynn,  500  bu.  Corn  @  42c;  200  bu.  White  Wheat  (3 

$1.05;  850  bu.  Norway  Oats  @  40c;  gave  him  our  note  @  30  ds.  in  full  of 

<yc. . .  .Drew  from  Bank,  per  c'k,  $500. 
Sept.  13.     Sold  C.  N.  Hadley  &  Co.,  on  c/c,  1200  bu.  Corn  (ti>  50c. ;  400  bu.  Oats 

(S  38c.;  200  bu.  Wheat  @  $1.10 Bo't  of  D.  Myers,  on'^c,  650  bu.  Extra 

Red  Wheat  (a)  $1 ;  200  bu.  2d  grade  (it  90c. 
Sept.  16.     Bo't  of  Isaac  N.  Miller,  Soobu.  Yellow  Corn   @  43c;    250    bu.    Best 

White  (3)  45c.      Pd.  him  per  dft.  on  C.  N.  Hadley  in  full  of  «/c Pd.  cash 

for  G.  Williamson's  note  due  this  day. 
Sept.  20.     Sold  Wright  iS;  Morton,  N.  Y„  (*  30  ds.,  700   bu.    Wheat    @    $1.08; 

450  bu.  Oats  @  37^c. 
Sept.  25.     Bo't  of  G.  Williamson,  on  a/c,  500  bu.  Barley  @  92c;  300  bu.  Rye  @ 

85c;  300  bu.  Wheat  @  $1.10. 
Sept.  29.     Bo't  of  O.  M.  Eddingfield,  per  check,  1000  bu.  Corn  @  40  c;  750  bu. 

White  Wheat  (3   $1. 
Oct.  4.     Drew  from  hank,  for  private  use,  $200.  . .  .Paid  O.  P.  Lee  for  services, 
$100;  store  rent  $So,  cash...  .Sold  B.  F.  Walkup  2000  bu.   Corn  @    44c; 

rec'd  in  payment  note  (/j)  @  60  ds.  from  Aug.  15,  on  I.  N.  Miller,  in  full. 
Oct.  9.     Paiii  (i.  Williamson's  st  draft  on  us  for  $500,  per  check. 

Oct.  12.     Exchanged  500  bu.  Wheat  (>6  $1.06  for  1  £78  bu.  Corn  @  45c Sold 

S.  T.  Walker,  on  his  note  (/j)  @  30  ds.,  1000  bu.  Corn  @  48c. 
Oct.  13.     Bo't  for  cash  400  bu.  Oats  @  39c. 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


371 


OURNAL    (//).       SET    I. 

Indianapolis,  Sept.  i,  18S0. 


JL.F. 

2 

I 


Cash,  (ij). 
To  Capital  Stock,  (/&). 


9 
io 

4 

2 

6 


i 

12 

H 


15 

4 


2 

9 
io 


F.  N.  Bank,  (77). 
To  Cash, 


Wheat,  (ig). 
To  I.  N.  Miller,  (16). 
"    Bills  Payable,  (74). 
"    Cash, 


Expense,  (79). 
To  F.  N.  Bank. 


J.  A.  Lambert,  (16). 
F.N.  Bank, 
To  Wheat, 


Bailey,  (79). 
Oats,  (79). 
Wheat, 
To  Cash, 
"    Bills  Payable, 


Corn,  (79). 
Rye,  (79). 
Buckwheat,  (79). 
To  O.  M.  Eddingfield,  (16). 


F.  M.Jackson,  (16). 
To  Wheat, 


Cash, 

To  Barley, 
"  Oats, 


F.  N.  Bank, 
To  Cash, 


Dr. 


$ 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 
« 


Dr. 

it 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


IOOOO 


8000 


1895 


IOO 


IOOO 
IOOO 


640 
200 

450 


450 

75 
30 


525 


945 


IOOO 


$ 


K«K» 


8000 


900 

570 
425 


IOO 


2000 


500 

790 


555 


525 


720 

225 


IOOO 


872 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 


JOURNAL.       SET    1. 

Indianapolis,  Sept.  6,  18S0. 


L.F 
4 
S 

2 

3 


2 

4 
'3 


ii 

4 

io 

6 


Wheat, 
I.  N.  Miller, 
To  Cash, 
"   F.  N.  Bank, 


Cash, 

To  Wheat, 
"   Buckwheat, 


F.  N.  Bank, 
To  J.  A.  Lambert, 


io. 


Corn, 

Wheat, 

Oats, 

To  Bills  Payable, 


Cash, 

To  F.  N.  Bank, 


16 

1 1 
io 

4 


4 

17 


1 1 
16 


13- 


C.  N.  Hadley,  (16). 
To  Corn, 
"    Oats, 
"    Wheat, 


Wheat, 

To  D.  Myers,  (/o). 


.i6 


Corn, 
ToC  N.  Hadley, 


Bills  Payable, 
To  Cash, 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


> 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


450 
900 


576 


1000 


210 
210 
340 


5" 


500 


972 


830 


45C 


790 


S° 


^00 

850 


539 
37 


1000 


760 


50 


500 


600 
220 


830 


456 


r9° 


5< 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


373 


JOURNAL.       SET    I. 

Indianapolis,  Sept.  20,  1880. 


L.F. 
18 

4 
10 


9 

12 

4 
19 


Wright  &  Morton,  (/6). 
To  Wheat, 
"  Oats, 


25- 


11 

4 
3 


Barley, 

Rye, 

Wheat, 
To  G.  Williamson,  (/6). 


,29. 


Corn, 
Wheat, 
To  F.  N.  Bank. 


20 

XI 


*9 
3 


11 

4 


20 
11 


10 

2 


-Oct.  4. 


Capital  Stock ,  (/<?). 
To  F.  N.  Bank, 


Expense, 
To  Cash, 


Bills  Receivable,  (/j-.) 
To  Corn, 


G.  Williamson, 
To.  F.  N.  Bank, 


12. 


Corn, 
To  Wheat, 


Bills  Receivable, 
To  Corn, 


'3- 


Oats, 

To  Cash, 


Dr. 


Dr. 

11 


$ 


Dr. 
ci 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


Dr. 


924 


460 

255 
300 


400 
825 


200 


180 


SSo 


75 


¥ 


500 


53o 


480 


iS6 


756 
16S 


1015 


75 


1225 


20p 


i  So 


880 


500 


S3© 


480 


r56 


374 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

LEDGER  {21.)      SET  I. 


D 

r. 

c 

apital 

Stock 

•    (**) 

O. 

i88o. 

Oct. 
11 

4 
»5 

To  F.  N.  Bank 
"    Balance  {12) 

1 
20 

$    200 
1010S 

35 

35 

1880. 
Sept. 
Oct. 

1 

15 

By  Cash, 
"   Loss  and  Gain 

'9 

$10000 
308 

35 

io;i)S 

10308 

35 

z>> 


Ca-y/i.  (/j) 


O. 


1880. 
Sept. 


To  Capital  Slock 
"    Sundries 
"    Sundries 
"   P.  N.  Bank 


$10000 

1880. 

a 

I 

945 
576 

5o 

(( 

1 
3 

500 

u 
U 

4 
6 

16 

a 

ft 

Oct. 

29 
13 

5° 

11 

15 

$12021 

By  F.  N.  Bank 
"  Wheat 
"  Sundries 
"  F.  N.  Bank 
"  Sundries 
"  Bills  Pay., 
"  Expense 
"  Oats 
"  Balance  {12) 


$  Sooo 

425 
500 

•  1000 

500 

790 

180 

156 

470 


1 202 1  50 


50 


Dr. 

F.  N.  Bank.  (17) 

Cr. 

1880. 

1880. 

Sept. 

I 

To  Deposit, 

$Sooo 

Sept. 

2 

By  Expense, 

$    100 

11 

2 

"  Wheat, 

1000 

U 

6 

"  Sundries, 

850 

u 

4 

"  Deposit, 

1000 

(< 

10 

"  Cash, 

500 

hi 

8 

"  J.  A.  Lambert, 

1 000 

Oct. 
11 

^9 
4 
9 

u       11 

"  Capital  Stock, 
"  G.  Williamson, 

1225 
200 
1500 

11 

!5 

"  Balance,  (12) 

20 

7**5 

1 1000 

1 1 000 

Dr. 


T880. 
Sept 


Oct. 


To  Sundries, 


"   Bills  Payable 
"  D.  Myers, 
"  G.  Williamson 
"  F.  N.  Bank, 
"  Loss  ii  Gain(24) 


Wheat,  {jg) 


Cr. 


rg 


$  1S95 

45° 
45° 
210 

830 
300 
825 
3'° 

5270 


1SS0. 
Sept. 


Oct. 


By  Sundries, 
"  F.  M.  Jackson, 
"  Cash, 

"  C.  N.  Hadley, 
"  Wright  &  M., 
"  Corn, 
"  Balance  (24X2S) 


20 


$  2000 

525 

539 
220 

756 

53° 
•joo 


5270 


BOOK-K1  l.I'ING. 

LEDGER.       SET  I. 


375 


D> 


I.  N.  Miller.  {16) 


Cr. 


18S0. 
Sept. 


To  Sundries. 


$    900 


INN.. 
Sept- 


By  Wheat, 


$    900 


D> 


Bills  Payable.  (14) 


Cr. 


1880. 
Sept. 
Oct. 


To  Cash, 
' '  Balance  (24)  {iq) 


i 
1 

$  790 
wo 

1880. 

Sept. 
it 

1 

3 
10 

mo 

% 

By  Wheat, 

"  Sundries, 

11  it 


790 
760 


2120 


D> 


Expense.  (19) 


Cr. 


1880. 
Sept. 


29 


To  F.  N.  Bank, 
1   Cash, 


$     100 
180 


I       280 


1880. 
Oct. 


By  Bal.,  (28)  rent, 
"  Loss  &  Gain{24) 


20 
'9 

$      40 
240 

280 

Dr. 


"J.  A.  Lambert.  [16) 


Cr. 


1880.I 
Sept.|  S 


iSSoT 
Sept. 


To  Wheat. 


$  1000 


By  F.  N.  Bank, 


$  1000 


D, 


1880. 
Sept. 

Oct. 


Barley.   {19) 


To  Sundries, 
"  G.  Williamson, 
"   Loss  and  Gain, 


1880. 

$    640 

Sept. 

4 

460 

Oct. 

i.S 

'9 

So 

— 

11S0 

By  Cash. 
"  Balance,  {28) 


JO 


$    720 
460 


1 180 


Dr. 


10. 
Oats.  (19) 


Cr. 


1880. 

1 

1880. 

Sept. 

■\ 

To  Sundries, 

$    2001 

Sept 

.j  By  Cash, 

$    225 

H 

10 

"  Cash, 

I56 

II 

13 

"  C.  N.  Hadley, 

15* 

ti 

n 

"  Bills  Payable, 

340 

it 

20 

"   Wright  &  M., 

168 

75 

Oct. 

15 

"  Loss  and  Gain, 

'9 

9 

75 

75 

Oct. 

'•5 

"  Balance,  (28) 

jt> 

160 

705 

70S 

75 

376 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 


Dr. 


LEDGER.       SET    I. 

ii. 
Corn,  (ig) 


Cr. 


TBS5. 

Sept 


Oct 


To  O.M.Eddingf'd 
"  Bills  Payable, 
"  C.  N.  1  ladle v, 
"  F.  N .  Bank," 
"  Wheat, 
"   Loss  artel  Gain, 


1880. 

$    45o 

Sept. 

13 

210 

Oct. 

4 

456 

5° 

U 

12 

4.00 

It 

*5 

53° 

*9 

*S* 

10 
60 

2197 

By  C.  N.  Hadley, 

"  Bills  RecVble 
a       it  « 

"   Balance,  (28) 


_-<> 


$  600 
880 
480 
237 


2197 


60 


60 


1  2. 


*3- 


Dr. 


Iinck-whcat.  (/p) 


1880. 
Sept. 
Oct. 


ToO.M.Eddin^'d 
"    Loss  and  Gain 


rg 


$30 


37 


5o| 


1880. 
Sept 


By  Cash, 


D 

r. 

Ry 

c. 

(*P) 

Cr. 

1880. 

Sept. 
u 

4 
25 

To  O.M.Eddingf'd 
41  G.Williamson, 

$75 
255 

1SS0. 

Oct. 

.  t 

15 
u 

By  Balance 
' l    Loss  and  Gain 

2o\ 

$J20 
JO 

330 

330 

Cr. 


$37 


37 


50 


50 


14. 


D 

r. 

0 

.  .1/.  Eddingfield 

(id) 

Cr. 

1880. 
Oct. 

15 

To  Bala  ii' 

20 

1SX0. 

Sept. 

I 

By  Sundries, 

$555 

^m 

Dr. 


'5- 


F.  M.  Jackson,     (id) 


Cr. 


To  Wheat, 


I 


$525 


1880. 
Oct. 


15 


By  Balance, 


20\     Sj2^ 


Dr. 


1880. 
Sept. 


13 


To  Sundries, 


ir,. 


C.  N.  J I  ad  Icy.   (16.) 


$972 


9721 


1SN0. 
Sept. 

Oct. 


16;  By  Corn, 


15 


"  Balance, 


Cr. 


$456  5° 

772 


BOOK-KEEPING 
LEDGER.       SET     I. 


m 


D, 


17- 


D.   Myers.    ( 16) 


1880. 
Oct. 


To  Balance, 


20 


$830 


1S80. 
Sept. 


13 


By  Wheat, 


I    $83o| 


D, 


18. 


Wright  ct-  Morton.    {16) 


1880. 
Sept. 


To  Sundries, 


$924 


II 1 880. 
75  Oct. 


15 


By  Balance, 


Cr. 


20\     $924 


75 


Dr. 


19- 


G.     Williamson.   (16) 


1880. 
Sept 
Oct. 


To  F.  N.  Bank, 
"  Balance, 


$500 

*°l      5*5 


1015 


1880 
Sept 


25 


By  Sundries, 


20. 


Cr. 


$1015 


1015 


Dr. 


Bills  Receivable.  (75) 


1880. 

Oct. 

« 

4 
12 

To  Corn, 
11       11 

$8So 
480 


1360 


tsso: 

Oct. 


IS 


By  Balance, 


2o\  SlJOO 


1 360 


Dr. 


19. 


At>.y.y  «W  Gain.   (24) 


Cr. 


1880. 

[S«o. 

Oct. 

'5 

To  Expense, 

7 

$240 

Oct. 

15 

By  Wheat, 

4 

$310 

<< 

u 

41   Rye, 

1  j 

to 

" 

a 

"    Barley, 

9 

80 

it 

II 

"    StocJL; 

JO,? 

JLv     " 

II 

"   Oats, 

10 

9 

75 

" 

'1 

"   Corn, 

11 

151 

10 

(i 

"    Buckwheat, 

'3 

7 

50 

55S 

3S| 

558 

0 

378  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

LEDGER.       SET    I. 


D 


r. 


Financial    Statement.   ( 24) 


Cr. 


iSNn 

Oct. 


15 


To  Cash, 

F.  N.  Bank, 

Wheat, 

Rent, 

Barley, 
1    Oats, 
'    Corn, 

'  Rye, 

F.  M.  Jackson, 
C.  N.  Hadley, 
1   Wright  &  M., 
1    Bills  Rec, 


$470 

7625 

700 

40 

460 

160 

^37 
3^o 

525 

Si5 
924 

1360 


5° 


[SSo. 
Oct. 


60 


13338 


35 


>5 


By  Bills  Pay., 
O.M.  Eddi'gfi'd 
D.  Myers, 
G.  Williamson 
Stock, 


$1330 

55S 

830 

10108 


13338 


35 


35 


TRIAL    BALANCE. 


{23) 


SET     1. 


1 

Oct.  15,  1880. 

Footings. 

Differences. 

Stock,  (J2) 

Dr. 

Cr. 

Dr. 

Cr. 

$200 

10000 

9800 

0 

Cash,  {12)     - 

12021 

5° 

11551 

470 

50 

3 

First  National  Bank,  (12) 

1 1000 

3375 

7625 

4 

Wheat,   (/(?) 

.960 

457° 

39° 

5 

fl.  N.  Miller,  (12)     ■ 

900 

900 

6 

Bills  Payahle,  (12) 

790 

2120 

'33° 

7 

Expense,  (19) 

2S0 

2S0 

8 

fj.  A.  Lambert,  (12)     - 

1000 

1000 

9 

Barley,  (19) 

1 100 

720 

380 

10 

Oats,  (/9) 

696 

545 

75 

IS° 

25 

11 

Corn,  (19)         .... 

2046 

50 

i960 

86 

5° 

12 

Rye,(/o) 

33o 

33° 

'3 

Buckwheat,  (79) 

30 

37 

;<> 

7 

50 

H 

0.  M.  Eddingneld,  {12) 

555 

555 

15 

F.  M.Jackson, (12) 

5-5 

535 

16 

C.  N.  Hadlev.  (12) 

"7- 

456 

5" 

5*5 

50 

17 

I).  Myers,   {12) 

830 

830 

18 

Wrighl  &  Morton,  (72) 

9M 

75 

924 

75 

iq 

(J.   Williamson,  (12) 

500 

1015 

515 

2CJ 

Bills  Receivable.  (12) 

1  360 

w 

1360 

3</>o 

39635 

75 

13037 

5" 

I3037 

50 

t  Accounts  which  have  the  une  amount  on  both  Or.  anil  Cr.  may  be  omitted  from  the  trial 
balance. 


BOOK-  KEEPING. 


379 


o    » 


•a 
§ 

■a 

o 


a" 
S  o 


9.S- 

a 


C-3 

m  re 
T3 

1 


2 

o 


-ft    JO 

"Si? 

Whe 
Issue 

^j  « 

re_3 

«S? 

as 

=  3 

IP 

i  re 

7)   t 

o 

c 


00 


3-3 


'a 

3 


=  1 


.o 

jre 


"0 

p 


o 

p 

V) 

3* 

5' 


re  re 
i  re 

O 


— 
o 


p 

< 
o 


re  < 

?  3* 


'  T3 
p 
■-< 
p 


O 

B 

fD 


3 


it 

0 

■  o 

p 

re 

CO 
re 

Ul     M 

o  o 

Q.O. 

Ul    (A 

H 

3 
re 

re 

3 

O.P 
r.  3 
re  n. 

Is 

C-  o 


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r 

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$ 


a 

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a 

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2 

1 

M    «- 

p 

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SM 

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380  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS1  LIBRART. 

MEMORANDA    TO    BK    WRITTBN    UP    \\\     illl.    STUDENT.* 

New  York, J. in.  i,  188.2. — We,  J.  C.  Smith  and  F.  A.  Brown  have  this  day 
opened  a  Grocer)  ami  Provision  Store  with  the  following  resources  and  liabili- 
ties, viz:     Cash  (/.s)  in   sale,  $500;  Deposited    with    Bast  River   Hank,  $3,000 

.  Notes  pay  able  to  us,  $1,500  (/j-);  Groceries  and  Provisions  in  store,  as  per 
Invoice,  $2,541.68;  Furniture  and  Fixtures,  $100  (/S,/g);  Fuel  oh  hand, -$50 
(iS  1 -j  ■  Jan  1. — We  owe  Chas.  Baker  on  our  note  (3  30  ds.  $500, (/^);  W.  B. 
Huron  on  <yc  $250  (/©);  A.  C.  Hopkins,  on  <jfc,  $175  (/6).  Jan.  3. —  Paid  store 
rent  in  advance  lor  3  mos.  per  check,  $300  (/->,  /o).  Sold  Jas.  II.  Lynn  (16,  ig) 
■  1  30  ds.,  2  Bags  Rio  Coffee,  210  His.  c  -'5'..;  1  llhd  l'C"  Sugar,  950  II, s.  i</  9^.; 
:  Kegs  Butter,  145  m  23^.;  1  Bbl.  Cider  Vinegar,  40  Gal.  (SJ  25^.  Sold  W.  C. 
Edwards  on  his  note  («  00  ds.,  5  Bhls  Rice,  1,000  lbs.  (./  '''4'/-;3  Bags  Java 
Coffee,  372  lbs.  (5  30',. ;  4  Boxes  Cheese,  156 lbs.  (5  lS-^.  Jan.  7. —  Bought  oi 
Baker  &  Hughes,  (/(>,  /y)  i«  30  ds.,  10  Bbls.  N.  O.  Molasses,  400  Gal.  @  60^.;  I 
Hhd.  Granulated  Sugar,  936  II. s.  @  y/. ;  2  Hhd.  Coffee  Sugar,  tSoolbs.  @  7  >£'/.; 
2  Hhd.  "A"  Sugar,  1840  lbs.  (g  8£.  Jan.  to. — Sold  Geo.  A.  .Miller,  (■<  30  ds., 
Invoice  of  Canned  Fruits,  amounting  to  $287.50.  Sold  B.  D.  Mitchell  on  «/c, 
2  Bbls.  Powdered  Sugar,  335  lbs.  (fij  ii(l. ;  5  Bbls.  Family  Flour  @  $8  per  Bbl.; 
I  Doz.  Dressed  Turkeys  (5  $4;  Condiments  per  Invoice,  $25;  2  Bbl  .  Prime 
Mess  l'ork,  (a,  $17;  5  Bbls.  Tea  Crackers  @  $2.75jan.  15  . . .  .Sold  Henry  How- 
ell for  cash  (12),  Invoice  of  Teas,  $75;  Raisins,  $50;  Dried  Beef,  $25.  Jan.  20. 
—  Paid  freight  per  Bill,  $So;  Drayage,  $12,  cash.  Jan.  25. — Bought  of  Barnum, 
Hyde  &  Co.  20  Bbls.  Star  Mills"  Flour  «i  $7.50,  10  Bb'ls.  Ohio  Flour  @  $8. 
Gave  in  pavment  Dft.  on  E.  R.  Bank  (/y)  in  full  of  a/c.  Jan.  2y. — Gave  W .  B. 
Huron  (/6)"Dft.  on  E.  R.  Bank  in  full  of  «/<■.  Jan.  31.— Sold  J.  C.  Smith,  Gro- 
ceries per  Invoice,  $500;  Rec'd  in  payment  order  on  Baker  &  Hughes  (/o)  in  full 
ofQ/c.  Sold  W.  C.  Edwards  for  Cash,  1  Bbl. Turkish  Prunes,  @  $18;  100  Bbls 
Salt,  i"  $1.10;  1  Bbl.  Cider  Vinegar  @  $10;  2  Bbls.  Pickles  (S  $16.50;  5  %  off 
for  cash.  Feb.  2. —  Received  cash  of  J.  H.  Lynn  {16)  in  full  of  his  «r.  which 
we  deposit  with  E.  R.  Bank  (/j).  Paid  A.  C.  Hopkins  in  full  of  "•  .  per  check. 
Sold  Klisha  Hall  5  Bbls.  Dried  Apples,  1824  lbs.  @  8>^.;  6  Boxes  Oat  Meal, 
"i  ^4;  50  Sacks  "  White  Rose"  Flour,  24  lbs.  ea.  (5  75^  per  sack;  1  Box  Smoked 
Sides,  1,000  lbs.  m  c//-. ;  Received  in  payment  order  on  J. C.  Smith  (/6)  for$i25. 
Cash  (/.?)  for  balance.  Feb.  8. — Paid  Baker  iV  Hughes  (16)  cash  in  full  of  eje, 
per  check  on  Bank  (/y).  .  .  .Paid  clerks  cash,  $125.  Feb.  10. — Received  of  Geo. 
A.  Miller,  cash  for  Inv.  of  Fruit,  10th  ult,  $287.50.  Feb.  15.— Sold  B.  D.  Wil- 
son on  his  note  (/j)  @  60  ds.,  10  Bbls.  Ohio  Flour,  (5  $8.50;  iu  Bbls.  Star  Mills, 

@  $8;  3  Bags  Rio  Coffee,  310  lbs.  (</    jSo Sold  John  Crim.  Invoice  of  Con- 

diments,  $97.35;  i  Tierce  Lard,  310  lbs.  (a  14^20  Bbls.  Michigan  Apples,  @ 
$2.j:;.  Rec'd  in  payment  cash  $100,  order  on  Elisha  Hall  (/dj  for  balance.... 
Deposited  with  E.R.  Bank,  $l,Oop.  Feb.  23. — Sold  B.  D.  Mitchell,  Provisions 
as  per  Invoice,  $200.  Rec'd  his  draft  on  E.  R.  Bank  in  full  of  all  acct. . .  .Dis- 
counted B.  D.  Wilson's  note  (/j)  of  15th  inst.  Face  $251.80,  Discount  for  55  ds. 
<"  o  %,  $231.  Proceeds  in  cash,  $249.49.  Feb.  25. — Sold  Peter  Parker  on  ojc. 
10  Boxes  Maccaroni  (g  $3.25;  10  Boxes  Silver  Gloss  Starch,  (3  75',*;  1  Box 
Soap,  1 50 lbs..  60.  per  lb. ;  3  Kegs  Mustard,  225  lbs  @  .^k.  Mar.  1. — Sold  J.  H. 
Lynn,  on  "■<■..  2  Bbls.  Headlight  Oil,  80  Gab.  (3  -•<>'■.;  10  Hlf.  Barrels 
Lard,  kxx)  II, >.,  m  13c;  100  tbs.  French  Jumbles  m  15c. J  50  lbs.  Dried 
Beef,  9  Mar.      10.  —  Purchased     of     A.     C.     Hopkins,    on     account; 

20  Bbls  Maple  Molasses,  600  Gal.,  @  So^.;  1000  1t>s.  Maple  Sugar, 
«i  ii'/.  Mar.  11. — Sold  W.  B.  Huron,  on  "fc,  3  Doz.  Sugar  Cured 
Hams,    456    lbs.    (3     14^.:    2    Tubs    Butter,  So  ll».   (3   ji'\      Mar.  15. — Bought 


*This  set  is  designed  to  give  the  student  an  opportunity  to  lest  his  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples set  forth  in  the  preceding  pages.  The  nature  of  the  transactions  is  such  that  it  may  be 
written  up  (1)  in  Single  Entry  Day-Book  form  as  shown  in  Sec.  6;  (a)  Day-Book  and  Ledger, 
Sec.  7;(j)  bauble  Entry  Journal,  Cash  Book,  Bill-Book  and  Ledger. 

The  1  ri  il  It  dance  appended  vv i  1 1  serve  to  guide  the  learner  in  Ilahmcintr  the  set,  giving,  as 
it  dots,  the  footings  of  all  the  accounts  found  ■"  the  Ledger. 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


381 


of  Smith  &  Wilson,  Invoice  of  Groceries  and  Provisions  amounting  to  $S6o. 
Gave  them  inpayment  Peterson's  Note  (/j)  dated  Jan.  i,  @  3  mos,  Face  $800. 
Disc,  (ig)  off  tor  20  ds.  $2.67.  Proceeds  $797.33;  Balance  in  Cash,  $62.67.  Mar. 
20.— Sold  W.  T  Lucas,  Bill  of  Groceries,  Cash  $1,200.  Mar.  21.— Sold  Geo. 
A.  Miller,  on  <i/c,  2  chests  of  Y.  H.  Tea,  170  lbs.  (d)  80^.;  2  Bags  Java  Coffee, 
214  lbs.,  @  28^.;  5  Bbls.  Corn  Meal,  @  $3;  200  bu.  Irish  Potatoes,  @  75^.  .  .Sold 
James  A.  Bowen,  for  cash,  10  Bbls.  Maple  Molasses,  300  Gal.,  (d  yof.  Bought 
of  Kingah  &  Co.,  1000  Sugar  Cured  Hams,  17000 lbs.  (il  13c;  100  pes.  Bacon, 
1500  lbs.,  (jO  8^.  Gave  in  payment  our  note  @  (14)  60  days,  $2,000;  order  on 
G.  A.  Miller  for  $330.  ...Sold  Bowen  &  Darnell,  for  cash,  300  lbs.  Maple 
Sugar,  (a)  12)4$.  Mar.  30. — Paid  Insurance  on  Contents  of  Store,  $25;  Gas 
Bill,  $20;  Clerk  hire,  $So,  cash.  Mar.  31. — Peter  Parker  {16)  having  failed  in 
business,  we  compromise  with  him  @  50$,  Receiving  Cash,  $69.50,  and  losing 
the  balance. 


TRIAL.    BALANCE.       SET    II. 


Taken  March  31,  1882. 


No. 


3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 

11 
12 
*3 
'4 
1=; 
16 

*7 
18 

r9 


Ledger  Titles. 


Dr. 

Footings 


Cr. 
Footings 


Stock, 

Cash, 

East  River  Bank, 
Bills  Receivable,  - 

Merchandise,  (Inventory  ($3245), 
Furniture  (Inventory  $95), 
Expense,  .... 

Bills  Payable,       .... 
W.  B.  Huron, 

A.  C.  Hopkins, 

Jas.  H.  Lynn,   .... 
Baker  &  Hughes, 
Geo.  A.  Miller, 

B.  D.  Mitchell,      - 
J.  C.  Smith, 

E.  Hall, 

Interest,      .... 
Peter  Parker,    .... 
Loss  &  Gain,  .... 


32<M 
4534 
1955 
7162 

100 

69 

330 

175 

346 
610 

648 

153 
125 

85 

4 

139 

69 


,94 
95 
'5 
62 


'4 

85 

<)\ 

4- 
60 

75 
98 


:  20339 


6766 
1404 
1065 
105 1 
4832 


2500 
250 

765 
181 
610 
617 

153 


139 


5°, 

34 


68 
67 

94 
80 

86 


35 

94 

50 
60 


34 


QUESTIONS   ON    BOOK-KEEPING. 

i.  What  is  Book-Keeping?  2.  For  what  purpose  are  books  kept?  How 
manv  and  what  forms  are  used?  3-4.  What  is  meant  by  Single  Entry?  5. 
Give  some  of  its  advantages  and  disadvantages.  6.  Describe  a  Single  Entry 
Da v- Book.     Where  are  persons  debited  ?     Credited? 

8.  For  what  is  the  Ledger  used?  Describe  if?  What  is  meant  by  posting? 
9.  Define  Double  Entry.  Why  so  called?  What  books  are  used?  10.  What 
i^  the  vise  of  the  Historical  Day-Book  ?  How  kept?  Nature  of  entries?  Why 
is  accuracy  so  important?  What  is  meant  by  a  book  of  "  original  entrv"? 
What  hooks  may  be  such? 

11.  What  is" the  province  of  the  Journal?  Why  difficult  to  keep?  Is  it  a 
book  of  original  entry?  Can  it  be  dispensed  with?  12.  What  classification  of 
accounts  is  made?  What  are  representative  accounts?  Why  so  called?  Give 
examples?     13.  What  is  shown  by  the  Dr.  of  Cash?     Cr.?     Difference  between 


382  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBIiART. 

the  two  sides?     Rule  for  debits  and  credits?     Can  the   balance  be  a   liability? 
Why  not  ? 

14.  What  is  shown  by  the  Dr.  of  Bills  Payable?  Cr.?  Difference?  Which 
side  will  always  be  the  greater,  if  either?  Why?  15.  What  are  Bills  Receiv- 
able? Mow  is  the  account  kept?  What  does  the  difference  or  balance  repre- 
sent? Give  rule  for  Journalizing.  16.  Define  Personal  Accounts.  When  are 
persons  debited?  Credited?  Rule?  What  does  the  balance  represent?  17. 
What  is  the  use  of  the  Bank  Account?  What  other  account  does  it  most  re- 
semble? iS.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  Stock  Account?  When  debited? 
Credited?  What  does  it  represent?  How  kept  when  there  are  two  or  more 
partners  ? 

19.  What  are  Speculaiive  accounts ?  In  what  do  they  differ  from  Repre- 
sentative accounts?  What  is  shown  by  the  Dr.  side?  Cr. ?  How  do  they 
close? 

20.  What  is  the  primary  use  of  a  Cash-Book?  Secondary?  Are  the 
Ledger  titles  on  the  Dr.  side  of  the  Cash-Book  debited  or  credited?  Why? 
On  the  Cr.  side? 

21.  What  is  recorded  in  the  Double  Entry  Ledger?  Does  it  differ  from 
that  of  Single  Entry?  In  what  way?  Are  the  entries  original?  Whence  do 
they  come?  22.  Give  the  order  of  posting?  23.  What  is  the  use  of  a  Trial 
Balance?  What  does  it  contain?  Why  should  the  Dr.  and  Cr.  of  footings  be 
equal?     Differences? 

24.  Give  all  the  steps  taken  in  closing  the  Ledger.  How  is  the  inventory 
taken?  Where  entered,  if  a  resource?  Liability?  What  accounts  close  into 
Loss  and  Gain*  What  is  shown  in  the  Loss  and  Gain  account?  Financial 
Statement?  Where  is  the  net /ass  or  gain  taken?  Why?  Why  should  the 
resources  and  liabilities  be  equal? 

25.  What  is  entered  in  the  Purchase- Book?  Are  the  titles  at  the  headings  of 
the  transactions  debited  or  credited?  Why?  Where  is  the  corresponding  debit 
or  credit  found?  Sales-Book?  What  is  recorded  in  the  Bill-Book?  Are 
accounts  posted  from  it?  Define  Order-Book,  Delivery-Book  and  Invoice- 
Book. 


Ul^IIIM. 


PENMANSHIP. 


1.  Writing  is  a  utilitarian  art,  and  the  chief  requisite  is  a  clear 
and  vivid  perception  of  form.  This  is  the  first  preliminary.  For 
every  defect  in  perception  will  appear  a  corresponding  one  in 
execution. 

2.  In  the  study  of  this  branch  of  education — for  it  is  a  study — 
practice  alone  will  never  win  success.  The  many  minute  things 
which  constitute  good  penmanship  are  too  often  overlooked;  and 
consequently  the  student  becomes  discouraged.  Study  the  little 
things,  and  the  difficulty  disappears.  The  only  road  to  success  in 
the  art  of  writing  is  by  the  careful  investigation  of  the  works  of 
.standard  authors  and  the  practical  application  of  the  principles  and 
ideas  gleaned  therefrom,  under  the  direction  of  a  competent 
teacher. 


PENMANSHIP.  383 

ESSENTIALS. 

3.  Legibility. — To  the  teacher  as  well  as  the  student  many 
things  appear  which  are  of  the  utmost  importance,  the  first  of 
which  we  conceive  to  be  legibility. 

4.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  many  persons  boast  that  no  one 
can  read  their  writing  after  the  ink  is  dry  without  a  severe  tax 
upon  the  patience.  Because  Horace  Greek'}'  and  some  other  great 
men  were  miserable  scrawlers,  they  think  it  a  mark  of  genius;  as 
well  covet  a  club-foot  because  Byron  was  so  deformed.  The  im- 
portance of  the  position  occupied  by  writing  in  the  social  and  busi- 
ness intercourse  of  nations  demands  for  it  the  most  perfect 
legibility. 

5.  Rapidity. — Next  in  importance  we  place  rapidity.  A  slow 
and  labored  style  of  writing  might  answer  the  requirements  of  the 
past  ages,  but  in  these  days  of  steam  and  electricity  nothing  short 
of  legible  and  rapidly  executed  writing  will  satisfy  the  demands  of 
the  times. 

6.  Beauty. — After  having  acquired  that  which  is  practical  in 
penmanship,  we  may  turn  our  attention  to  elaboration.  This  re- 
quires much  careful  practice  on  a  great  variety  of  forms  and  com- 
binations to  educate  the  eye  to  discern  artistic  beauty.  Beauty 
will  be  more  fully  developed  in  the  following: — 

7.  Uniformity. — A  page  of  writing  not  possessing  this  quality 
looks  strangely  unfinished,  and  is  neither  neat  nor  attractive.  Of 
this  head  we  shall  make  three  divisions,  viz:  Slope,  Spacing  and 
Shading. 

^JL^.  /isy?  /  J  8-     Slope. — All   letters   should   be 

<Z^~^*W^  made  on  a  slant  of  520  (fifty-two  de- 
grees) which  is  called  the  main  slant. 
This  is  found  to  be  the  most  con- 
venient  compromise  between  legibility 
^^./^raJufU/^  and  rapidity.  While  this  is  true,  it 
would  be  well  to  note  that  all  the  de- 
scending lines  except  in  a,  d,  q  and  g  are  on  the  main  slant,  and 
except  o,  e,  a,  c,  g,  q  and  s,  are  also  parallel.  The  stems  and  prin- 
cipal curves  in  the  capitals  are  also  made  on  the  main  slant. 

Remark. — The  teacher  should  place  the  diagram  on  the  board  and  demon- 
strate the  points  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  paragraph. 

9.  Spacing. — As  shown  in  the  diagram  the  letter  "n"  is  one 
space  high,  which  is  the  unit  for  measuring  space  in  height  (some 
give  u  or  i)  and  the  distance  between  the  straight  lines  is  the  unit 
tor  measuring  space  in  width.  If  the  short  letters  are  made  very 
small,  the  semi-extended  should  be  three  times,  and  the  extended 
four  times  as  high;  but  if  the  short  letters  are  a  medium  height, 
then  the  semi-extended  should  be  twice,  and  the  extended  three 
times  as  high;  from  which  arises  the  scale  of  thirds. 


384  TEACHERS?  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

10.  Measure. — Authors  differ  in  regard  to  this.  Some 
measure  from  the  beginning  to  the  finishing  point  of  the  letter  «, 
making  it  three  spaces;  and  others  measure  only  between  the 
straight  lines,  which  makes  it  one  space  wide.  The  best  way  is  to 
consider  the  space  between  the  straight  lines  the  width  of  the  letter; 
and  then  measure  the  horizontal  length  of  the  line  that  connects  it 
to  other  letters,  which  is  one  and  one-iburth  spaces,  except  when  the 
pointed  oval  occurs,  when  it  is  two  spaces  measured  at  the  head  line. 

11.  Many  persons  make  the  letters  and  word'-  so  tar  apart  or 
so  close  together  that  legibility  is  much  impaired.  To  aid  the 
student  in  avoiding  these  errors,  we  append   the  following  rules: — 

Rule  I. — The  distance  between  letters  in  a  word  is  one  and 
one-fourth  spaces. 

Ruli:  II. — Finish  a  word  or  letter  at  the  head  line  and  begin 
the  next  directly  under  the  finishing  point  of  the  preceding;  if  fol- 
lowing a  capital  begin  one-fourth  space  to  the  right. 

Rule  III. — The  distance  between  sentences  is  three  spaces. 
Begin  a  paragraph  one-half  inch  to  the  right  of  margin. 

12.  Shading. — It  has  been  said  that  "  Writing  is  a  secondary 
power  of  speech;"  then  illegible  writing  may  be  compared  to 
stammering  speech  and  shading  may  be  said  to  be  writing  what 
emphasis  is  to  speaking.  To  make  all  the  downward  strokes 
either  light  or  heavy  would  produce  a  monotonous  effect.  To  pre- 
vent this  the  shade  must  be  distributed  in  a  manner  that  will  pre- 
sent a  pleasing  aspect.  There  are  five  forms  of  shade.  These  are 
found  in  /,  p,  6,  y,  O.  No  letter  should  receive  more  than  one  full 
shade;  if  the  shaded  letter  is  doubled  the  latter  should  receive  but 
half  shade. 

Remark. — Some  business  men  prefer  not  to  make  any  shade,  because  an 
error  is  more  easily  erased. 

13.  Materials. — No  person  would  expect  a  mechanic  to  construct 
apiece  of  apparatus  with  rusty,  worn-out  tools,  neither  would  they 
expect  an  artist  to  paint  a  fine  landscape  on  poor  canvas  with 
coarse,  rough  brushes  and  poor  paints;  nor  should  they  expect 
children  to  learn  to  write  on  soft,  flimsy  paper  with  rusty  pens  and 
pale,  worthless  ink.  Notwithstanding,  parents  are  apt  to  think 
that  anything  will  do  for  a  child.  We  would  say  to  parents,  fur- 
nish your  children  with  the  very  best  materials  in  the  market  if 
you  would  have  them  succeed;  and  to  teachers,  it  is  your  duty  to 
see  that  \  our  pupils  are  supplied  with  such  materials. 

14.  Copy  Books  and  Paper. — Great  care  should  be  exercised 
in  selecting  copy  books  and  paper.  If  copy  books  containing  plate 
copies  are  used,  those  are  preferable  which  have  the  best  gradation, 
and  are  the  simplest  in  form.  The  paper  that  is  best  adapted  to 
general  use-  is  slightly  glazed,  and  has  a  firm,  solid  surface.  No 
Other  i^  tit  for  the  use  of  either  the  beginner  or  adept. 


1'ENMANSHIP.  385 

15.  Ink. — There  are  many  good  inks  in  the  market,  hence  no 
one  need  be  without  a  good  article.  The  better  the  ink  the  more 
rapid  the  improvement.  The  properties  of  good  ink  are,  first,  that 
it  should  Mow  freely;  second,  that  it  should  not  corrode  the  pen  or 
paper;  third,  that  it  should  have  a  deep  hue  when  it  goes  on  the 
paper  and  ever  after  retain  its  color. 

16.  Pens. — Steel  pens  are  the  only  kind  that  are  fit  for  the 
use  of  the  learner.  Of  all  the  instruments  used  in  writing  the  pen 
is  most  important.  It  should  be  of  medium  size  and  have  fine, 
flexible  point. 

17.  Pen  Holders. — All  fancy  holders  should  be  discarded,  and 
those  having  bright,  steel-colored  clasps  are  unfit  for  use,  because 
they  require  too  tight  a  grasp  to  hold  them.  A  plain  wooden 
holder  about  six  inches  long  with  a  plain  clasp  is  the  best. 

METHODS    OF    TEACHING. 

18.  A  discussion  of  the  subject  of  penmanship  unaccompanied 
by  a  plan  of  imparting  a  knowledge  of  the  art  to  pupils,  criticising 
and  illustrating  means  by  which  each  pupil  will  be  enabled  to  crit- 
icise, improve  and  correct  his  own  peculiar  errors,  would  be  incom- 
plete. Therefore  we  will  endeavor  to  lay  down  some  rules  for 
the  aid  of  both  student  and  teacher  which  in  our  experience  have 
proved  practical. 

19.  Position. — An  easy,  convenient  and  healthful  position  is 
necessary  to  good  penmanship.  The  teacher  should  never  permit 
a  bad  position  to  be  used.  There  are  four  positions  recommended, 
but  the  right  and  front  positions  will  answer  all  practical  purposes. 
If  writing  on  desks,  the  right  position  must  be  used  to  secure  the 
best  results.  This  is  often  modified  by  turning  the  paper  in  an  ob- 
lique position;  then  it  is  called  the  right  oblique.  At  tables  the 
front  position  may  be  used  to  advantage.  The  most  effectual 
method  of  teaching  position  is  for  the  teacher  to  describe  it,  having 
pupils  assume  each  step  as  soon  as  described.  Thus  when  the  de- 
scription is  complete  the  pupil  will  have  a  correct  position.  The 
following  gives  the  different  steps  as  they  should  be  given  to  a 
class : — 

20.  (i)  The  body  must  be  erect.  (2)  The  feet  must  be  flat 
on  the  floor.  (3)  The  right  side  must  be  near  to  but  never  touch- 
ing the  desk.  (4)  The  paper  must  be  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the 
desk,  and  the  right  arm  in  a  similar  position.  (5)  The  arm  must 
rest  on  the  muscle  of  the  fore-arm  with  the  wrist  slightly  elevated. 
(6)  The  hand  must  glide  on  the  nails  of  the  third  and  fourth 
fingers.  (7)  The  blotting  card  must  be  placed  under  the  right 
hand. 

21.  Pen-holding. — This  is  very  important  and  difficult  to  learn. 
Yet  by  persistent  effort  the  correct  manner  may  be  acquired,  and 
when  once  fixed  you  have  it  for  all  time.     The  same  plan  followed 

25 


:»\ 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  L1BRART. 


RIGHT. 


WRONC. 


in  teaching  position  should  be  used  in  pen-holding.     The  steps  are 
as  follows:      (i)    Place  the  first  ringer  on  the   holder  one  inch  from 

the  point  of  the  pen. 
(  2)  Let  the  second 
finger  drop  below 
the  holder  to  the 
root  of  the  nail.  (3) 
The  thumb  must 
press  upon  the 
holder  opposite  the 
first  joint  in  the  first 
finger.  (4)  Let  the 
holder  point  over  the  right  shoulder.  Do  not  grasp  the  pen,  hut 
hold  it  lightly.  These  directions  should  be  given  at  the  beginning 
of  every  lesson,  either  by  a  pupil  or  the  teacher.  Figure  1  shows 
the  correct  manner  of  holding  the  pen.  Figure  2  shows  an  incor- 
rect manner. 

22.  Movement. — Good  writing  is  the  product  of  free  move- 
ment, and  all  written  forms  correspond  with  the  movement  which 
produces  them.  If  the  movement  is  slow  and  labored,  the  form 
will  be  roueh  and  homely.  If  the  movement  is  dashing  and  with- 
out  constraint,  the  form  will  be  irregular  and  unintelligible.  If 
the  movement  is  regular  and  uniform,  the  form  will  he  beautiful  and 
symmetrical. 

About  one-fourth  of  the  time  spent  in  recitation  should  he  em- 
ployed in  drilling  on  movement  exercises.  There  are  four  move- 
ments used  by  penmen,  viz:  The  finger,  fore-arm,  whole  arm 
and  combined.  Finger  movement  is  taught  to  children,  and  indeed 
is  necessary  for  adults,  for  no  person  can  write  well  unless  he 
have  control  of  the  fingers.  Let  the  pupil  trace  the  letter  with  a 
dry  pen,  the  teacher  counting  one,  two,  etc.,  making  one  count  to 
each  stroke.  This  should  be  repeated  as  often  as  necessary  to  ac- 
quire perfect  freedom  of  movement  and  control  of  the  fingers. 

23.  Pore-arm. — This  is  the  best  movement  for  business  writ- 
ing. The  teacher  cannot  be  too  careful  in  drilling  pupils  on  the 
fore-arm  muscular  movement.  Much  care  and  patience  are  required 
to  master  this  movement,  hut  when  once  obtained  you  have  the 
key  to  easy  and  rapid  writing. 

24.  Whole-arm. — In  this  movement  the  arm  is  raised  and 
swings  from  the  shoulder,  nothing  touching  but  the  third  and 
fourth  lingers.  It  is  used  in  flourishing  and  in  making  large  cap- 
itals.    The  muscles  are  educated  very  rapidly  by  its  use. 

25.  Combined. — This  consists  in  the  use  of  the  fore-arm  and 
finger  movements  combined,  and  is  quite  essential  where  very  great 
precision  is  required. 

26.  Execution.— -The  present  method  of  using  engraved 
copies  is  detrimental   to   good    penmanship,  and   hence  needs  a  re- 


PENMANSHIP.  387 

form.  The  argument  offered  in  favor  of  engraved  copies  is  that  a 
perfect  model  is  better  than  an  imperfect  one,  and  if  the  copy  be 
written  it  will  not  be  perfect.  We  have  observed  this  fact:  that 
pupils  practicing  after  engraved  copies  see  so  much  contrast  be- 
tween their  efforts  and  the  copy  that  they  become  discouraged,  and 
after  writing  one  line,  copy  their  own  errors,  thereby  defeating  the 
object  of  the  copy. 

27.  The  pupil  knows  that  what  has  been  done  may  be  done 
again;  hence  there  is  that  in  the  life-like  line  of  a  well-written  copy 
which  inspires  him  to  greater  effort.  The  proper  method  for 
using  engraved  copies  is  for  the  teacher  to  write  the  first  line 
on  each  page,  and  to  drill  the  class  upon  movement  exercises, 
on  extra  paper,  at  least  one-fourth  of  the  time  used  in  recitation, 
and  the  remainder  of  the  time  on  the  regular  copy.  Thus  we 
combine  the  advantages  found  in  both  the  engraved  and  written 
copies. 

28.  He  who  uses  chalk  most  freely  succeeds  best.  Write  all 
copies  on  the  board  and  explain  the  peculiarities  of  each  letter. 
Delineate  the  form  first,  by  exhibiting  the  letter  as  a  whole,  then 
separate  it  into  its  component  parts,  showing  the  form  and  position 
of  each  element  and  principle  in  the  letter,  giving  its  height,  name 
and  slope.  Examine  their  work  often  and  write  for  them  fre- 
quently. Let  them  see  how  the  teacher  sits,  holds  the  pen,  and 
the  movement  he  uses.  The  teacher  who  does  not  write  sufficiently 
accurate  to  place  before  his  pupils  a  model,  should  either  learn  to 
write  or  leave  the  profession.  The  copy  is  not  merely  to  be  imi- 
tated, but  photographed  upon  the  mind,  and  through  the  agency  of 
a  free  and  rapid  movement,  reproduced  on  paper. 

29.  Classification. — Work,  methodically  arranged,  saves  half 
the  time  that  would  otherwise  be  required,  and  in  view  of  this  fact 
penmanship  has  been  systematized.  The  letters  of  the  script  al- 
phabet are  differently  classified  by  authors.  We  give  below  a 
very  simple  and  excellent  arrangement,  selected  by  permission 
from  the  Analytical  System  of  Penmanship,  published  by 
Messrs.  Geo.  Sherwood  dc  Co.,  Chicago : 

(a)    Some  authors  give 


'2nd. 


five  dements,  or  fundamen- 
tal forms,  by  the    COmbina-    Straight  Line.  Jurist  Curve,  Left  Curve. 

tion  of  which  all  the  letters  F,G-  '■ 

are  made.  Fig.  i  represents  three  elements,  the  straight  line,  the 
right  carve  and  the  left  curve.  The  other  two  are  the  lower  tarn 
and  the  upper  tarn,  which  arc  simply  the  joining  of  the  lines. 
Thus,  the  letter  n  (see  Fig.  z)  commences  with  a  left  curve  joined 
by  a  turn  (upper  turn)  to  a  straight  line,  which  is  joined  at  an 
angle  to  another  left  curve,  which  is  joined  by  a  turn  (upper  turn) 
to  a  second  straight  line,  which  is  joined  by  a  turn  (lower  turn)  to 
a  right  curve. 


388 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 


(£)   Fig.  2  shows  the  eleven 

_       ONE   SPACE  LETTERS.       The 

letters  s  and    r  extend   one- 


^Z^  fourth  of  a  space  higher  than 
the  others, 
(c)     Fig.  3  shows  four  letters, 
</ /  and  p  extending    two    spaces 
above  tile  base  line-,  and  (/  extend- 
ing a  space  and  a  half  below  the 
Fig.  3.  base  line. 

Note. — In  the  above  and  all  the  remaining-  figures  the  numbers   refer  to   the  elements  as 
given  in  Fig",  r. 

(d)  Fig.  4  shows  the  loop 
letters.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  loop  is  a  com- 
bination of  the  left  curve, 
upper  turn  and  right  curve. 
The  letters  /,£,/-,//  and_/" ex- 
tend three  spaces  above  the 
base  line,  andy,_/,  g^y  and  z, 
extend  two  spaces  below  the 
base  line. 


(e )    Figs. 

5,  6    and   7 

represent 

capital   letters,  which  are 

based  on  the  first  part  of 

the    capital    A,    and    are 

called    capital     stem 

The  resemblance  of  the 


Fig.  b. 
(f)    Fig.  8  represents  a  group   in    which    the   first   part   of   the 
letter    is    very    similar.     They    are    called    the   compound   curve 

LETTERS. 

(g)  Fig.  9  represents  letters  which 
are  based    on    the    principle    of  the 
]  letter  ().      They  are  called  the  OVAL 
!■„..  9.  LETTERS. 


PENMANSHIP.  :389 

_^ /z—r—///-/    ./    p< ,<?  ,Q       (h)    FiS-    IO    represents 

7^50cf7Z-  rQ   V    /  fi^/O     the   figures 


the    figures,    or    Arabic 
kig.  10.  numerals,  and    it   will   be 

observed  that  they  are  made    up  of  curves    and    straight   lines,   the 
same  as  the  letters. 

30.  Criticism. — There  is  no  other  one  thing  more  essential  in 
teaching  writing,  after  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  has  been  ac- 
quired,  than  criticism.  Pupils  shonld  be  taught  to  criticise  their 
own  errors.  A  good  plan  is  for  the  teacher  to  reproduce  their  er- 
rors on  the  board,  and  have  them  point  out  the  faults.  Ask  them  to 
look  at  their  paper  and  see  if  they  have  any  such;  then  show  them 
how  to  correct  these  faults.  For  this  purpose  we  give  the  following 
rules : 

RULE  I. — If  the  line  is  heavy  the  pen  is  too  tightly  grasped. 

Rule  II. — If  the  writing  is  irregular,  drill  in  movement  count- 
ing; as,  up,  down,  or  one,  two,  etc. 

Rule  III. — -Always  make  short  turns  at  the  top  of  the  letter 
7i\  never  make  n  with  a  sharp  point,  lest  it  be  mistaken  for  zi. 

Rule  IV. — Close  o  at  the  top,  lest  it  be  mistaken  for  v. 

Rule  V. — Always  make  the  last  two  lines  in  a  just  like  the 
last  two  in  ft,  lest  it  be  mistaken  for  o. 

Rule  VI. — Do  not  make  a  loop  in  r  or  s. 

Rule  VII. — Cross  /  with  a  short  horizontal  line,  and  do  not 
make  a  loop  in  p. 

Rule  VIII. — Make  the  loop  round  at  the  top,  and  the  line  be- 
tween the  crossing  and  the  base  straight. 

Rule  IX. — If  the  shade  in  the  direct  oval  letters  is  drawn  too 
low,  the  pen  is  turned  on  the  side. 

Rule  X. — If  the  reversed  oval  is  not  full  and  free,  the  move- 
ment is  stiff  and  labored;  if  the  shade  is  rough,  it  is  made  too 
slow  1  v. 

Rule  XI. — All  unnecessary  flourishes  should  be  omitted. 

Rule  XII. — No  capital  letters  or  words  should  be  joined 
together. 

Rule  XIII. — To  correct  an  error,  direct  them  to  go  to  the 
other  extreme.     No  one  will  at  first  quite  reach  the  point  aimed  at. 

Rule  XIV. —  Capital  T  or  F  should  never  be  looped  at  the  top. 

Rule  XV. — Capital  I  should  always  be  made  above  the  base 
line,  and  the  letter  J  should  extend  below. 

Rule  XVI. — Capital  Q  should  not  be  made   like   the  figure  2. 

Rule  XVII.-  -No  letter  should  have  a  doubtful  form. 

Rule  XVIII. — Letters  should  be  connected  in  their  parts  and 
with  other  letters  by  the  proper  and  characteristic  curved  or  straight 
lines. 

Rule  XIX. — Adopt  as  a  standard  one  simple,  plain  style  for 
each  letter,  and  persistently  practice  that  form  and  no  other.  Al- 
ways write  your  name  the  same. 


390  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS1  LIBRARY. 

Rule  XX. — Criticise  one  thing  at  a  time,  that  one  thing  al- 
ways being  the  worst  error  in  the  copy. 

31.  Recitation. — The  question  is  often  asked:  What  time  in 
the  ilav  should  the  penmanship  class  recite?  Some  of  our  edu- 
cators say  immediately  after  intermission.  The  fact  that  children 
exercise  vigorously  during  play  hours  seems  to  be  argument 
enoueh  against  it,  since  after  such  exercise  the  nerves  will  he  un- 
steady.  Let  the  writing  hour  be  any  time  during  the  day  when 
the  nerves  are  not  excited. 

The  length  of  recitation  will  have  to  be  arranged  according  to 
the  judgment  of  the  teacher.  The  time  spent  in  public  schools 
varies  from  fifteen  minutes  to  a  half  hour. 

QUESTIONS    ON    PENMANSHIP. 

i.  What  is  the  chief  requisite  in  penmanship?  2.  Will  practice  alone  make 
good  penmen?  3.  What  is  the  first  essential  in  penmanship'?  4.  Why?  5. 
What  is  next  in  importance? 

6.  What  will  train  the  eye  to  discern  beauty  in  penmanship?  7.  What 
three  points  are  to  be  noted  in  order  to  secure  uniformity?  8.  What  is  the 
proper  slope?  9.  What  is  the  unit  of  space  in  height?  In  width?  10.  What 
is  the  measure  of  a  letter? 

II.  Name  three  rules  for  spacing.  12.  What  is  the  use  of  shading?  13. 
What  is  the  advantage  in  using  good  material?  14.  What  kind  of  paper  and 
copy-books  should  be  used?  15.  What  are  the  properties  of  good  ink?  16. 
Pens?     17.  Pen -Holders? 

19.  What  is  the  best  method  of  teaching  position?  20.  Name  the  steps  in 
taking  position  V  21.  Describe  the  proper  manner  of  holding  the  pen.  22. 
What  are  the  advantages  of  movement  exercises  ? 

23.  Describe  the  fore-arm  movement.  24.  The  whole-arm  movement.  25. 
The  combined  movement.  26 — 27.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  printed  copies?     2S.  What  are  the  advantages  of  using  chalk  ? 

29.  Name  three  elements.  Name/ir  elements.  What  are  the  one  space 
letters?  The  loop  letters ?  What  elements  enter  into  the  composition  of  the 
loop?  What  are  the  capital  stem  letters?  The  compound  curve  letters?  The 
oval  letters?     Analyze  the  letter  q  according  to  the  diagram ;  the  letter  y. 

30.  What  are  the  advantages  of  criticism?  What  will  result  if  the  pen  be 
too  tightly  grasped?  How  correct  irregular  writing?  Why  be  careful  in  mak- 
ing the  letter  n?  Why  should  o  be  closed  at  the  top?  Should  a  loop  be  made 
in  r  and  s?     31.  What  is  the  best  hour  of  the  day  for  recitation? 


CHEMISTRY. 


In  the  following-  brief  article  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  present  a  full  explanation  of 
every  subject,  but  the  most  important  points  are  explained  and  many  facts  stated  which  it  if 
hoped  will  prove  of  value  as  review  lessons. 

1.  Chemistry  is  that  branch  of  science  which  treats  of  the  com- 
position of  bodies,  or  of  the  changes  which  take  place  in  matter 
whereby  it  loses  its  identity.  All  substances  are  made  up  of  mole- 
cules and  changes  in  the  arrangement  of  these  molecules  affect  the 
physical  properties  of  the  substance,  but  do  not  destroy  its  identity. 
But  when  the  atoms  which  compose  a  molecule  are  changed  in  pro- 
portion or  kind  the  substance  loses  its  identity  and  becomes  another 
substance.      (See  Philosophy    1-4). 

2.  Any  substance,  or  mass  of  matter  which  cannot  be  separated 
into  two  or  more  distinctly  different  substances  is  an  element,  or 
simple  substance,  or  an  ultimate  element.  Any  substance  which 
can  be  separated  into  two  or  more  distinctly  different  substances  is 
a  compound,  or  a  compound  substance,  or  a  proximate  element. 

3.  The  elements  of  compounds  are  held  together  by  a  force  we 
call  chemical  affinity,  or  chemism.  Compounds  are  formed  by  the 
chemical  union  of  two  or  more  simple  elements.  Substances  whose 
elements  are  not  held  together  by  chemical  affinity  are  called  mix- 
tures. A  mixture  partakes  of  the  nature  of  each  ingredient.  A 
compound  differs  from  any  of  its  ingredients.  To  illustrate,  if  we 
mix  salt  and  sugar  together,  they  will  not  combine  and  the  mixture 
will  have  both  a  salty  and  a  sweet  taste,  but  if  we  mix  lye  and 
grease  and  subject  them  to  heat,  they  chemically  combine  and  we 
have  soap,  a  new  substance  differing  from  either  lye  or  grease. 

4.  The  number  of  simple  elements  at  present  recognized  is 
64.  The  majority  of  these  are  very  rare.  A  few  are  very  abund- 
ant and  by  their  various  combinations  make  up  the  immense  variety 
of  substances  known.  Very  few  elements  exist  free,  or  uncombined, 
by  reason  of  their  affinity  for  other  substances.  Oxygen,  the  most 
abundant  of  the  elements  exists  free  in  the  atmosphere,  simply 
mixed  with  nitrogen,  which  also  is  free,  but  on  account  of  the  great 
affinity  oxygen  has  for  other  substances,  almost  everything  else  has 
oxygen  combined  with  it.  Some  elements  on  account  of  their  great 
affinity  for  oxygen  can  only  be  kept  in  a  free  state  by  keeping  them 
in  some  liquid  which  contains  no  oxygen.  The  term  native  is  used 
especially  in  the  case  of  metals  to  indicate  that  a  substance  is  found 
free.  Gold  is  usually  found  native,  because  it  will  not  unite  with 
oxygen  under  ordinary  conditions. 


392  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

5.  Chemical  combination  is  the  uniting  of  two  or  more  simple 
or  compound  substances  to  form  another  substance  differing  from 
any  of  the  ingredients.  Chemical  decomposition  is  the  separation 
of  the  elements  of  a  compound,  or  the  breaking  up  of  a  single  sub- 
stance into  two  or  more  simpler  substances.  Water  may  be  sepa- 
rated into  two  gases,  one  of  which,  hydrogen,  will  burn,  the  other, 
oxygen,  will  not  hum  hut  supports  combustion,  [f  hydrogen  and 
oxygen  gases  be  mixed  and  heat  applied  they  will  combine  with 
great  violence,  the  result  being  water.  When  hydrogen  burns  it  is 
simply  the  uniting  with  oxygen  which  is  in  the  atmosphere  and  the 
resultis  water.  When  wood  burns,  the  carbon  is  separated  from 
the  other  elements  (decomposition)  and  unites  with  the  oxygen  of 
the  atmosphere  (combination)  to  form  carbonic  oxide. 

6.  This  changing  of  the  elements  of  matter,  destroying  unions 
and  making  new  ones,  is  called  chemical  action,  and  is  something 
trulv  wonderful.  There  would  seen  to  be  a  principle  of  love  and 
hatred  between  the  atoms  which  compose  matter.  Heat,  light,  and 
electricity, favor  chemical  action,  either  to  cause  combination  or  de- 
composition of  substances.  Solution,  by  destroying  the  cohesive 
force  in  a  body,  also  favors  chemical  action. 

7.  As  examples  of  chemical  action,  favored  by  various  forces, 
note  the  following  experiments: — 

i.  If  some  sodium  bi-carbonate  (baking  powder)  be  mixed 
with  potassium  bi-tartrate  (cream  of  tartar)  no  action  will  ensue 
until  water  is  added  to  the  mixture,  when  vigorous  action  immedi- 
ately follows. 

2.  If  a  piece  of  brimstone  (sulphur)  be  placed  on  a  hot  stove 
it  takes  fire  and  produces  white  fumes  which  have  a  strong  odor  and 
which  in  analysis  will  be  found  to  he  a  third  substance  formed  of 
sulphur  and  oxygen  and  called  sulphuric  oxide,  the  combustion  be- 
ing simply  the  union  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with  the  sulphur. 

3.  "  If  a  current  of  electricity  be  passed  through  water  it 
will  be  separated  into  its  constituent  elements,  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 

.\.  If  a  piece  of  paper  he  moistened  by  a  solution  of  silver 
nitrate,  and  exposed  to  the  sunlight,  it  will  turn  black,  a  change 
due  to  the  decomposition  of  the  silver  nitrate.  Photography  is 
based  upon  similar  action. 

5.  If  hydrogen  and  chlorine  gases  be  mixed  in  the  dark, 
and  the  bottle  containing  them  taken  into  the  sunlight,  an  explosion 
follows,  being  the  combination  of  the  two  gases;  a  new  substance 
hydrochloric  acid  gas,  is  formed. 

8.  Symbols.— 1" or  convenience  chemists  use  symbols  to  repre- 
sent the  simple  elements.  This  symbolism  is  very  simple,  consist- 
ing of  the  initial  letter  or  letters  of  the  name  of  the  element.  Where 
more  than  one  element  begins  with  the  same  letter  or  letters,  the 
second  or  third  letter  is  also  used.  Compounds  are  represented  by 
writing  the  symbols  of  their  elements  in  close  connection.      Ex. — C 


CHEMISTRY.  393 

is  the  symbol  for  carbon,  but  as  chlorine  begins  with  the  same  let- 
ter CI  is  used  for  that  clement.  Cu  for  copper  from  the  Latin  name 
cuprum,  and  II,  0  is  the  symbol  for  the  compound  clement,  water. 
When  a  symbol  stands  without  any  figures  attached,  as  II,  it  means 
an  atom  of  that  element.  When  a  small  figure  is  written  below, 
it  means  that  a  corresponding  number  of  atoms  is  taken.  Ex. — H., 
means  two  atoms  of  hydrogen.  II,  O  means  two  atoms  of  hydro- 
gen and  one  of  oxygen. 

9.  The  elements  are  divided  into  two  classes  as  to  their  action 
in  electrolysis  (see  Philosophy,  Sec.    154): — 

1.  Positive,  those  which  are  attracted  to  the  negative  pole; 

2.  Negative,  those  which  are  attracted  to  the  positive  pole. 
These  are  only  relative  terms.  They  are  also  divided  into  metals 
and  non-metals. 

10.  Names. —  Many  of  the  long  known  substances  retain  their 
old  names,  as  iron,  gold,  silver,  lead,  sulphur,  etc.,  but  in  symboliz- 
ing, the  initials  of  the  Latin  names  are  used,  as  Fe,  ferrum ;  Au, 
aurum;  Ag,  argentum,  etc.  The  more  recently  discovered  metals 
have  generally  received  names  ending  in  urn  and  so  called  from 
some  peculiar  property  or  from  the  name  of  the  compound  sub- 
stance from  which  they  were  separated.  Ex. — Sodium,  potassium, 
selenium,  etc.  Names  of  compound  substances  are  formed  by  com- 
bining" according  to  certain  rules  the  names  of  the  simple  elements 
composing  them.  Ex  : — Sodium  chloride,  hydrogen  sulphide,  potas- 
sium chlorate.  (See  Sees.  11  and  15.)  Certain  non-metallic  ele- 
ments having  some  resemblance  have  received  names  with  similar 
terminations  as,  bromine,  iodine,  chlorine,  etc.  (See  Index  for 
Origin  of  Names). 

11.  Binary  compounds  are  those  formed  bv  the  union  of  two 
elements,  one  of  which  is  positive  to  the  other,  which  is  negative. 
All  such  compounds  are  named  by  placing  the  positive  element 
first  followed  by  the  name  of  the  negative  element  changing  its  ter- 
mination to  ide,  as  sodium  and  chlorine  unite  to  form  sodium  chlo- 
ride, silver  and  sulphur  to  form  silver  sulphide,  etc.  The  old  form, 
still  frequently  met  with,  would  be  chloride  of  sodium,  sulphide  of 
silver,  etc.  When  the  positive  clement,  however,  combines  in  two 
different  proportions,  the  termination  ic  is  given  to  the  positive  cle- 
ment when  it  has  the  greater  proportion,  and  ous  when  it  has  the 
lesser  proportion;  as  mercuric  oxide  and  mercurous  oxide.  When 
the  proportion  is  still  less  than  ous  it  takes  the  prefix  hypo,  as 
hvponitric  oxide ;  when  greater  than  ic  it  takes  the  prefix  per,  as 
perchloric  oxide.  The  Greek  numerals  are  also  used  to  indicate  the 
proportion  in  combination,  as  carbon   dioxide,  phosphorous   penta- 

bromide,  etc. 

12.  Ternary  compounds  are  those  which  have  dissimilar  atoms 
united  by  means  of  a  third  atom.  They  are  formed  directly  by  the 
union  of  two  binary  compounds,  or  by  changing  of  atoms  from  one 


:*94  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

to  another,  that  is  one  ternary  compound  may  give  up  one  of  its 
atoms  and  take  another  as  a  substitute,  thus  forming  a  new  com- 
pound. It  must  he  held  in  mind  that  every  change  in  the  kind  and 
proportion  of  the  different  atoms  which  composes  a  molecule, 
changes  the  nature  of  the  molecule,  and  makes  a  new  substance  out 

of  it. 

13.  Acids,  Bases,  and  Salts. — "  An  acid  molecule  is  one  which 
consists  of  one  or  more  negative  atoms  united  by  oxygen  to  hydro- 
gen. A  basic  molecule  consists  of  one  or  more  positive  atoms 
united  by  oxygen  to  hydrogen.  A  saline  molecule  is  one  which 
contains  a  positive  atom  or  group  of  atoms,  united  by  oxygen  to  a 
negative  atom  or  group  of  atoms.  *****  The  water 
type. — A  molecule  of  water  consists  of  two  atoms  of  hydrogen 
linked  together  by  oxygen.  By  exchanging  one  of  these  hydrogen 
atoms  for  a  negative  monad  (20)  an  acid,  is  produced.  By  a  simi- 
lar exchange  for  a  positive  atom,  abase  is  obtained.  By  replacing 
both  the  hydrogen  atoms,  one  by  a  positive  the  other  by  a  negative 
atom,  a  salt  results.  Hence  these  three  classes  of  bodies  are  said 
to  be  formed  upon  the  plan  of  structure  of  water." — Barker  s 
Chemistry. 

14.  The  definitions  given  in  Sec.  13  apply  to  compounds 
formed  on  the  water  type.  All  acids  contain  hydrogen  but  some  do 
not  contain  oxygen  and  are  not  formed  on  the  water  type.  They 
are  called  hydracids  and  are  binary  compounds,  hydrochloric  acid 
being  an   example. 

15.  Acids  are  named  with  the  terminations  ic  and  o«.v  the  same 
as  binary  compounds.  (11).  The  hydracids  are  characterized  by 
the  prefix  hydro,  as,  hydrochloric,  hydrobromic,  etc.  Salts  are 
named  from  the  acid  from  which  produced,  by  changing  the  termi- 
nation, thus,  from  an  ic  acid  is  produced  an  ate  salt,  from  an  ous 
acid  an  ite  salt.  Ex. — Sulphuric  acid  by  exchanging  its  hydrogen 
for  the  metal  of  a  base  produces  a  sulphate,  as  with  zinc  we  have  zinc 
sulphate.      Sulphurous  acid  in  a  similar  manner  produces  a  sulphite. 

16.  In  general,  we  may  say  acids  are  hydrogen  compounds 
which  are  characterized  usually  by  a  sour  taste,  and  have  the  prop- 
erty of  changing  vegetable  blue  color  to  red.  Bases,  or  hydrates 
are  compounds  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  with  a  metal  and  have  the 
power  of  neutralizing  an  acid  by  exchanging  the  metal  for  the  hy- 
drogen of  the  acid  and  producing  a  salt.  Bases  are  usually  caustic 
to  the  taste  and  have  the  power  of  restoring  the  Hue  color  which 
has  been  reddened  by  an  acid. 

17.  Atomic  Theory- — It  is  believed  by  chemists :  (1)  that  the 
atoms  of  the  same  element  are  exactly  alike  in  size,  form  and 
weight;  (2)  that  the  atoms  of  different  elements  are  unlike,  differ- 
ing at  least  in  weight  if  not  in  form;  (3)  that  equal  volumes  of 
bodies  in  a  gaseous  state  at  the  same  temperature  and  pressure  con- 
tain an  equal  number  of  molecules. 


CHEMISTRY.  395 

18.  Atomic  Weight.— Of  course  we  cannot  get  at  the  absolute 
weight  of  an  atom,  but  by  a  process  of  reasoning  from  facts  shown 
by  experiments,  we  arrive  at  a  plan  of  fixing  the  relative  weights 
of  the  atoms.  Hydrogen  being  the  lightest  of  known  bodies  is 
taken  as  the  standard,  and  the  atom  of  hydrogen  is  considered  as 
one,  and  the  other  elements  compared  with  it.  A  given  volume  of 
oxygen  weighs  16  times  as  much  as  the  same  volume  of  hydrogen, 
therefore  we  say  an  atom  of  oxygen  weighs  16  times  as  much  as  an 
atom  of  hydrogen,  or,  in  other  words,  the  atomic  weight  of  oxygen 
is  16  and  the  atomic  weight  of  hydrogen  is  one.  The  atomic  weight 
represents  the  smallest  quantity  of  any  simple  element  which  can 
enter  into  the  formation  of  a  chemical  compound.  It  is  the  same 
as  the  specific  gravity  of  the  body  in  the  gaseous  state  compared 
with  hydrogen. 

19.  An  analysis  of  water  shows  it  to  be  composed  of  SS.89 
parts  of  oxygen  ami  11. 11  parts  of  hydrogen  by  weight,  which  is 
as  8  to  1.  But  by  volume  it  is  composed  of  two  parts  hydrogen  to 
one  part  oxygen.  We  then  say  that  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  are 
used  and  that  the  atomic  weight  of  oxygen  is  16  and  the  formula, 
H2  O  expresses  the  proportions  by  both  weight  and  measure.  The 
atomic  weights  are  thus  ascertained  by  observing  the  proportion  in 
which  they  unite  with  hydrogen.  The  atomic  weights  of  substan- 
ces which  do  not  unite  with  hydrogen  are  determined  by  observing 
how  they  unite  with  elements  which  do  unite  with  hydrogen,  and 
by  calculation  the  proportion  is  obtained. 

20.  Atomicity  is  a  term  used  to  denote  the  combining  power, 
or  the  proportion  in  which  the  atoms  of  elements  unite  with  atoms 
of  hydrogen.  The  elements  are  arranged  in  seven  groups  and 
receive  the  names  of  mounds,  dyads,  triads,  tetrads,  pentads,  hexads 
and  heptads,  according  as  they  unite  with  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  or  7  atoms 
of  hydrogen.  The  elements  which  have  an  even  atomicity  are 
called  artiads,  those  having  an  odd  atomicity  are  called  perissads. 
Equivalence  and  quantivalence  are  terms  synonymous  with 
atomicity. 

21.  The  molecular  weight  of  a  compound  substance  is  the 
sum  of  the  atomic  weights  of  its  constituents.  The  molecular 
weight  of  water  is  18,  the  atomic  weight  of  oxygen  being  16  and 
that  of  hydrogen  one,  and  water  containing  two  atoms  of  hydro- 
gen in  each  molecule. 

22.  When  one  substance  produces  an  effect  on  another  by  its 
mere  presence,  the  action  is  called  catalysis.  Thus  manganese 
dioxide  when  mixed  with  potassium  chlorate  has  the  effect  of  facili- 
tating the  release  of  the  oxygen  from  the  latter  compound  without 
itself  undergoing  any  change. 

23.  The  capability  of  existing  in  more  than  one  form  with  the 
chemical  identity  undestroyed is  called  allotropism.  Thus  oxygen 
exists  in  the  form  of  ozone  which  has  distinctly  different  properties, 


896  TEACHERS'     l.VLf   STUDENTS'   LI  BR  ART. 

yet    is  chemically   identical.     Ozone  is    then    called    an    allotropic 
form  of  oxygen.     Sulphur  and  phosphorus  also  exist  in   allotropic 

forms. 

24.  When  the  molecules  of  a  body  arrange  themselves  in 
regular  geometrical  forms  they  are  said  to  be  crystalline.  Sub- 
stances which  are  not  crystalline  are  amorphous.  The  forms  of 
crystals  have  been  arranged  in  six  systems  according  to  their 
geometrical  forms.  Substances  which  have  two  crystalline  forms 
or  crystallize  under  two  systems,  are  said  to  be  dimorphous.  Differ- 
ent substances  which  crystallize  in  the  same  form  are  said  to  be 
isomorphous. 

25.  An  oxide  of  a  non-metallic  (or  electro-negative)  element, 
which,  with  the  elements  of  water,  forms  an  acid,  is  called  an  anhy- 
dride. Thus  when  carbon,  a  non-metal,  burns  in  the  air  it  unites 
with  oxygen  to  form  an  oxide  whose  formula  is  C  O,,  and  which 
will  unite  with  Hs O  to  form  H,C03,  or  carbonic  acid.  CO,  is 
known  under  the  following  names:  (  i  )  carbonic  anhydride,  because 
it  is  an  anhydride;  (2)  carbonic  oxide,  because  it  is  an  oxide  of 
carbon  and  being  highest,  it  takes  the  termination  ic ;  (3)  carbon 
dioxide,  because  an  oxide  of  carbon  and  containing  two  atoms  of 
oxygen  ;  (  4 )  carbonic  acid  gas,  because  it  is  a  gas  and  was  formerly 
considered  an  acid,  and  it  may  be  yet  called  so  for  the  reason  that 
it  is  that  which  when  combined  with  water,  forms  carbonic  acid. 
The  term  carbonic  acid  when  applied  to  C  Os  is,  however,  improper, 
as  it  is  not  an  acid. 

26.  For  the  atomic  weight,  atomicity,  origin  of  name,  specific 
gravity  of  the  elements — see  Index  and  Glossary.  The  atomicity 
is  usually  designated  by  small  Roman  numerals  placed  after  and 
superior  to  the  symbols.  In  this  case  we  have  used  small  superior 
figures.      The  number  in  large  type  indicates  the  atomic   weight. 

HINTS    TO    THE    TEACHER. 

27.  It  is  not  the  normal  way  of  studying  chemistry  to  require 
pupils  to  learn  <///about  the  nomenclature  and  general  principlesof 
the  science  the  first  thing. 

Assign  as  the  first  lesson,  «« Hydrogen."  Ask  your  pupils  to 
find  out  all  they  can  about  it.  They  will  encounter  many  points  in 
their  books  which  they  will  not  understand.  Ask  them  to  be 
patient  and  say  that  these  points  will  be  made  clear  in  due  time. 
Explain  a  few  of  the  necessary  points  in  nomenclature,  etc.,  at  each 
recitation,  questioning  upon  them  at  the  next  recitation  and  thus  by 
getting  a  few  at  a  time  as  the  occasion  demands,  they  will  soon  get 
the  theories  and  fundamental  principles  of  the  science. 

28.  The  second  lesson  may  be  "Oxygen,"  to  be  followed  by 
"Water."  The  next  "  Nitrogen,"  and  the  next  "  Air,"  and  then 
tlu-  more  common  elementary  and  compound  substances  as  Sulphur, 
Phosphorus,  Carbon,  Sulphuric  Acid,  Carbonic  Oxide,  etc.,  in  any 


CHEMlSTRi: 


397 


order  the  teacher  may  choose.  The  topic  list  herewith  presented 
will  be  very  convenient  in  studying  and  reciting  the  elements  and 
compounds.  The  points  may  be  explained  as  the  occasion  demands. 

29.  One  or  two  experiments  should  be  performed  each  day 
before  the  class,  the  pupils  taking  turns.  Many  of  our  text-books 
give  a  short  list  of  experiments  that  may  be  easily  performed  any- 
where at  a  very  little  expense,  but  the  greater  number  given  in 
text-books  require  apparatus  and  material  too  expensive  for  many 
schools.  "  Easy  Experiments  in  Chemistry  and  Philoso- 
phy," a  little  work  which  the  writer  prepared  for  use  in  his  own 
classes,  contains  200  experiments  in  Chemistry  which  can  be  per- 
formed at  a  very  little  o»t. 

30.  The  pupil  should  have  time  previous  to  the  recitation  to 
prepare  and  perform  his  experiment,  that  he  may  assure  his  success 
before  the  class.  It  will  be  necessary  in  most  cases  that  the  teacher 
oversee  the  work  of  his  pupils.  It  will  frequently  occur  that  some 
member  of  the  class  will  display  a  more  than  ordinary  tact  and 
ability,  or  will  have  had  previous  instruction  in  the  subject  and  such 
persons  may  be  secured  as  monitors  in  the  laboratory.  It  has  been 
the  writer's  experience  in  Normal  Schools  that  it  is  not  a  difficult 
matter  to  secure  one  or  more  pupils  who  are  competent  to  assume 
the  office  of  assistant  to  the  teacher  in  laboratory  work. 


TOPIC  LIST  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  SUBSTANCES  IN  CHEMISTRY. 
From  "  Normal  Outlines  of  Common  School  Branches." 

A.  NAMES. 

I.  Common. 

II.  Chemical. 

III.  Symbolic. 

B.  HISTORY. 

I.  First  Discovered. 

1.  When. 

2.  Where. 

3.  By  Whom. 

4.  Under  What  Circumstances. 

II.  First  Accurately  Determined. 

(Same  subordinates  as  above). 

C.  DISTRIBUTION. 

I.  Found  Native. 

II.  Combined  or  Associated  with 
what. 

III.  Geological  Relations. 

D.  PROPERTIES. 

I.     As  to  Forces. 

1.  Gravitation. 
(1)     Specific  Gravity. 

a.  Compared  with  Water. 

b.  Compared  with  Air. 

2.  Light. 
(1)     Transmission. 

a.  Transparent. 

b.  Translucent. 

c.  Opaque. 


00 

Reflection. 

(3) 

Refraction. 

3.     Heat. 

(') 

Condition. 

a. 

Solid. 

b. 

Liquid. 

c. 

Gaseous. 

(2) 

Fixed  Points. 

a. 

Boiling. 

b. 

Freezing. 

c. 

Melting. 

(3) 

Conduction. 

(4) 

Specific  Heat. 

4.     El 

lectricity. 

(0 

Electrolysis. 

(2) 

Conduction. 

v     Chemism. 

'    (>) 

Range  of  Affinity. 

(2) 

Intensity  of  Affinity. 

(3) 

(Catalysis). 

(4) 

Atomicity  or  Equivalence. 

(5) 

Atomic  Weight. 

(6) 

(Molecular  Weight). 

11.     As 

to  Life. 

1.     B. 

.•neficial. 

2.     Neutral. 

3.     Poisonous. 

III.     As  to  Structure. 

898 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 


i.     Crystalline. 

4.     Texture. 

System. 

E.       USES. 

(2)     (Dimorphous). 

I.     In  Nature. 

(3)     Isomorphous). 

II.     In  the  Arts. 

2.     Amorphous. 

III.     In  Medicine. 

3.     (Allotropic  Forms). 

IV.     In  Laboratory. 

IV.     As  to  the  Senses. 

F-       PREPARATION. 

1.     Color. 

G.      TESTS. 

j .     Odor. 

H.       MISCELLANEOUS  OBSERVATIONS 

-j.     Taste. 

QUESTIONS    ON    CHEMISTRY. 

i.  Define  Chemistry-  2.  Define  element;  compound;  proximate  and  ulti- 
mate elements.  3.  Chemical  affinity?  Chemism?  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  mixture  and  a  compound?  4.  How  many  simple  elements?  What 
element  is  the  most  abundant?  What  is  meant  by  "found  native"?  What 
metal  is  usually  found  native?     Why? 

;.  Chemical  combination?  Decomposition?  What  is  combustion?  6. 
Chemical  action?  What  favors  it?  7.  Give  examples  of  chemical  action 
favored  by  different  forces.  8.  Explain  the  symbols?  9.  How  are  the  elements 
classified?  10.  How  named?  11.  What  is  a  binary  compound?  12.  Ternary 
compound?     13 — 14 — 16.  Define  acids,  bases  and  salts. 

15.  What  do  the  terminations  ic  and  ous  indicate?  ate  and  ite}  17.  What 
is  the  atomic  theory?  18.  Atomic  weight?  19.  How  calculated?  20.  Ato- 
micity? Equivalence?  Quantivalence?  21.  Molecular  weight?  22.  Catalysis? 
23.  Allotropisms?  24.  Crystalline  and  amorphous  bodies?  Dimorphous  and 
isomorphous? 

25.  Anhydride?  Give  all  the  appropriate  names  for  CO,.  26.  Give  the 
symbols  atomic  weights,  atomicity,  specific  gravities  of  the  following:  oxygen, 
livdrogen,  nitrogen,  sulphur,  carbon,  phosphorus,  gold,  iron,  chlorine,  and 
sodium. 


"■ii^iin. 


ZOOLOGY. 


GENERAL    OUTLINE    OF    THE    ANIMAL    KINGDOM. 

This  is  merely  suggestive.  A  very  extensive  outline  may  be  made  by  the  pupil  using  this 
as  a  model.  Observe  that  under  each  sub-kingdom,  class,  order,  family,  g-enus  and  species  the 
two  subordinates,  "  General  Characteristics  "  and  "  Divisions  "  may  be  made  and  amplified. 

ANIMAL   KINGDOM. 


i1  General  Characteristics  (5). 
Is  Power  of  locomotion. 
2-'   Sensation. 
3'-*  Fore-and-aft  structure. 
4-   Food  organic. 
c,2  Inhale  oxygen,  exhale  car- 
bonic oxide. 

21  Divisions, 

l>  Sub-kingdom  I,  vertebrata. 


i3  Gen.  Char.  (6). 
23  Divisions. 

I4  Class  1,  Mammalia 
i5  Gen.  Char. 
25  Divisions. 
24  Class  2,  Aves. 
22  Sub-kingdom    II,    Articulata. 
3s  Sub-kingdom    III,    Mollusca. 
Etc.,  etc.,  etc.,  ete. 


ZOOLOG)'.  399 

1.  Zoology  is  the  science  which  treats  of  animal  life  in  general, 
including  the  classification,  general  characteristics  and  modes  of  life 
of  all  the  species  and  varieties  of  the  animal  kingdom.  It  is  an 
immense  subject,  and  special  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom  form 
the  matter  for  large  treatises,  and  thus  we  have  various  sciences 
subordinate  to  Zoology,  as  Ornithology,  Icthyology,  Herpetology, 
Entomology,  etc. 

2.  One  of  the  first  steps  to  an  understanding  of  so  vast  a  sub- 
ject is  a  classification  of  the  animals  into  groups  having  certain 
points  of  resemblance.  The  entire  animal  kingdom  is  divided  into 
sri'.-KlNGDOMS  based  upon  a  general  common  plan  of  structure. 
Each  sub-kingdom  is  again  divided  into  classes,  based  upon 
general  physiological  characters.  Each  class  is  divided  into  gexera 
{sing,  genus},  based  upon  still  more  particular  structure.  (A  genus 
has  been  defined  to  be  a  group  of  species  having  more  points  of 
resemblance  than  of  difference.)  Each  genus  is  divided  into 
species,  embracing  all  animals  which  have  descended  from  a  com- 
mon ancestor.  Species  are  sometimes  divided  into  varieties  based 
upon  certain  points  of  resemblance. 

3.  Animals  which  have  been  domesticated  are  inclined  to  vary, 
and  these  variations  have  been  strengthened  by  selecting  the  more 
marked  varieties  and  breeding  from  them  exclusively,  and  also  by 
crossing  varieties  until  well  marked  and  permanent  varieties  are 
produced.  Among  the  lower  domestic  animals  the  term  breed  is  in 
common  use  as  synonymous  with  variety.  The  varieties  of  men 
are  called  races.  A  cross  between  two  varieties  is  called  a  ?non<rrel, 
between  two  species,  a  hybrid. 

4.  Naturalists  do  not  agree  in  their  classifications.  In  the 
following     pages    the    classification    given    in   Steele's    "  Fourteen 

Weeks  in  Zoology  "  has  been  followed.     It  represents,  perhaps,  the 
views  of  a  majority  of  naturalists. 

5.  Animal  Kingdom. — Animals  are  generally  characterized  by: 
(i)  Power  of  locomotion.  This  is  not  true  of  many  of  the  lowest 
forms,  as  crinoids,  corals  and  sponges,  which  exist  in  the  sea.  (2) 
Sensation.  A  nervous  system  has  been  traced  in  most  animals,  and 
the  phenomena  of  motion  are  exhibited  upon  application  of  an  exter- 
nal stimulus,  in,  at  least  nearly  all  species.  (3)  The  animal  has 
generally  a  fore-and-aft  structure  as  a  distinction  from  the  plant 
which  has  generally  an  up-and-down  structure.  (4)  The  food  of 
animals  is  generally  organic,  that  is,  plants  or  other  animals.  (5) 
The  food  is  prepared  for  assimilation  in  a  digestive  cavity  or  stom- 
ach. (6)  Thev  inhale  oxygen  and  exhale  carbonic  oxide.  (See 
Botany,  sec.   2.) 

6.  Sub-Kingdom  I.  Vertebrata. —  Includes  the  most  highly 
organized  animals  and  those  which  have  general  characters  as  fol- 
lows: (  1  )  A  bony  frame-work,  or  skeleton  which  forms  the  axis 
of  the  body,  and  upon  which  the  softer  parts  are  arranged,  this  axis 


400  TEACHERS1  AND  .STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

being  made  up  of  joints  or  vertebrae,  whence  the  name.  (2)  The 
nervous  system  consists  of  a  brain,  spinal  cord,  ganglia  and  nerves. 

(3)  The  blood    is  red.     (4)     A   transverse   section   of  the    body 

exhibits  two  cavities,  one  in  the  spinal  column  containing  the  spinal 
cord,  the  other  formed  by  the  ribs  and  softer  parts,  and  containing 
the  organs  of  digestion  and  respiration.  (5)  They  never  have 
more  than  two  pairs  of  limbs.  (6)  They  breathe  through  the 
month.    {  7)     The  mouth  opens  transversely  to  the  axis  of  the  body. 

7.  Class  1.  Mammalia. — The  highest  division  of  the  vertebrata 
are  characterized  as  follows:  (1)  Nourish  their  young  by  milk 
secreted  by  the  mammary  glands  of  the  mother,  whence  the  name. 
(2)  Viviparous,  bring  forth  their  young  alive.  (3)  Generally 
but   not    always    covered    with    hair;    never  covered  with  feathers. 

(4)  Warm  blooded,  the  temperature  being  about  980  F.  (5) 
Heart  has  four  chambers,  two  auricles  and  two  ventricles,  there 
being  a  complete  double  circulation,  i.e.  from  the  hotly  to  the  heart, 
from  the  heart  to  the  lungs  for  purification  and  back  again  to  the 
heart  to  be  again  sent  to  the  body.  (6)  They  have  a  complete 
diaphragm.  (7)  Two  occipital  condyles  and  (8)  the  lower  jaw  is 
articulated  directly  with  the  skull. 

8.  Order  Bimana. — The  highest  division  of  mammalia  is 
represented  by  only  one  species,  man.  The  characters  which  dis- 
tinguish him  from  the  other  mammalia  are:  (1  )  An  erect  position. 
(2)  Progression  on  two  legs.  (3)  Can  oppose  the  thumb  to  the 
fingers  in  the  hands,  but  not  in  the  feet.  (4)  He  is  plantigrade 
(walking  on  the  sole  of  the  foot),  or  the  bones  of  the  tarsus,  meta- 
tarsus and  phalanges  form  the  foot  and  come  on  a  level.  (5)  Has 
32  teeth,  1  incisors,  1  canine,  2  bicuspeds  and  3  molars  in  each  side  of 
each  jaw,  the  dental  formula  being  I  \  \  ;;•  (6)  The  brain  is 
much  larger  in  proportion  to  the  body  than  any  other  animal,  and 
his  mental  powers  are  capable  of  great  development.  ^7)  The 
only  terrestrial  mammal  not  generally  covered  with  hair.  There 
being  but  one  species  in  the  order  it  is  not  logically  divided  into 
families,  genera,  etc.,  yet  carrying  out  the  plan  of  classification  man 
is  considered  as  belonging  to  the  family  HominidiC,  genus,  Homo, 
and  species,  sapiens. 

R.KMARK.— The  family  names  all  end  in  ida,  and  are  usually  formed  hy  annexing-  this 
termination  to  the  name  of  a  principal  genus  in  the  family.  Names  in  general  are  from  the 
Latin  and  Greek,  and  usually  express  Borne  characteristic  of  the  animal.  Names  of  species  are 
formed  often  from  the  name  of  the  locality  where  the  animal  abounds,  or  from  the  name  of  some 
distinguished  naturalist  or  other  person. 

9.  Order  Quadrumana. — These  animals  are  next  to  man  in 
degree  of  development,  and  are  characterized:  (1)  By  having  the 
great  toe  of  the  foot  opposable  to  the  other  toes,  or  in  other  words, 
the  foot  and  hand  are  similarly  constructed,  whence  the  name,  mean- 
ing four-handed.  (2  )  They  are  covered  more  or  less  with  hair.  (3) 
In  mode  of  life  they  are  arboreal  and  terrestrial,  and  generally  fru- 
giverous.      (\)      Do    not  assume  the  erect  posture    as  a  habit.      (5) 


ZOOLOGY.  401 

Their  imitative  qualities  are  largely  developed.  (6)  The  spinal 
opening  in  the  skull  is  in  the  posterior  third  of  the  base,  the  thumb 
is  very  short,  the  pelvis  long  and  narrow,  the  vetebral  column  has 
but  a  single  curve,  the  arms  are  relatively  very  long  and  the  canine 
teeth  prominent.  They  are  divided  into  three  families  which  inhabit 
separate  portions  of  the  world  as  follows,  Simidae  or  Old  World 
monkeys,  Cebidae  or  New  World  monkeys,  and  Lemuridae  or 
monkeys  of  Madagascar. 

10.  Order  Carnivora. — (i)  Chiefly  flesh  eating,  whence  the 
name.  (2)  Canine  teeth  largely  developed,  molars  adapted  for 
cutting.  (3)  Feet  with  well  developed  claws,  retractile  or  non- 
retractile.  (4)  Skull  comparatively  small  with  high  occipital 
crest.  (5)  Clavicles  rudimentary  or  wanting,  humerus  and  femur 
mainly  enclosed  in  the  body.  (6)  All  covered  with  hair,  many 
furnish  valuable  furs.  They  are  divided  into  eleven  families;  the 
names  and  a  representative  of  each  areas  follows:  Felidae,  cat; 
Viverida,  civet;  Hyenidae,  hyena;  Canidae,  dog;  Mustelidaj,  weasel; 
Ursid:e,  bear;  Procyonidae,  raccoon;  Bassaridae,  civet  cat;  Otaridae, 
eared  seal;  Phocidae,  seal;  Rosmaridae,  walrus. 

11.  Order  Ungulata. — Characterized  mainly:  (1)  By  having 
hoofs,  whence  the  name;  digitigrade,  that  is  phalanges  only  touch- 
ing ground  in  walking.  (2)  Molar  teeth  with  grinding  surfaces, 
no  tusks  and  chiefly  herbivorous.  (3)  Clavicles  wanting,  radius 
and  ulna  united,  brain  convoluted  as  in  all  animals  higher  in  the 
scale.  (Physiology,  sec.  103).  (4)  Many  arc  ruminants.  They 
are  divided  into  eleven  families  as  follows:  Camelidaj,  camel; 
Giraffidae,  giraffe;  Bovidae,  ox;  Antilocapridse, prong-horn  antelope; 
Cerviche,  deer;  Hippopotamidae ;  hippopotamus;  Suidae,  hog;  Dico- 
tylidae,  peccary;  Equidae,  horse;  Rhinocerotidae,  rhinoceros;  Tapir- 
idae,  tapir.  The  order  Hyracoidae  is  represented  by  but  one  genus, 
the  Hyrax,  which  resembles  in  structure  the  rhinoceros,  though  not 
apparently.  It  is  found  in  .Syria  and  Southern  Africa,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  cony  of  the  Scriptures. 

12.  Order  Proboscidae. — Two  species  of  elephant,  the  Blephas 
Indicus  and  E.  Africanits  are  the  only  living  representatives  of  this 
order.  The  Dinotherium  and  Mastodon  found  in  a  fossil  state 
belonged  to  this  order.  The  humerus  and  femur  are  elongated  and 
the  heel  brought  nearer  the  ground  than  in  the  horse  and  ox.  The 
clavicles  are  wanting,  and  the  neck  is  too  short  to  enable  it  to  take 
its  food  from  the  ground  with  its  mouth.  The  trunk  which  is  a 
prolongation  of  the  nose  contains  several  thousand  muscles,  and  is 
useful  in  procuring  food  and  conveying  it  to  the  animal's  mouth. 

13.  To  the  order  Sirenia  belongs  the  Sea  Cow,  or  Manatee 
Of  the  Florida  coast.  It  resembles  the  whale  somewhat,  having  no 
hind  limbs  and  the  tbrelimbs  are  flippers  with  which  it  can  crawl 
on  the  shore.  The  order  Cetacea  includes  whales,  the  porpoise 
and  the    dolphin.      They   are   characterized    by    naked   bodies,    no 

26 


402  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   UBRART. 

clavicles,  no  hind  limbs,  tail,  a  horizontal  tin,  nostrils  on  top  of  the 
head.  Whalebone  comes  from  the  Greenland  or  right  whale  (Ba- 
Lcna  Mysticetus),  and  is  not  hone  but  slabs  of  horn-like  material 
sometimes  ten  feet  in  length,  hanging  from  the  upper  jaw  and  serves 
to  strain  out  the  minute  animals  on  which  it  feeds.  The  sperm 
whale  (Physeter  Macrocefhalus)  has  an  immense  cavity  in  the 
head  containing  an  oil  which  hardens  and  forms  the  spermaceti  of 
commerce.  Ambergris  is  a  peculiar  product  used  in  making  per- 
fumery and  found  sometimes  to  the  extent  of  forty  pounds  in  the 
intestines    of  the    sperm    whale.      It    is    thought  to  he  a  product  of 

disease. 

14.  Order  Cheiroptera. — Known  as  hats,  and  are  true  Hying 
mammals.  They  are  characterized  :(i)  By  having  the  anterior 
limbs  adapted  for  flight;  the  ulna  and  radius  united;  the  hones  of 
the  hand  and  lingers  greatly  elongated,  supporting  a  leathery  skin 
which  extends  to  the  posterior  limbs.  (2)  The  clavicles  are  long, 
the  skeleton  light.  (3)  The  touch  is  acute,  and  they  are  nocturnal 
and  chiefly  insectivorous.  There  are  two  hundred  species,  the  largest 
being  the  flying  fox  (Ptcropus  cdulis)  ofjava,  which  has  a  body  as 
large  as  a  squirrel,  and  is  five  feet  across  the  wings.  It  lives  on 
fruits  and  its  flesh  is  eaten. 

15.  Order  Insectivora. — (1)  The  limbs  adapted  for  walking, 
plantigrade.  (2)  Teeth  with  sharp  points  adapted  for  crushing 
insects.  (3)  The  cerebrum  not  convoluted.  (4)  Mostly  small 
in  size,  the  shrew  being  the  smallest  of  mammals,  and  many  are 
subterranean  in   their  habits.     It   includes  the  mole,  hedgehog    and 

shrew. 

16.  Order  Rodentia. — Characterized:   (1)      By  lack  of  canine 

teeth,  and  incisors  chisel-shaped,  adapted  for  gnawing,  whence  file- 
name. (2)  Clavicles  in  nearly  all;  cerebrum  nearly  smooth.  It 
is  a  very  large  order  including  about  two-thirds  of  all  mammals. 
The  mouse  and  rat,  squirrel,  beaver,  gopher,  porcupine,  Guinea  pig 
and  rabbit  are  members  of  this  order. 

17.  Order  Edentata. — This  term  is  a  misnomer,  as  it  means 
toothless,  which  is  not  the  case.  They  are  however,  all  destitute 
of  incisors,  and  this  is  about  the  only  general  characteristic.  It 
includes    the  sloth,  the  armadillo  and  the  ant-eater. 

18.  The  two  lowest  orders  of  mammalia,  Marsupialia  and 
Monotremata  are  peculiar  and  approach  in  structure  the  birds.  The 
Marsupialia  which  includes  the  kangaroos  of  Australia  and  the 
opossum  cf  North  America  are  characterized  by  having  the  young 
brought  forth  in  an  immature  state  and  carried  for  sometime  ma 
pouch  in  the  abdomen  of  the  mother.  The  Monotremata  are  iouml 
only  in  Australia  and  vicinity,  and  seem  to  he  the  connecting  link 
between  beasts  and  birds.  They  are  characterized  by  having  but 
one  external  opening  for  the  intestinal  canal  and  bladder,  the  same 
as  birds.     The  porcupine,  ant-eater  {Echidna  hystrix)  and  the  duck 


ZOOLOGY.  403 

bill,  or  water-mole  ( Omithorhynckus  paradoxus)  are  represent- 
atives. The  latter  has  a  bill  like  a  bird,  webbed  feet,  and  is  covered 
with  hair. 

19.  Class  II.— Aves. — Birds  are  closely  connected  in  structure 
and  any  division  of  them  into  orders  is  more  or  less  arbitrary. 
They  are  the  only  animals  clothed  with  feathers.  They  are  further 
characterized  as  follows:  (i)  The  inferior  maxillary  bone  articu- 
lates with  the  skull  through  a  separate  bone.  (2)  One  occipital 
condyle  enabling  the  bird  to  turn  its  face  completely  backward. 
(3)  Four  limbs,  anterior  for  flying,  posterior  for  walking.  (4) 
Femur  short,  knee  never  seen  outside  of  plumage — first  joint  visible 
being  the  heel.  (5)  Toes  ending  in  claws,  generally  four  in  num- 
ber. (6)  No  diaphragm,  epiglottis  or  teeth.  (7)  Cerebrum 
smooth,  cerebellum  single  lobed.  (8)  Eyes  with  three  lids.  (9) 
One  opening  for  excretion  of  kidneys  and  alimentary  canal.  (10) 
The  bones  are  light,  containing  a  large  proportion  of  phosphate  of 
lime  and  the  marrow  in  many  cases  replaced  by  air  which  com- 
municates with  the  lungs,  (n)  The  clavicles  are  usually  united, 
forming  the  »  wish  bone."  (12)  The  temperature  is  much  higher 
than  in  mammals,  sometimes  as  high  as  no°F.  (13)  The 
young  are  produced  from  eggs  which  are  hatched  outside  the 
body. 

20.     Only  the  orders  of  birds  and  representatives  of  each  can 
here  be  mentioned.     (  1)  Passeres,  the  sparrow,  blue  bird,  mocking 
bird,  robin,  swallow,  lark,  crow,  jay,  bird  of  Paradise,  lyre  bird  of 
Australia,  weaver   bird    and   many   of  the   common   birds   of   this 
country.      The   greater   number   of  singing   birds   belong    to    this 
order.     They  are  characterized  by  having  the  three  front  toes  on 
nearly  the  same  level  as  the  one  hind  toe,  adapting  them  for  perch- 
ing.     (2)   Picarae   includes,  the  woodpecker,  the  kingfisher,  whip- 
poor-will,  cuckoo  which  has  a  habit  of  laying  its  eggs  in  the  nest  of 
some  other  bird  to  be  hatched,  humming  bird,    etc.     (3)   Psittaci 
includes  the  parrots,  cockatoos,  etc.     (4)   Raptores  or  birds  of  prey, 
characterized  by  a  hooked  bill   and   powerful  claws   and    including 
eagles,  owls,  hawks,  falcons  and   vultures.     The  condor,   which   is 
the  largest  bird  that    flies,   belongs   to  this    order.     (5)    Coluttibac 
includes  the  pigeons  and  doves.    The  dodo,  a  bird  of  large  size  now 
extinct,  but  once    an    inhabitant    of  the    island    of   Mauritius    and 
adjacent  islands  in  the  Indian  O.   belonged   to   this   order.     (6)  To 
the  order   Gallinae  belong  domestic  fowls,  pheasants,  quails,  etc. 
(7)    The  ostrich  and  apteryx  belong  to  the  order  Brcvipouics.     (S) 
Linicolac,    birds    with    long    beaks,    as    snipes.       (9)   FIcrodioties, 
herons,  storks.     (10)   A/cctor/dcs,  the  whooping  crane,  rails,  etc. 
(11)   Lamcllirostrcs,    geese,   ducks,    etc.      (12)   Steganopodes,   the 
pelican,  cormorant,  etc.     (13)   Longifennes,  sea   gulls,   albatross, 
etc.     (14)   Pygopodes,  the  loon,  etc.      (15)   Sphenisci,  the  penguin, 
which  approaches  a  fish  in  structure. 


•10-}  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRARY. 

21.  Class  III. — Reptilia. — Characterized  as  follows:  (i)  Air- 
breathing,  but  cold  blooded,  temperature  varying  but  little  from 
that  <>f  the  surrounding  media.  (2)  Covered  with  horny  scales  or 
bony  plates.  (3)  Skeleton  is  never  cartilaginous  and  the  skull  has 
hut  one  occipital  condyle;  the  vertebra'  usually  concave  in  front. 
(  1  1  Teeth  in  all  except  turtles  and  not  fastened  in  sockets  except 
in  crocodiles.  (5)  The  heart  has  three  chambers  except  in  croco- 
diles which  have  the  ventricle  partitioned;  the  venous  and  arterial 
blood  are  mixed.  (6j  Nearly  all  are  carnivorous;  they  swallow 
their  food  whole.  (7)  Reproduced  from  eggs  which  are  generally 
hatched  without  the  body.  They  are  most  abundant  in  tropical 
climates,  hibernating  in  winter  in  cold  climates. 

22.  The  orders  of  Reptiles  are  as  follows:  (  1)  Tcstudinata, 
or  turtles,  are  an  apparent  contradiction  to  the  vertebrate  type, 
having  the  skeleton  on  the  outside  of  the  body.  The  upper  cover- 
ing, carapax,  is  formed  by  the  spinal  column  and  ribs  united  to  the 
external  covering  of  horny  plates.  The  under  covering,  plastron, 
is  analogous  to  the  sternum.  (2)  Loricata  includes  the  alligator 
and  crocodile.  Covered  with  a  leather)-  skin  set  with  bony  plates. 
The  lower  jaw  is  articulated  to  the  back  part  of  the  skull  so  that 
when  the  mouth  opens  the  upper  jaw  seems  to  move  on  the  lower. 
(3)  Laccrtilia,  or  lizards,  includes  the  chameleon,  the  horned  frog 
or  toad  of  Texas  and  Western  U.S.,  the  glass  snake,  or  joint  snake, 
etc.  The  latter  "when  frightened  contracts  its  muscles  so  violently 
that  its  tail  will  break  off  as  if  it  were  brittle."  All  of  this  order 
are  harmless.  (4)  Ophidia,  or  snakes.  They  have  a  very  dilata- 
ble mouth  enabling  them  to  swallow  prey  larger  than  their  bodies. 
1  lave  no  limbs  nor  sternum  and  move  by  means  of  the  ribs  and 
scales  on  the  under  side  of  body.  Many  are  harmless,  some  very 
poisonous. 

23.  Class  IV. — Amphibia. — Distinguished  by:  (1)  Having  a 
double  life,  tnat  is  in  the  immature  or  tadpole  state,  breathing  by 
means  of  gills  as  fish,  and  in  the  mature  state  by  lungs.  The  gills 
and  tails  are  lost  by  absorption;  in  some  cases,  however,  they  are 
retained.  (2)  The  heart  has  three  chambers,  two  auricles  and  one 
ventricle;  cold  blooded.  (3)  They  are  covered  with  a  naked  skin. 
This  class  includes  frogs,  toads,  salamanders,  etc.;  the  division  into 
orders  as  in  all  cases  hereafter  will  not  be  given. 

24.  Class  V. — Pisces. — "Fishes  are  the  lowest  of  the  vertebrates. 
They  fall  far  behind  the  rest  in  strength,  intelligence  and  sensibility. 
The  eyes,  though  huge,  are  almost  immovable,  bathed  by  no  tears, 
and  protected  by  no  lids.  Dwelling  in  the  realm  of  silence,  ears 
are  little  needed,  and  such  as  they  have  are  without  external  parts, 
the  sound  being  obliged  to  pass  through  the  cranium.  Taste  and 
smell  arc  blunted  and  touch  is  nearly  confined  to  the  lips.  Desti- 
tute of  th(  means  of  social  intercourse  (being  almost  mute),  their 
chief  enjoyment  is  to  eat,  and  to  be  eaten  is  the  end  of  their  exis- 


ZOOLOGY.  405 

tence.  But  the  class  yields  to  no  other  in  the  number  and  variety  of 
its  forms.  It  includes  nearly  one-half  of  all  the  vertebrated 
species." — Ortorfs  Comparative  Zoology. 

25.  All  animals  not  belonging  to  the  sub-kingdom  vertebrata 
are  sometimes  called  invertebrates.  We  can  have  space  to  notice 
only  the  classes  of  the  remaining  sub-kingdoms.  More  time  should 
be  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  articulates  than  to  any  of  the  other 
sub-kingdoms  yet  to  be  mentioned,  as  specimens  can  so  easily  be 
obtained. 

26.  Sub-Kingdom  II. — Articulata. — Largest  of  all  the  sub- 
kingdoms,  comprising  four-fifths  of  the  animal  world.  They  are 
characterized  as  follows:  (i)  Body  composed  of  rings,  or  ring- 
like plates  more  or  less  indurated  and  enclosing  the  vital  parts.  (2) 
The  nervous  system,  mainly  a  double  chain  of  ganglia  on  the  ventral 
side  of  the  body.  (3)  Alimentary  canal,  a  nearly  straight  tube 
lying  lengthwise  in  the  center  of  the  body.  (4)  The  circulatory 
organs,  nearly  straight  tubes  running  along  the  back.  (4)  The 
respiratory  organs,  a  system  of  tubes  throughout  the  body  com- 
municating externally  with  the  air  in  various  places.  (5)  Blood 
white,  except  in  some  of  the  worms.  (6)  A  transverse  section  of 
the  body  shows  but  one  cavity.  (7)  The  mouth  opens  vertically 
with  the  axis  of  the  body  and  the  number  of  limbs  varies  from  none 
at  all  to  fifty  or  more  pairs.  "Every  ring  so  nearly  represents  a 
distinct  individual  with  complete  nervous  respiratorv  and  circulat- 
ing apparatus,  that  some  naturalists  have  declared  articulates  to  be 
compound  animals." 

27.  Class  I. — Insecta. — (i)  Body  divided  into  three  distinct 
sections,  head,  thorax  and  abdomen.  (2)  Three  pairs  of  jointed 
legs,  one  pair  of  antenna),  or  feelers,  and  usually  two  pairs  of  wings, 
the  legs  and  wings  borne  on  the  thorax.  (3)  The  eyes  are  usually 
compound  being  made  up  of  hexagonal  cones  sometimes  many 
thousand  in  number,  but  each  a  distinct  eve.  (4)  Man)'  undergo  a 
metamorphosis,  that  is  they  exist  in  different  forms  at  different 
stages  of  their  existence.  When  first  hatched  from  the  ego-  the 
insect  is  called  a  larva  which,  if  it  be  without  legs,  is  called  a  grub 
or  maggot,  if  with  legs,  a  caterpillar,  and  when  its  full  size  is 
reached  it  sheds  its  coat  and  remains  for  a  time  dormant,  then  called 
the  pupa,  which  is  sometimes  surrounded  by  a  cocom  spun  and 
woven  of  silk  by  the  larva.  After  remaining  a  certain  time  in  the 
pupa  state  it  bursts  its  coveting  and  emerges  an  imago  or  perfect 
insect.  In  the  larva  state  the  insect  is  occupied  principally  in  eating 
and  growing.  Many  live  but  a  few  hours  after  reaching  theima^o 
state,  only  long  enough  to  secure  a  reproduction  of  their  kind  by 
laying  eggs. 

28.  Class  II. — Myriapoda. — Includes  centipedes,  earwigs,  etc., 
and  characterized  by  having  the  thorax  and  abdomen  merged  in  one, 
but  the  head  distinct.     They  have  usually  many   legs,  as  the   name 


40C  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

indicates,  and  their  bodies  are  worm-like  in  appearance.  The 
common  "thousand-leg  worm"  is  a  representative.  It  has  about 
120  legs.  The  well-known  centipede  {Scolopendra  gigantca) 
of  the  Southern  and  Western  States  is  poisonous  to  a  certain 
degree. 

29.  Class  III. — Arachnida. — Have  the  head  and  thorax  merged 
into  one,  and  the  abdomen  distinct,  and  four  pairs  of  legs,  with 
from  two  to  eight  simple  eyes.  The  spiders,  scorpions,  and  the 
itch  mite  belong  to  this  class.  There  are  nearly  5,000  species. 
Spiders  manifest  a  high  degree  of  intelligence. 

30.  Class  IV. — Crustacea. — Includes  the  largest  and  strongest 
of  the  sub-kingdom.  All  are  acpiatic  and  breathe  by  gills.  Their 
bodies  are  covered  with  a  hard  crust,  whence  the  name.  This  shell 
or  crust  consists  of  21  pieces,  seven  for  the  head,  seven  for  the 
thorax,  and  seven  for  the  abdomen.  In  the  higher  forms  the  head 
and  thorax  are  united  into  one  piece  called  the  cephalo-thorax.  The 
shell  is  frequently  cast  as  the  animal  grows  too  large  for  it.  When 
a  limb  is  lost  by  accident  another  grows  in  its  place.  The  crawfish, 
crabs,  and  the  lobster  belong  to  this  class,  also  the  trilobite,  extinct. 
(See  Geology). 

31.  Class  V. — Annelida. — Includes  all  animals  known  as 
worms,  such  as  the  common  earth-worm,  leeches,the  tape-worm,  etc. 
They  have  no  hollow  articulated  limbs,  as  in  other  articulates,  and 
"no  one  part  of  the  body  honored  above  the  rest."  The  common 
earth-worm,  or  angle-worm,  is  no  insignificant  creature,  as  Charles 
Darwin  has  recently  written  a  book  upon  its  structure  and  habits. 
He  has  shown  that  this  apparently  insignificant  animal  is  an  im- 
portant agent  in  pulverizing  the  soil  and  burying  rocks  and  other 
objects  upon  the  surface,  and  in  bringing  up  material  from  below 
to  the  surface  simply  by  swallowing  the  soil  for  the  organic  matter 
contained  in  it,  and  having  passed  it  through  its  body,  casting  it 
upon  the  surface. 

32.  Sub-Kingdom  III. — Mollusca. — (1)  Soft  bodies  without 
joints  «>r  internal  skeleton,  covered  with  a  contractile  skin,  or  man- 
tle. (2)  Sometimes  the  skin  is  naked,  but  usually  covered  with  a 
shell  of  calcareous  material.  (3)  The  nervous  system  consists  of 
three  pairs  of  ganglia  around  the  neck,  or  entrance  to  the  alimentary 
canal,  with  other  ganglia  scattered  throughout  the  body.  (4)  The 
majority  are  water  breathers  and  exist  in  the  ocean.  There  are 
probably  more  than  20,000  species.  Snails,  oysters  and  mussels  are 
common  types  of  this  sub-kingdom. 

33.  The  mollusca  are  divided  into  classes  as  follows:  (1) 
CEPHALOPODA.  "  The  head  is  set  off  from  the  body  with  a  slight 
constriction,  and  furnished  with  a  pair  of  large  staring  eyes,  a  mouth 
armed  with  a  rasping  tongue  and  a  parrot-like  beak,  and  eight  or 
more  tentacles  or  arms."  To  this  class  belong  the  cuttle-fish,  which 
has  the  power  of  ejecting  a  black  fluid,  which  darkens   the    water 


ZOO  LOG  T.  407 

and  screens  it  from  pursuit.  It  has  a  spongy,  calcareous  mass 
within  its  body,  known  as  cuttle-fish  bone,  and  used  for  canary 
birds.  The  beautiful  nautilus  and  the  famous  devil-fish  also  belong 
tothis  class.  (2)  Gasteropoda.  Move  by  a  fleshy  disc  called 
the  foot,  and  usually  covered  with  a  spiral  univalve  shell.  The  com- 
mon snail  is  typical.  (3)  Lamelli-branchiata.  Havebivalve 
shells,  the  oyster  and  mussel  being  typical.  (4)  Brachiopoda. 
Have  arms  coiled  up  within  the  shell,  which  is  a  bivalve,  being 
symmetrical,  /.  e.  equal  on  each  side  of  die  hinge.  (5)  T«  \kata. 
Appear  as  a  gelatinous  mass  covered  with  two  tunics  or  coats, 
forming  a  tube  through  which  the  water  passes.  (6)  Poi.yzoa. 
Compound  animals,  the  individuals  inhabiting  separate  cells,  but 
attached  to  each  other  and  resembling  a  plant. 

34.  Sub-Kingdom  IV.- -Echinodermata.  -Have  all  the  parts 
arranged  around  a  central  axis  in  fives  or  multiples  of  five.  It  in- 
cludes classes  named  and  represented  as  follows:  (1)  Holotiiuri- 
dae,  sea  slugs ;  (2)  Echinoidea,  sea  urchins;  (3)  Asteroidea, 
star-fish;  (4)  Crinoidea,  crinoids,  or  sea  lilies. 

35.  Sub-Kingdom  V. —  Ccelenterata. — Animals  radiated  in 
structure,  but  having  a  distinct  cavity  in  the  body  with  walls  of  two 
layers  of  cellular  tissue.  They  generally  live  in  clusters  or  colo- 
nies, and  are  propagated  by  eggs  and  by  budding.  They  are  rep- 
resented by  the  corals  and  jelly  fishes. 

36.  Sub-Kingdom  VI.—  Protozoa.— Includes  all  the  lowest 
forms  of  animals  that  have  not  been  classed  with  the  other  sub- 
kingdoms.  They  are  all  small,  living  mostly  in  the  water,  and 
many  are  microscopic.  They  have  no  distinct  organs  of  cir- 
culation, digestion,  etc.,  that  have  been  yet  discovered,  although 
they  take  food,  grow  and  multiply,  and  many  are  exceedingly 
active. 

37.  The  sub-kingdoms  Echinodermata  and  Ccelenterata  were 
formerly  included  in  the  sub-kingdom  Radiata.  A  special  study 
should  be  made  of  corals,  crinoids,  gasteropods,  brachiopods  and 
lam elti-branchiates,  as  they  form  the  greater  part  of  the  fossil  re- 
mains, and  their  study  is  a  good  preparation  for  the  study  of  Pale- 
ontology, which  is  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  Geology. 


HINTS    TO    THE    TEACHER. 


38.  The  study  of  Zoology  is  a  very  interesting  one,  and  pupils 
will  not  need  to  be  stimulated  to  a  love  for  it  if  the  teacher  do  not 
require  them  to  commit  to  memory  the  details  of  the  subject,  nor 
frighten  them  with  the  technical  names.  Let  a  pretty  thorough 
study  of  the  general  characteristics  of  sub-kingdoms  and  classes 
be  made,  mingled  with  some  of  the  interesting  details  of  the  habits 
of  the  more  peculiar  individuals  of  each.  A  collection  of  insects 
may  be  made,  also  of  fresh-water  and  land  shells.  (See  article  on 
Outlining). 


4us  TEACHERS-  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

QUESTIONS     ON     ZOOLOGY. 

I.  Define  Zoologv.  2.  Classification  is  based  upon  what?  3.  How  are 
varieties  produced!  Hybrid?  Mongrel?  Races?  5.  Name  the  points  dis- 
tinguishing animals  from  plants.  6.  What  is  a  vertebrate  animal?  7.  Define 
mammalia.  S.  To  what  order  does  man  belong?  How  distinguished?  How 
are  the  family  names  formed? 

9.  What  order  next  to  man  in  development?  10.  Describe  the  order  to 
which  the  dog  belongs.  11.  The  horse.  (2.  The  elephant.  13.  The  whale. 
What  is  ambergris ?  Whalebone?  14.  Of  what  order  is  the  bat  a  representa- 
tive: 15.  What  is  the  smallest  mammal?  16.  How  could  you  tell  a  rodent 
animal? 

17.  Describe  the  Edentata.  18.  What  is  the  character  of  the  lower  orders 
of  mammalia?  19.  Give  the  characteristics  of  bird-.  20.  Give  a  representa- 
tive of  each  order  of  birds.  21.  Describe  reptiles.  22.  Give  a  representative 
of  each  order  of  reptiles.  Is  the  turtle  a  vertebrate  or  an  articulate  !  23.  What 
is  a  tadpole?  Put  some  tadpoles,  which  have  reached  nearly  their  full  size,  in  a 
vessel  of  water,  and  watch  the  gradual  diminution  of  their  "tails  and  the  devel- 
opment of  legs. 

24.  What  is  a  fish?  Is  the  whale  a  fish?  Why?  25.  What  are  inverte- 
brates? 26.  Describe  the  articulates.  Why  does  a  fly  or  bee  not  die  instantly 
when  the  head  is  cut  off  or  the  body  cut  in"  two?  Ans. — Because  the  nervous 
system  is  so  constructed  that  each  segment  represents  a  nearly  complete  animal. 

27.  Describe  insects?  Metamorphosis?  28.  Centipedes?  29.  Is  the  spider 
an  insect?  30.  Of  what  class  is  the  crawfish  a  representative?  31.  What  is  the 
importance  of  the  angle  worm?  32.  What  is  an  oyster  ?  33.  Give  a  represent- 
ative of  each  class  of  mollusks.  What  is  the  devil-fish?  How  tell  abrachiopod 
from  a  lamelli-branchiate  by  the  shell  ? 

34.  To  what  sub-kingdom  and  class  does  the  star-fish  belong?  What  are 
crinoids?  35.  Describe  the  ccelenterata?  36.  Protozoa?  37.  What  are 
radiates  ? 

« 

—  •  •••.■ii|<>|iii...-- 


COMMON  SCHOOL  LAW. 


***  It  should  he  remembered  by  the  teacher  that,  though  decisions  and 
rulings  in  one  State  are  not  law  in  another,  they  serve  as  precedents,  and  in  the 
absence  of  statute   regulations   go   far  toward  "governing  a  case.      Hence    the 

her  should  not  make  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  the  customs  of  another 
State  necessarily  do  not  affect  his  own  ease. 

Where  the  abbreviation  <>l"a  State  occurs  in  brackets  it  signifies  that  the  point  in  law  ex- 
ed  in  the  preceding  sentence   i-  taken  from  the  statutes  of  thai  State,  or  from  decisions 
made  In-  its  <  nun-  <<r  offii 

1.  A  certain  knowledge  <>t'  his  legal  duties  and  responsibilities 
should  he  among  the  first  requirements  of  the  teacher  of  a  public 
school.  It  frequently  happens  that  lie  gets  int..  serious  difficulty, 
either  through  ln^  own  blunders  or  the  ignorance  and  cupidity  of 
others.     A    knowledge  of  certain   general   points  of  law  would  in 


*  We  are  indebted  to  the  excellent  manual  of  "Common  School    Law,"  published  by  C. 
u    Bardeen,  S  V  v..  inr  many  of  the  |>oints  and  references  in  this  article. 


COMMON  SCHOOL    LAW.  409 

most  case-  prevent  blunders  on  his  own  part,  and  help  remedy  them 
where  made  by  others. 

2.  Law  is  a  rule  of  action.  Common  law  is  "that  which  de- 
rives its  force  and  authority  from  the  universal  consent  and  imme- 
morial practice  of  the  people."  Statute  law  is  that  made  by  a 
Legislative  body.  Common  law  in  regard  to  schools  consists 
mainly  of  decisions  of  courts  and  state  superintendents  or  commis- 
sioners of  public  instruction. 

3.  Statute  law  in  regard  to  schools  is  concerned  principally 
with  the  details  relating  to  organization,  support  and  supervision, 
and  refers  in  a  general  way  only  to  the  work  of  the  teacher.  The 
relations  of  the  teacher  to  pupil  and  parent  are  not  definitely  de- 
fined by  statute  law,  and  are  left  to  the  decisions  of  common  law. 
It  would  he  impracticable  to  enact  laws  covering  every  possible 
case  which  may  come  up  in  the  varied  relations  the  teacher  sustains 
to  pupil  and  parent. 

4.  The  States  differ  greatly  in  their  statures  respecting-  the  or- 
ganization, supervision  and  support  of  schools,  but  as  to  the  special 
rights  and  duties  of  teachers,  pupils  and  parents,  they  are  more  uni- 
form, these  matters  being  regulated  by  universal  custom  based  upon 
legal  opinions  given  by  courts  and  school  officers  in  the  different 
States,  or  in  other  words,  by  common  laze. 

5.  The  Teacher's  Qualifications. — The  law  presumes  in  all 
cases  that  the  teacher  should  be  qualified  for  the  work  which  he  is 
employed  to  do,  and  to  assure  such  a  result,  nearly  all  Slates  re- 
quire the  teacher  to  hold  a  certificate  of  qualification  granted  by  a 
proper  authority  established  by  statute.  This,  of  course,  does  not 
applv  to  teachers  of  private  schools.  The  following  "points  in  re- 
gard to  certificates,  or  licenses,  are  of  general  interest: — - 

1.  A  teacher  holding  school  without  a  certificate  cannot 
draw  pay.     [Me.,  X.  II.,  Vt.,  Ind.,  Cal.,  X.  Y.,  (3.,  et  ah] 

2.  It  is  illegal  to  employ  teachers  who  have  no  license.  [Pa., 
Ind.] 

3.  He  gets  his  authority  from  his  certificate,  and  if  he  presume 
to  teach  without  it  is  liable  tor  assault  and  battery  if  he  uses  the 
slightest  corporal  punishment.  Neither  can  any  other  person,  as  a 
superintending  officer,  take  his  place.  [X.  II.]  This  is  true  also 
even  if  his  certificate  be  illegally  annulled;  [X.  Y.]  or  if  the  proper 
authorities  refuse  or  neglect  to  examine  him.  [Mci]  If  the  certifi- 
cate be  annulled  and  the  teacher  appeals  to  the  State  Department 
he  may  continue  school  with  the  consent  of  the  board.   I  Wis.] 

4.  Certificates,  or  licenses,  are  granted  by  various  authorized 
means.  The  following  are  some  of  the  kinds  ..f  certificates:  Di- 
plomas from  State  Normal  Schools;  State  certificates  issued  by  the 
State  Superintendent,  or  a  State  hoard  of  education;  certificates  by 
countv  boards  of  examiners  or  county  superintendents,  or  in  cities 
by  a  superintendent  or  a  Board  of  Education. 


410  TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

^.  Standards  of  examination  arc  not  fixed  by  statute,  and 
custom  varies  greatly,  [n  general,  a  good  moral  character, learn- 
ing, and  teaching  power  are  required,  but  what  constitutes  these, 
or  the  degree  of  each  necessary,  are  matters  which  are  not 
commonly  regulated  by  fixed  standards.  The  use  of  intoxicating 
drinks,  profanity  [N.  V.],  the  refusal  to  pay  debts  [Wis.],  are  con- 
sidered as  grounds  for  refusal  on  the  basis  of  moral  character.  A 
fair  knowledge  of  each  branch  which  is  required  by  law  to  be  taught, 
is  required  before  a  license  can  be  granted.  Of  late  years  more  atten- 
tion is  being  paid  to  ascertaining  the  teaching  power,  or  managing 
ability  of  the  teacher.  If  an  applicant  is  familiar  with  the  best 
works  on  methods  and  management,  and  is  a  subscriber  to  some 
school  journal,  these  facts  help  to  determine  the  grade  of  certificate. 
Successful  experience  also  goes  a  great  way  in  this  direction. 

6.  The  law  never  permits  a  licensing  authority  to  refuse  a 
certificate  on  the  ground  of  ill-will  or  malice  toward  the  applicant. 
In  such  cases  the  applicant  may  recover  damages.  He  is  not  com- 
pelled even  to  prove  personal  malice  on  the  part  of  the  authority, 
hut  if  it  can  he  shown  that  the  officer  acted  rashly  or  wickedly,  the 
jury  may  find  malice.  [Ilk] 

7.  "  A  teacher's  certificate  must  hear  the  same  date  as  the 
examination,  and  cannot  legally  hear  any  other.'''    [Ilk] 

S.  Certificates  mav  he  revoked  by  County  .Superintendents 
on  the  ground  of  immorality  and  for  want  of  professional  knowl- 
edge, hut  at  least  ten  days'  notice  in  writing  must  he  given  to  the 
teacher  and  to  the  directors  and  controllers  of  the  district  in  which 
he  is  employed.  [Pa.]  "  Normal  School  diplomas  and  State  cer- 
tificates as  certificates  of  teaching  ability  cannot  he  annulled,  nor 
can  the  holder  he  suhjectcd  to  further  examination,  except  as  a  con- 
dition of  contract."  [N.  Y.]  Incompetency,  immorality,  cruelty, 
or  general  neglect  of  husiness  of  the  school  are  grounds  for  revoca- 
tion.  [Ind.] 

9.  The  teacher,  in  case  his  certificate  be  annulled,  may  apply 
to  the  State  Superintendent,  whose  decision  is  final.   [X.  Y.] 

6.  Making  Contracts. —  The  law  varies  greatly  as  to  con- 
tracts between  teachers  and  employers  in  different  States.  Note 
the  following  points: — 

1.  Written  contracts  are  required  by  law.  [Kan.,  Iowa,  Pa., 
Wis..  Va.l 

2.  Not  customary  to  make  written  contracts.  |  Mass.,  O.] 
Generally  the  custom.  [  1 11.  j  The  teacher  shall  contract  with  the 
Trustees  in  writing  that  he  shall  attend  the  Township  Institutes. 
[I;id.|  Customary  for  country  teachers;  city  teachers  being  elected 
by  the  board,  '.\<>  contracl  written.   [Ga.] 

^.  The  <|iicstion  sometimes  arises  whether  a  minor  can  con- 
tract. "  Such  a  contracl  is  binding  upon  the  district,  hut  not  upon 
the  teacher,  as   ;.    minor,  who   may   decline  to  fulfill  the  contract,  or 


COMMON  SCHOOL   LAW.  411 

having  taught  for  a  time,  may  decline  to  teach  longer."  [Wis.] 
"  The  teacher's  wages  are  paid  to  him,  and  not  to  his  parent  or 
guardian, even  though  he  is  a  minor."  [Ky.  ] 

7.  Dismissal  of  Teachers. — The  statutes  of  some  of  the  States 
define  grounds  for  dismissal,  others  do  not.  "  Incompetency,  cru- 
elty, negligence,  or  immorality."  [Pa.,  111.,  Kan.]  "  Inefficiency, 
neglect  of  dutv,  immorality,  or  improper  conduct."  [O.]  "Incom- 
petency, immorality,  cruelty,  or  general  neglect  of  the  business  of 
the  school."  [Ind.]  "Incompetency,  partiality,  or  dereliction  in 
the  discharge  of  his  duties."  [Iowa.]  "  Want  of  sufficient  learn- 
ing, ability  to  teach,  capacity  to  govern  and  arrange  the  school,  or 
of  good  moral  character."  [Wis.]  Committee  may  dismiss  a 
teacher  "  who  is  found  incapable  or  unfit  to  teach,  or  whose  ser- 
vices they  deem  unprofitable  to  the  school."  [Ale.]  May  dismiss 
a  teacher  "whenever  they  think  proper."  [Mass.]  Mere  dissatis- 
faction of  scholars  and  parents  no  cause  for  dismissal.  [Vt.]  "In- 
competency, neglect  of  duty,  immoral  conduct,  unacceptability,  or 
other  disqualifications,"  a  preference  of  a  majority  of  patrons  not 
being  taken  as  unacceptability,  but  specific  grounds  must  be  stated. 

8.  Legal  Holidays. — Teachers  may  set  aside  without  forfeiture 
of  pay,  New  Year's,  4th  of  July,  Christmas  and  Thanksgiving 
days.  [O.,  111.,  Ind.]  Also  30th  of  May  and  22d  of  February. 
[Wis.]  Also  Good  Friday,  making  seven  holidays,  unless  a  part  of 
contract  to  teach  on  those  days.  [Pa.] 

9.  Corporal  Punishment — So  far  as  We  know,  only  one  State 
has  a  statute  relating  to  this  matter.  "  No  teacher  shall  be  per- 
mitted to  inflict  corporal  punishment  upon  any  child  in  any  school 
in  this  State."  [N.J.]  In  the  great  majority  of  schools,  the  teacher 
has  the  right  by  usage,  confirmed  by  legal  decisions,  to  resort  to 
corporal  punishment  when  necessary  to  maintain  order.  When- 
ever a  teacher  is  arraigned  for  inflicting  corporal  punishment,  the 
question  is  entirely  upon  whether  the  punishment  was  cruel,  un- 
necessary, or  inordinately  severe,  and  in  the  courts  if  so  proven, 
would  be  treated  as  a  case  of  "assault  and  battery." 

Some  cities  forbid  corporal  punishment  in  their  schools,  others 
permit  it,  but  discourage  it.  Proper  management  on  the  part  of 
teachers  will  in  nearly  all  cases  prevent  tine  necessity  of  resorting  to 
that  which  in  itself  is  but  little  more  than  barbarous. 

10.  .Special  laws  in  regard  to  defacing  school  property  are  on 
the  statute  books  of  many  of  the  States.  It  is  punishable  by  tine, 
or  fine  and  imprisonment.      [Kan.,  Mass.,  O.,  Wis.,  Ind.]. 

11.  Suspension  and  Expulsion  of  Pupils. — The  teacher  as 
a  rule  has  the  right  to  suspend,  and  the  school  hoards  the  right  to 
expel,  pupils.  The  teacher  may  suspend  a  pupil  until  he  can  inform 
the  board,  who  may  expel  if  they  see  fit.  [Ind.,  Wis.,  Pa.,  Mass., 
Iowa.]     Teachers   may  send  a  pupil    home   for   the   day  instead  of 


4V2  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LI  HEART. 

inflicting  corporal  punishment.  [O.].  Pupils  cannot  be  expelled 
for  trivial  causes,  [fa  scholar  persists  in  disobeying  the  teacher  the 
trustees  are  justified  in  expelling  him.  [Ky.].  "  Incorrigibly  bad 
conduct  <>r  violation  of  the  school  regulations"*'  are  grounds  for  ex- 
pulsion. \R.  I.].  "  Habitual  profanity  or  vulgarity  good  cause  for 
suspension."  [Cal.].  Misconduct  which  injures  the  discipline  of 
the  school  is  |us1  ground  foi  expulsion.  [Me.,  Mass.,  Wis.].  "  In- 
corrigibly bad  conduct."  [Pa.].  Pupils  who  g<)  to  school  without 
proper  attention  to  cleanliness  and  neatness  shall  be  sent  home  to  be 
properly  prepared  for  school.  [Cal.]. 

It  may  be  a  question  what  to  do  in  case  a  pupil  refuse  to  quit 
school  when  suspended  or  expelled.  It  then  becomes  a  case  of 
wilful  disturbance  of  the  school  and  is  punishable  by  fine.  [Wis., 
Me.,  Ind.,  Cal.,  N.J.]. 

12.  Detaining  Pupils  at  Recess  or  After  School. — This  seems 
to  be  a  universally  permitted  custom.  "  Teachers  may,  at  their 
discretion,  detain  scholars  a  reasonable  time  after  the  regular  school 
hours,  for  reasons  connected  with  the  discipline,  order,  or  instruction 
of  the  school."  [Mich.].  "  My  opinion  is  that  no  more  harmless, 
feasible,  or  efficient,  and,  therefore,  no  more  reasonable  way  can  be 
devised  to  meet  many  cases  of  negligence  and  disobedience  on  the 
part  of  pupils."  [HI.]-  "  We  have  held  that  scholars  may  not  be  de- 
tained after  school  hours  against  the  protest  of  parents  or  guardians." 
[Iowa.].  "No  pupil  shall  be  detained  in  school  during  the  inter- 
mission at  noon,  and  a  pupil  detained  at  any  recess  shall  be  per- 
mitted to  go  out  immediately  thereafter."   [Cal.]. 

13.  Control  of  Studies.— The  following  from  State  Superin- 
tendents will  exhibit  the  tendency  of  custom  and  law  on  this  point. 
"Our  common  school  courses  are  prescribed  bylaw.  The  com- 
mittee have  the  authority  to  require  their  courses  to  be  pursued." 
[Mass.].  "Boards  can  require  pupils  to  follow  the  prescribed 
course.*'  [O.].  "  Boards  may  establish  a  course  of  instruction  and 
the  right  to  enforce  it  is  evidently  carried  with  it."  [Ind.].  "A 
decision  of  our  supreme  courts  says  teachers  or  directors  cannot 
compel  pupils  to  take  a  prescribed  course  of  study."  [Wis.].  School 
boards  by  the  law  are  to  prescribe  courses  of  study  and  teachers  are 
to  determine  what  each  pupil  shall  pursue."  [Pa.].  "  The  school 
board  has  a  right  to  enforce  observance  of  a  course  of  study."  [Kan.]. 

14.  Parents  Interfering. — May  a  parent  take  his  child  from  the 
schoolroom  without  the  consent  ol  the  teacher, pending  punishment 
of  the  child  ?  "  A  parent  would  not  be  sustained  in  interfering  with 
the  regulations  of  the  school.  The  remedy  is  in  application  to  the 
boank7,  |  Iowa.  |.  -  As  a  rule  I  should  say  not."  [HI.].  "  Would 
he  regarded  as  interrupting  the  school,  and  could  he  fined  for  dis- 
orderly-conduct." [Wis.].'  "In  such  case  the  teacher  and  board 
would  undoubtedly  have  the  right  to  name  the  conditions  as  to  the 
child's  re-entrance  into  school."  [O.].     Also.     [Ind.]. 


COMMON  SCHOOL   LAW.  413 

15.  Hours  of  School. — The  general  custom  seems  to  be  six 
hours  a  day,  three  in  the  forenoon  and  three  in  the  afternoon,  with 
an  hour's  intermission  at  noon  and  10  or  15  minutes'  recess  in  the 
middle  of  each  session.  The  custom  of  dismissing  primary  classes 
earlier  than  the  others  is  becoming-  quite  customary.  "No  pupil  un- 
der eight  years  of  age  must  be  kept  in  school  more  than  four  hours 
a  day."  [Cal.].  "  The  youngest  pupils  cannot  be  confined  more  than 
three  hours."  [Ky.].  The  law  does  not  define  a  school  day,  but 
custom  has  fixed  its  limit  at  six  hours,  exclusive  of  the  noon  recess. 
"  This  is  perhaps  long  enough  for  pupils  of  any  age,  and  too  long 
for  the  youngest,  unless  they  are  relieved  by  frequent  recesses." 
[Ind.]. 

16.  Insult  to  Teacher. — ;'  If  any  parent,  guardian  or  other  per- 
son, from  any  cause  fancied  or  real,  visit  a  school  with  avowed  in- 
tention of  upbraiding  or  insulting  the  teacher  and  shall  so  upbraid 
or  insult  a  teacher,  such  person,  for  such  conduct,  shall  be  liable  to 
a  fine  of  not  more  than  25  dollars."  find."].  Similar  provision  also. 
[Wis.,  Me.,  Cal.,  N.J.]. 

17.  Teacher's  Authority  Outside  of  Schoolhouse. — In  the 
schoolhouse  and  on  the  playground  during  the  school  session,  the 
teacher  has  absolute  control  of  pupils,  modified  only  by  regulations 
which  may  be  made  by  boards  and  subject  to  arraignment  only 
when  he  by  excessive  or  cruel  measures  transcends  what  may  be 
considered  reasonable  conduct.   (9). 

This  seems  to  be  general  custom,  but  the  teacher's  authority  out- 
side of  these  limits  is  not  so  well  determined.  "  It  is  expected  that 
teachers  will  exercise  a  general  inspection  over  the  conduct  of  schol- 
ars going  to  and  returning  from  school."  [Cal.].  "  The  pupils  are 
under  the  authority  of  their  teacher  while  in  school  and  while  firoine 
to  and  from  school,  but  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  by  this  that  the 
teacher  is  to  be  held  responsible  for  such  misconduct,  or  must  punish 
it."  [Ky.].  "  Though  a  schoolmaster  has  in  general  no  right  to 
punish  a  pupil  for  misconduct  committed  after  the  dismissal  of  school 
for  the  day,  and  the  return  of  the  pupil  to  his  home,  yet  he  may, 
on  the  pupil's  return  to  school  punish  him  for  any  misbehavior, 
though  committed  out  of  school,  which  has  a  direct  and  immediate 
tendency  to  injure  the  school,  and  to  subvert  the  master's  authority." 
[Sup.  Court,  Vt.]. 

18.  Absence  and  Tardiness. — Rules  in  this  regard  made  by 
boards  have  been  decided  as  absolute  and  final. 

19.  Compulsory  Education. — This  is  the  term  used,  hut  it  is 
certainly  evident  that  education  is  not  a  matter  of  compulsion.  The 
question,  however,  of'  compelling  the  attendance  of  children  for  a 
certain  number  of  days  in  the  year  to  attend  the  public  schools  has 
been  much  discussed  of  late  years,  and  many  States  have  enacted 
laws  to  this  effect.  It  is  still  an  open  question  in  our  mind,  and  we 
shall  not  discuss  it  here. 


414  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS   LIB  RAM  2' . 

20.  Is  a  school  district  liable  for  a  teacher's  wages  incase  the 
school  is  closed  by  the  board?  The  .Sup.  Court  of  Mich,  decided  in 
a  case  where  the  school  had  been  closed  by  the  board  on  account  of 
an  epidemic  disease,  that  the  teacher  should  receive  his  pay  for  the 
time  lost. 

\m  order  unpaid  lor  want  of  funds  draws  interest  at  8  percent. 
[111.]. 

Tiie  teacher  forteits  his  wages  for  neglect  to  keep  a  school  regis- 
ter.  [Wis.]. 

21.  The  Reading  of  the  Bible  and  Religious  Exercises. — "The 
decisions  of  the  State  Department  have  uniformly  denied  the  right 
to  insist  upon  religious  exercises  of  any  kind."  [N.  Y.].  "The  law 
directs  the  committee  to  require  the  daily  reading  of  the  Bible,  but 
they  shall  require  no  scholar  to  read  from  any  particular  version, 
whose  parent  or  guardian  shall  declare  that  he  has  conscientious 
scruples  against  allowing  him  to  read  therefrom.'1  [Mass.],  The 
school  committee  may  require  the  reading  of  the  Protestant  Bible 
in  public  schools.  [Me.].  "  The  directors  have  a  right  to  dictate 
what  books  shall  be  studied  and  used,  and  can,  therefore,  order  the 
Bible  to  be  read  as  a  text-book  in  connection  with  other  studies." 
[111.].  No  statutes  prescribing  nor  prohibiting.  [Ind.,  Ky.] 
"  Neither  the  electors,  the  board  of  directors,  nor  the  sub-directors 
can  exclude  the  Bible  from  any  school  in  the  State.1"  [Iowa.].  "  The 
directors  may  compel  the  reading  of  the  Bible."  [Mo.].  The  Cin- 
cinnati Board  forbade  the  reading  of  the  Bible  in  1869;  it  went  into 
the  court  and  was  decided  against  the  Board,  but  in  1S73  tne  Sup. 
Court  of  Ohio  reversed  the  decision.  The  school  boards  of  Chicago 
and  New  Haven  have  since  followed  the  example  of  Cincinnati. 


•  ■•iiOi""" 


METHODS  IN  ARITHMETIC. 


1.  In  these  few  pages  an  exhaustive  treatise  on  Arithmetic  is 
not  expected.  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  such  suggestions  and 
forms  are  given  as  will  enable  students  to  investigate  more  fully 
the  sulijicts  treated,  and  give  them  a  means  of  working  out  for 
themselves  the  topics  not  mentioned  here.  It  is  the  aim  to  show, 
if  possible,  how  much  more  satisfactory  results  may  he  secured 
in  studying  this  important  branch,  if  more  attention  is  given  to 
principles  than  to  the  solution  of  so  ma )iv  different  problems,  or 
to  the  learning  by   rote  of  so  many  definitions  and  rules. 


METHODS    IN  ARITHMETIC.  415 

The  result  to  be  secured  by  the  study  of  this  branch  is  the  ac- 
quirement of  such  knowledge  as  may  be  brought  into  use  in  every- 
day life,  and  be  independent  of  books. 

This  can  be  secured  by  treating  each  subject  not  as  though  it 
stood  alone,  but  by  showing  its  relation  to  other  subjects,  and  then 
showing  just  how  much  t lie re  is  in  any  one  subject. 

To  develop  these  Jew  points  is  the  leading  idea  of  the  following 
pages. 

2.  Arithmetic  treats  of  quantity  as  expressed  by  a  number. 

3.  A  Number  is  a  unit  or  collection  of  units,  either  fractional 
or  integral. 

4.  A  Problem  is  a  question  proposed  for  solution. 

5.  An  Example  is  a  problem  solved. 

6.  A  Unit  is  anything  considered  as  one. 

7.  An  Abstract  number  is  one  that  represents  no  particular 
value;  as  2,  3,  5. 

8.  A  Concrete  number  is  one  that  does  represent  a  particular 
value;  as,  $2,  3  bushels,  5  pounds. 

These  few  definitions  are  given  to  answer  questions  that  arise  in  the  dif- 
ferent discussions,  and  to  explain  the  terms  used. 

FUNDAMENTAL     PROCESSES. 

9.  In  presenting  these  subjects,  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  pupil 
should  know  anything  about  numbers,  as  Counting,  Writing  Num- 
bers, Addition,  and  Subtraction,  may  be  taught  at  one  time. 

In  many  cases,  Multiplication  and  Division  are  included.  It  is 
preferable,  however,  to  make  these  two  a  separ.-ite  topic. 

It  was  not  the  intention  to  give  any  lessons  in  Primary  Arithme- 
tic, but  it  will  better  serve  the  purpose  of  the  present  discussion  to 
give  at  least  one.  This  will  illustrate  the  method  of  introducing 
any  subject. 

LESSOX     IN    PRIMARY    ARITHMETIC. 

10.  It  is  the  supposition  that  the  child  knows  nothing  about 
arithmetic.  In  teaching  it,  objects  should  be  used.  The  teacher  can 
easily  provide  himself  with  the  necessary  apparatus:  A  number  of 
pebbles,  pennies,  sticks,  or  straws,  and  some  cord  or  small  rubber 
bands. 

In  this  illustration  the  objects  are  straws.  If  the  children  have 
never  seen  any  straws,  then  take  something  else.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  the  objects  used  be  something  with  which  the  chil- 
dren are  familiar. 

Teacher. — (Holding  up  a  straw.)      What  have  I  in  my  hand? 

Pupils. — A  straw. 

Teacher. — How  many  straws  have   I? 

Perhaps  no  one  will  answer.  Usually,  however,  some  one  is 
able  to  give  a  definite  answer,  and  will  say  "  One  straw."     It  is  bet- 


41fi  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

ter  to  have  the  pupils  give  the  concrete  name  straw,  until  they  arc 
able  to  comprehend  fully  the  idea  of  a  unit.  If  they  do  not  give 
this  name,  the  tendency  is  toward  abstract  or  mechanical  work. 

Teacher. —  Who  can  make  a  mark  on  the  hoard  that  will  repre- 
sent the  number  of  straws? 

yohnny. — I  can. 

Teacher. — Johnny,  you  may  place  it  on  the  board. 

The  boy  steps  forward  and  places  a  straight  mark  on  the  board. 
It  may  be,  however,  that  no  one  will  volunteer  to  do  this.  Should 
this  be  the  case,  then  the  teacher  should  place  it  on  the  board. 
Then,  whether  the  teacher  or  child  places  this  mark  on  the  board, 
there  will  be  no  trouble  in  getting  volunteers  for  the  next. 

Teacher. — (Holding  up  a  straw  in  one  hand.)  What  have  I  in 
this  hand  ? 

Pupils. — A  straw. 

Teacher. — Who  can  make  a  character  on  the  board  representing 

it: 

|  All  hands  rise.] 

Teacher.— Mary,  you  may   place  the   character  or  figure  on   the 

board. 

Mary  steps  to  the  board  and  properly  indicates  it.  By  this  time 
each  pupil  is  anxious  to  go  to  the  board. 

Teacher.— { Holding  up  a  straw  inthe  other  hand.)  Whathave 
I  here? 

Pupils. — A  straw. 

Teacher.-  Who  can  go  to  the  board  and  make  the  figure  for  it? 

[All  hands  rise.] 

Teacher. —  Harry  may  do  so. 

Teacher.— (Holding  up  the  one  straw.)     What  have  I? 

Pupils. — A  straw. 

Teacher.— { Holding  up  the  other. )      What  have  I  ? 

Pupils. — -A  straw. 

Teacher. — How  many  straws? 

Pupils. — One  straw. 

Teacher. (Holding    both   straws   in  one    hand.)     How   many 

straws  have  I   now? 

Pupils. — Two  straws. 

Teacher.— Who  can  place  the  figure  on  the  board?  [All  hands 
rise.  | 

'Teacher. — Annie,  you  may  write  it. 

Annie  goes  to  the  board  and  places  two  straight  marks.  This 
is  natural,  and  the  teacher  should  not  correct  it  at  once. 

If  someone  of  the  pupils  should  suggest  another  way,  let  him 
place  it  on  the  board,  otherwise  the  drill  should  be  continued. 

Teacher, — ( Holding  up  one  straw  in  one  hand.)  How  many 
straws  have  I  ? 

Pupils. — One  straw. 


METHODS    TN   ARITHMETIC.  417 

Teacher. — (Holding  up  two  straws  in  the  other  hand.)     How 
many  straws  have  I  ? 

Pupils. — Two  straws. 

Teacher. — (Placing  all  the  straws  in  one   hand.)     How  many 
straws  have  I  ? 

Pupils. — Three  straws. 

Teacher. — One  straw  and  two  straws  are  how  many  straws? 

Ptipils. — Three  straws. 

Teacher. —  (Taking  one  straw  out  of  the  number.)     How  many 
straws  have  I  left? 

Pupils. — Two  straws. 

Teacher. — Three  straws  less  one  straw  are   how   many  straws? 

Pupils. — Two  straws. 

Teacher. — (Taking  out  another  straw.)       How   many  straws 
have  I  left? 

Pupils. — One  straw. 

Teacher. — Then  how  many  straws  have  I  taken  away? 

Pupils. — Two  straws. 

Teacher. — Three  straws  less  two  straws  are  how  many  straws? 

Pupils. — One  straw. 

Teacher. — (Taking  away  the  other  straw.)      How  many  straws 
have  I  left  now? 

Pupils. — No  straw. 

Teacher. — Then  three  straws  less  three  straws  are  how  many 
straws? 

Pupils. — No  straws. 

The  teacher  may  now  put  these  together  again,  asking  how 
many  one  straw  and  one  straw  are,  how  many  two  and  oneare?  etc. 

Teacher.- — Who  can  make  the  figure  on  the  board  representing 
these  three  straws?     [All  hands  rise.] 

Teacher. — Susie,  you  may  place  it  on  the  board. 

Susie  steps  to  the  board  and  makes  three  marks.  So  this  may 
be  continued  with  four,  five,  six,  seven,  eight,  and  nine,  the  children 
making  an  additional  straight  mark  for  each  additional  straw.  Con- 
tinue the  addition  and  subtraction  the  same  with  each  additional 
object. 

Teacher. — (With  nine  straws  in  one  hand  and  one  straw  in  the 
other,  holding  up  the  one  straw.)  How  many  straws  have  I  in 
this  hand? 

Pupils. — One  straw. 

Teacher. — (Holding  up  the  nine  straws.)  How  many  straws 
have  I  in  this  hand? 

Pupils. — Nine  straws. 

Teacher. — (Putting  all  together.)     How  many  straws? 

Pupils. — Ten  straws. 

Then  the  teacher  may  proceed  to  show  how  addition  and  sub- 
traction may  be  performed  with  this  number. 

27 


418  7      Jr/ZAAW  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

Teacher. Who  can    place  figures  on    the    board  to  represent 

these?     [  All  hands  rise.] 

Teacher.  -Henry,  you  may  place  them  on  the  hoard.  (Ten 
marks  are  made.)  If  by  this  time  the  pupils  have  not  learned  the 
characters,  the  teacher  may  begin  to  explain  them.  Usually,  how- 
ever,  the  pupils  will  find  out  from  either  their  parents  or  older 
brothers  and  sisters,  how  to  make  them.  .Some  one,  if  not  all,  will 
learn  this,  and  will  be  seen  privately  teaching  the  Others.  This  is 
far  better  than  for  them  to  have  to  be  told  by  the  teacher.  Chil- 
dren as  well  as  grown  persons  love  to  work  out  points  for  them- 
selves; to  find  out  something  they  can  tell  to  the  teacher.  By  giv- 
ing them  this  opportunity,  the  arduous  task  of  teaching  the  figures 
will  be   accomplished. 

Now,  in  the  course  of  instruction,  tens  have  been  reached.  The 
children  are  supposed,  at  this  stage,  to  be  able  to  make  the  nine 
digits  and  the  cipher. 

The  teacher  can  now  group  the  ten  straws  and  place  a  rubber 
band  around  them,  saying  to  the  children  that  this  is  a  group  often, 
or  one  ten,  and  that  it  is  represented  by  placing  a  figure  one  at  the 
left  of  the  order  where  the  figures  representing  the  separate  straws 
have  been  placed. 

Teacher. — (Holding  up  one  ten.)      How  many  tens  have  1? 

Pupils. — One  ten. 

Teacher. — (Holding  up  the  empty  hand.)     How  many  separate 

straws  have  I  ? 

Pupils. — None. 

The  teacher  may  now  state  that  since  the  i  representing  the  one 
ten  is  placed  at  the  left  of  the  order  where  the  figures  representing 
the  separate  straws  are  placed,  and  since  there  are  no  separate- 
straws,  then  a  cipher  is  placed  there  instead.  Now  we  have  one 
ten  and  no  separate  straws.  Then  take  the  one  ten  and  one  sepa- 
rate straw,  and  show  where  these  are  placed;  then  one  ten  and  two 
separate  straws,  one  ten  and  three,  and  so  on,  until  another  ten  is 
reached.  Continue  in  this  manner  until  nine  tens  and  ten  straw- 
are  used,  then  group  the  ten  tens,  naming  the  group  one  hundred. 
By  the  time  this  number  is  reached,  all  will  be  able  to  write  the 
numbers,  add,  and  subtract  with  great  accuracy.  By  this  means 
the  children  get  an  idea  of  numbers.  When,  for  example,  the  num- 
ber .^JS  is  placed  on  the  board,  they  see  in  it  more  than  the  abstract 
figures.  They  see  three  la  roc  groups,  two  small  groups,  and  Jive 
separate  objects. 

11.     Iii  addition  to  the  use  of  the  straws,  give  the  pupils  a  num- 
ber of  practical  problems;  such  as, — 

If  a  man's  coat  costs  $30,  his  hat  $5,  his  boots  $10,  and  his  over- 
coat $40,  how  much  doall  cost? 

If  a  slate  costs  30  cts.,  a   pencil   5  cts.,  copy-book  20  cts.,  and  a 
book  50  cts.,  how  much  do  all  cost? 


METHODS  IN  ARITHMETIC.  419 

The  children  are  now  prepared  to  see  the  steps  in  the  solution 
of  a  problem.     These  are: 

i.  Statement. 

2.  Analysis. 

3.  Synthesis. 

4.  Conclusion. 

12.  Problem. — I  have  three  cents  in  one  hand  and  four  cents  in 
the  other,  how  many  cents  have  I? 

1.  Statement. — I  have  three  cents  in  one  hand  and  four  cents 
in  the  other,  how  many  have  1? 

2.  Analysis. — As  many  cents  as  the  sum  of  three  cents  and 
four  cent^. 

3.  Synthesis. — Which  is  seven  cents. 

4.  Conclusion. — Therefore,  since  I  have  three   cents   in   one 
hand  and  four  cents  in  the  other,  I  have  seven  cents. 

The  above  is  what  is  called  the  Concrete  Method  and  is  much  better  than 
the  Abstract.  It  gives  the  pupil  an  idea  of  what  he  is  doing.  It  systematizes 
the  work. 

These  same  principles  may  be  carried  out  in  multiplication  and  division. 
In  fact,  the  object  method  may  be  used  in  presenting  every  subject. 

MULTIPLICATION. 

13.  We  will  not  take  up  the  objects  farther,  but  from  the  les- 
son already  given  will  leave  the  teacher  to  his  own  good  sense  and 
ingenuity  in  its  application. 

Multiplication  is  the  process  of  finding  the  product  of  two  or 
more  numbers. 

After  using  the  objects  to  illustrate  the  subject  and  to  teach  the 
childrc/i  to  7tiakc  a  multiplication  table  for  themselves;  and  also 
after  giving  numerous  practical  problems,  then  give  them  the  two 
fundamental  principles :' 

1 .  Reasoning  from  one  to  many. 

2.  Reasoning  from  many  to  one. 

These  are  observed  in  all  of  the  work  following. 

14.  PRINCIPLES    ILLUSTRATED. 

I.      PROBLEM. 
If  i  hat  costs  $3,  what  will  5  hats  cost? 

SOLUTION. 

1.  The  cost  of  1  hat  —  $3. 

2.  The  cost  of  5  hats  =  5  X  $3  =  $15- 
.-.     If  1  hat  costs  $3,  5  hats  will  cost  $15. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  this  we  reason  from  one  to  many. 

Note. — In  all  solutions,  number  the  equations,  but  not  the   statement  or  the  conclusion. 

II.       PROBLEM. 

If  3  hats  cost  $15,  what  will  1  hat  cost? 


i20  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

SOLUTION. 

i.     The  cost  of  3  hats  =  $15. 

8.     The  cost  of  1  hat  =  ^  of  $15  =  $5. 

.-.     If  3  hats  cost  $15,  1  hat  will  cost  $5. 

Tn  this  we  reason  from  many  to  one. 

III.       PROBLEM. — THE    TWO    PRINCIPLES    COMBINED. 

If  6  yards  of  cloth  cost  $18,  what  will  3  yards  cost? 

SOLUTION. 

1.  The  cost  of  6  yards  =  $18. 

2.  The  cost  of  1  yard  =  \  of  $18  —  $3. 

3.  The  cost  of  3  yards  =  3  X  $3  =  $9- 

.-.     If  six  yards  of  cloth  cost  $18,  3  yards  will  cost  $9. 

DIVISION. 

15.  Division  is  the  process  of  rinding  the  quotient  of  two 
numbers. 

But  little  attention  outside  of  the  object  lessons  should  be  given 
to  short  division.  This  will  be  learned  by  the  pupil  in  his  various 
computations. 

In  teaching  long  division,  the  teacher  should  know  the  process 
thoroughly,  and  then  lead  the  mind  of  the  learners  up  to  his  ideal. 

The  pupil  must  be  brought  to  do  just  as  the  teacher  does.  The 
most  difficult  thing,  perhaps,  in  division,  is  rinding  how  often  the 
divisor  is  contained  in  the  dividend.  In  our  own  computations,  we 
"  multiply  back."     For  example, — 

Divide  2862  1  by  986. 

In  this  we  see  that  9  is  contained  in  28  three  times.  We  then 
"  multiply  back,"  saying,  three  times  6  are  18;  three  times  8  are 
24,  and  1  are  25;  three  times  9  are  27,  and  2  are  29.  In  this  way 
we  determine  the  fact  that  the  first  figure  of.  the  quotient  is  not  3, 
hence  2  is  tried,  and  so  on. 

In  giving  this  process,  use  large  numbers.  At  first  such  that 
the  first  figure  of  the  divisor  is  contained  exactly  in  the  first  figure 
of  the  dividend;  thus, — 

16.     Divide  365000  by  1000. 

1000)365000(365 
3000 

6500 
6000 


5000 
5000 


The  steps  in  the  process  are: — 
1st,  Divide.     2d,  Multiply.     3d,  Subtract.    4th,  Place  the  next 
figure    of  the    dividend    at    the    right  of  the   remainder.     Again, 
Divide,  Multiply,  Subtract, place  another  figure,  and  so  repeat. 


METHODS   IN  ARITHMETIC.  421 

After  the  children  arc  familiar  with  the  process,  take  a  problem 
i  the  following : 

Divide  2664000  by  12000. 

12000)2664000(222 
24000 

26400 
24000 


24000 
24000 


Show  them  that  not  only  is  the  first  figure  of  the  divisor  con- 
tained in  the  first  figure  of  the  dividend,  but  the  first  two  figures  of 
the  divisor  are  contained  in  the  first  two  figures  of  the  dividend. 

Again, 


Divide  160000  by  250. 


250)160000(640 
1500 


1000 
1000 


00 

In  this  the  idea  of  "  multiplying  back  "  is  seen. 

Continue  this  process  until  the  children  are  thoroughly  familiar 
with  it.  After  they  are  thoroughly  acquainted  with  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication,  and  division,  they  are  then  ready  for  more 
difficult  subjects.  Usually  these  subjects  are  passed  over  too  rapidly. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  pupils  on  these  too  long.  The  skill- 
ful teacher  will  make  new  problems  and  vary  the  exercises  so  that 
the  work  will  not  become  monotonous.  Upon  these  depends  every- 
thing else.  Understanding  these  thoroughly,  the  child  can  take 
tip  any  other  subject  alone,  and  master  it. 

Thus  far  no  mention  has  been  made  of  the  rules.  If  such  a  thing  as  a 
rule  is  necessary,  the  pupil  may  be  taught  to  deduce  it  from  the  processes  given. 

17.  Before  leaving  these  fundamental  processes  some  short 
methods  should  be  given. 

1.  For  example: — To  square  a  number  ending  in  5,  as  25.  Multiply  the 
units  together  and  place  the  result  in  the  product.  Increase  the  tens  of  the 
multiplicand  by  1,  and  multiply  it  by  the  tens  of  the  multiplier,  and  place  the 
result  in  the  product. 

Operation.     Square  35. 
35   X  35.— Five  times  5     ='       25. 
Three  times  4  =  12. 

Result,  1225 

Square  55. 

Five  times  5  =        25. 
Five  times  6  =:    30 

Result,  3025 


422  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LI  BR  ART. 

ii.     Multiply  65  by  45. 

1.  If  the  sum  of  the  tens  is  even,  multiply  the  units  together  and  place 
the  result  in  the  product.  Then  multiply  the  tens  together  and  to  their  product 
add  half  the  sum  of  the  tens. 

j.     If  the  sum  of  the  tens  is  not  even,  to  the  product  of  the  units  add  50 
and  place  the  result  in  the  product.     To  the  product  of  the  tens  add  half  of 
their  sum  diminished  by  1,  and  place  the  result  in  the  product. 
65  X  45-     The  sum  of  the  tens  is  even. 
Five  times  5  =      25. 

Four  times  6  -|-  5  =  29 

Result,     =     2925. 

65  X  S5.     The  sum  of  the  tens  is  even. 
Five  times  5  —       25. 

Eight  times  6  +  7  =  55 

Result,     =     5525. 

65  X  35-     The  sum  of  the  tens  is  odd. 
Five  times  5  -f-  50  =      75. 
Five  times  4  -f-    4  =  24 


Result,     =     2475 

in.     To  multiply  any  number  by  any  other  number. 

23i2X343=79°7°4- 
Explanation: — 

1.  2  times  2=4.     Place  this  in  the  result. 
2     "       1  =  2. 

2.  -U    "      2=8. 
8   -f-    2  =  10.     Place  the  cipher  in  the  result. 

2  times  3=6.     6-(-i  from  previous  step=7- 

4     "        I=4- 

3  "       2=6. 

7-1-44-6=17.  Place  7  in  the  result. 

2  times  2=4.  -4— |—  1  from  previous  step=5> 

,4     "       3=i2. 
4^3     «        i=3. 

(^  ^-|- 1 2-1-3= 20.     Place  cipher  in  the  result. 

!4  times  2=8.     8-(-2  from  previous  steps=io. 
3     "       3=9- 
104-9=19.     Place  9  in  the  result. 
6.      3  times  2  =  6.     6+1  from  previous  step=7. 
Result=7oo704. 

In  this  the  following  process  will  be  observed:  1.  Multiply  the  units  by 
the  units.  2.  Multiply  the  tens  of  the  multiplicand  by  the  units  of  the  multi- 
plier, to  this  add  the  product  of  the  units  of  the  multiplicand  by  the  tens  of  the 
multiplier.  3.  Multiply  the  hundreds  of  the  multiplicand  by  the  units  of  the 
multiplier;  to  this  add  the  product  of  the  tens  of  the  multiplicand  by  the  tens  of 
the  multiplier,  and  to  this  add  the  product  of  the  units  of  the  multiplicand  by 
the  hundreds  of  the  multiplier. 

This  process  of  following  one  after  another,  and  the  rapidity  of 
the  additions,  is  what  makes  this  a  short  method. 

These  are  presented,  not  because  they  are  much  used,  but 
because  they  furnish  a  means  of  varying  the  exercises,  thus  avoid- 
ing monotony. 

The  same  idea  may  be  carried  into  division. 


METHODS  IN  ARITHMETIC.  423 

In  the  main,  the  work  thus  far  will  be  the  same  in  both  Mental  and  Written 
Arithmetic.     For  a  time  the  subject  of  Mental  Arithmetic  will  be  taken  up. 

MENTAL    ARITHMETIC. 

18.  One  great  difficulty  in  this  subject  is  in  the  fact  that  too 
many  problems  are  solved  and  too  few  principles  learned. 

It  shall  be  the  object  to  show  how  all  of  the  different  cases 
cluster  about  a  few  principles. 

Referring  to  the  two  principles  already  given,  namely,  reasoning 
from  many  to  one,  anil  from  one  to  many;  and  to  the  illustrations 
given,  we  have,  for  example: — 

i.     If  i  coat  costs  $15,  what  will  3  coats  cost? 

1.  The  cost  of  1  coat=$i5- 

2.  The  cost  of  3  coats=3X$i5=$45. 

.-.  If  i  coat  costs  $15,  3  coats  will  cost  $45. 

11.  If  3  hats  cost  $18,  what  will  1  hat  cost? 

1.  The  cost  of  3  hats  =  $iS. 

2.  The  cost  of  1  hat=«4  of  $iS=$6. 

.•.     If  3  hats  cost  $iS,  one  hat  will  cost  $6. 

These  same  principles  are  seen  in  the  two  following  problems:— 

I.  3^  of  $12  is  my  money,  how  much  have  I  ? 

1.  |  =  $12. 

2.  %  =  \{    Of  $12  =  $3. 

3-     3/=3x$3  =  $9- 

.-.     If  =X  ot  $12  *s  mJ  money,  I  have  $9. 

II.  $12  is  3^"  of  my  money,  how  much  have  I  ? 

|=mv  money. 
1.     #=$12. 

2-       M-=Vi     Of   $I2  =  $4. 

3.  f=4X$4  =  $i6. 

.-.     If  $12  is  }{  of  my  money,  I  have  $16. 

Remembering  that  the  unit  of  a  fraction  is  the  thing  divided,  and 
that  the  fractional  it //it  is  one  of  the  parts,  then  we  reason  from 
many  fractional  units  to  one,  and  from  one  fractional  unit  to  many. 

Let  the  children  understand  these  principles  thoroughly,  and 
they  will  be  able  to  master  any  problem  as  far  as  Algebraic 
questions. 

19.  Call  the  first  two  exercises  given  the  1st  and  2d  princi- 
ples, because  all  others  are  based  upon  these;  and  the  3d  and  4th 
problems  the  1st  and  2d  illustrations.  The  teacher  can  give  exer- 
cises and  require  the  pupils  to  give  the  principles  or  illustrations  by 
which  each  step  is  solved. 

Problems  for  illustration: 

1.     y^  of  18  are  s{  of  how  many? 

Teacher. — Class,  by  which  principle  or  illustration  is  the  first  part  of  this 
problem  solved? 

Class. — First  illustration. 

Teacher.— Charlie,  vou  may  give  this  part. 

Charlie.— \.      f=i8. 

2.  '/i='/}  of  iS=6. 

3.  .-. .     ^=2x6=12 


424  TEAi  HERS  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

Teacher.— 'According  to  which  principle  or  illustration  is  the  second  part 

solved? 

Class. — Second  illustration. 
Teacher. — Mary,  you  may  solve  it. 
Marx.—  \z  i-  u\  of  what? 

a.      |=  the  number. 

I.      tf  =  I2. 

-•     ,X  =  '/i  of  I2=4- 

4-      -J=4X4  =  '6- 

.-.      12  is  34'  ot    1 6. 

2.  }{  of  20  is  I  of  what? 

Teacher.— Class,  according  to  which  principle  or  illustration  is  the  first  part 
of  this  problem  solved? 

Class. — First  illustration. 
Teacher. — Hattie,  you  may  give  it. 
1 1  at  tic— \.       4=20. 

2.  %=%  of  20=5. 

3.  ^=3X5=15. 

Teacher. — Class,  according  to  which  principle  or  illustration  is  the  second 

part  solved? 

Class. — The  second  illustration. 
Teacher. — Willie,  you  may  solve  it. 
Willie. — a.       £=  the  number. 

1.     1=15. 

-•     *=Kofi5=5. 

3:    1=5X5=25-    r 

.-.     %  of  20  is  §  of  25. 

3.  -|  of  30  are  S  of  how  many  times  |  of  9  ? 

Teacher. Clas6,  according  to  which  problem  or  illustration  is  the  first  part 

of  this  solved? 

Class. — First  illustration. 
Teacher. — Mary,  you  may  solve  it. 

Mary  rises  and  gives  the  solution  as  in  the  previous  examples. 
Teacher.     Class,  according  to  which  principle  or  illustration  is 
the  second  part  solved P 

Class. — The  second  illustration. 
Teacher. — Annie,  you  may  give  it. 
Annie  rises  and  gives  the  solution. 
Teacher*— The  last  part? 
Class. — The  first  illustration. 
Teacher. — Jennie,  you  may  give  it. 
Jennie  rises  and  gives  it. 
Teacher. — Class,  what  is  the  next  step? 
Class. — As  many  times  7  as  seven  is  contained  in  35,  or  5  times. 

.-.     \  of  v  arL"  ~  °f  5  times  I  of  9. 

Letthi  teacher  continue  to  give  problems  illustrating  these  principles  and  illustrations 
until  each  child  fully  comprehends  them,  and  it  will  have  moreoj  mmt.it arithmetic -that  it  can 
KM  in  prm  ti<  al  Itftiai  more  than  it  it  had  solved  thousands  of  problems  without  detecting  these 
priiu  i/ 1    . 

ALGEBRAIC     PROBLEMS. 

20.  In  addition  to  the  principles  already  learned,  when  this 
Bubjed  w  reached,  one  more  must  be  learned,  and  that  is,  all  quan- 
tities must  be  found  in  terms  of  one  quantity.     We  shall  now  pro- 


METHODS  IN  ARITHMETIC.  42C 

ceed  to  give  the  solution  of  one  problem  in  each  of  the  different 
cases  found  in  mental  arithmetic. 

i.  If  ^  of  the  time  past  noon  equals  f  of  the  time  from  noon  to  mid- 
night, what  is  the  hour? 

If  I4  of  the  time  past  noon=^  of  the  time  from  now  to  midnight. 

11      1/    (I  ll  II  it  tl        —1/     i<        (I  it  II  u        it  it 

It  4    (I  U  It  14  11  4       11  U  11  11  U  U  11 

4"  —    ¥ 

We  now  have  the  time  past  noon  in  terms  of  the  time  from  now  to  mid- 
night.    The  time  from  now  to  midnight=§  of  itself. 

%  of  the  time  from  now  to  midnight-f-f  of  the  time  from  now  to  mid- 
night, or  the  time  past  noon  =  18^  of  the  time  from  now  to  midnight,  or  the 
whole  time  from  noon  to  midnight,  or  12  hours. 

^  of  the  time  from  now  to  midnight=i2  hours. 
y%   "     "       "         "         "      "         "  =1^of  12  hours  =  i  hour. 

*  "     «       "        "        "      "        "         or  the  time  past  noon=4  xi  hour =4 
hours. 

.-.  If  ^  of  the  time  past  noon  equals  y%  of  the  time  from  now  to  mid- 
night, the  hour  is  4  P.  M. 

2.  %  of  the  time  past  10  A.  M.,  equals  -4-  of  the  time  from  now  to  mid- 
night, what  is  the  time  of  day? 

If  I  of  the  time  past  io=|  of  the  time  from  now  to  midnight. 
\  of  the  time  past  io=£  of  the  time  from  now  to  midnight. 
I  of  the  time  past  io=§  of  the  time  from  now  to  midnight. 
We  now  have  the  time  past  10  o'clock  in  terms  of  the  time  from   now  to 
midnight.     The  time  from  now  to  midnight  =  |  of  itself. 

I  of  the  time  from  now  to  midnight-)-|  of  the  time  from  now  to  mid- 
night, or  the  time  past  10  o'clock^1^  of  the  time  from  now  to  midnight,  or  the 
whole  time  from  10  to  midnight,  or  14  hours. 

^  =  14  hours. 

^=^3-  of  i4hours=i  hour. 

|  =  5  X'i  hour=5  hours  past  10  o'clock,  or  3  P.  M. 

.-.  If  I  of  the  time  past  10  A.  M.  equals  %  of  the  time  from  now  to  mid- 
night the  time  is  3  P.  M. 

It  will  be  observed  that  these  Time  Problems  are  divided  into 
two  classes.  One  is  illustrated  by  the  problems  above.  The  other 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  following:— 

1.  i£  of  the  time  past  noon  equals  T3ff  of  the  time  past  midnight,  what  is 
the  hour? 

If  i+'  of  the  time  past  noon=T\  of  the  time  past  midnight. 
%  of  the  time  past  noon  =  I1ff  of  the  time  past  midnight. 
\  of  the  time  past  noon=T\  of  the  time  past  midnight. 
We  now  have  the  time  past  noon  in  terms  of  the   time   past   midnight. 
The  time  past  midnight=U  of  itself. 

I I  of  time  past  midnight — T4ff  of  the  time  past  midnight,  or  the  time  past 
noon= If  of  the  time  past  midnight,  or  the  whole  time  from  midnight  to  noon 
or  12  hours. 

\\  of  the  time  past  midnight=i2  hours. 
j1,!  of  the  time  past  midnight  —  ^  of  12  hours=i  hour. 
T4ff  of  the  time  past  midnight=4Xi  hour=4  hours  time  past  noon. 
.-.   If  i{  of  the  time  past  noon  equals  T45  of  the  time  past   midnight,   the 
hour  is  4  P.  M. 

It  will  be  unnecessary  to  give  further  illustrations  of  these 
questions.  Closely  allied  to  these  are  what  are  called  the  "  Clock 
Questions."  First  we  will  make  a  table  by  which  all  such  ques- 
tions may  be  solved. 


426 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LI  BR  ART 


Table.  \ 


Call  each  minute  a  space. 

While  the  hour  hand  passes  over  5  spaces, 
the  minute  hand  passes  over  60  spaces. 

While  the  hour  hand  passes  over  1  space, 
the  minute  hand  passes  over  \  of  60  spaces 
or  12  spaces.  12  spaces — 1  space =11  spaces 
gained  by  minute  hand  while  the  hour  hand 
is  passing  over  1  space. 

11  spaces  of  minute  hand  gained  requires 
1  space  of  hour  hand;  1  space  of  minute  hand 
gained  requires  fa  space  of  hour  hand. 


We  arc  now  prepared  to  solve  any  problem  of  this   kind. 
following  is  an  example: — 


The 


1.  At  what  time  between  4  and  5  o'clock  are  the  hour  and  minute  hands 
together  ? 

It  will  be  seen  that  when  the  hour  hand  is  at  4  the  minute  hand 
will  be  at  12;  hence  the  minute  hand  must  gain  20  spaces  on  the 
hour  hand.     From  the  table: — 

1  space  gained  by  min.  hand  requires  fa  space  of  hour  hand. 
20  spaces  gained  by  min.  hand  requires  20Xxx  sPace  °f  hour   hand=i^ 
spaces  of  hour  hand. 

20  spaces-)- 1 T9T  spaces— 21 ,9r  spaces,  or  2iT9T  min.  past  4. 

.-.  The  hour  and  minute  hands  are  together  at  21  X  min.  past  4. 

2.  At  what  time  between  5  and  6  o'clock  are  the  hour  and  minute  hands 
together? 

In  this  the  minute  hand  must  gain  25  spaces.  From  the 
table : — 

1  space  gained  by  minute  hand  requires  fa  space  of  hour  hand. 
25  spaces  gained  by  minute  hand  requires  2$  =  j\  space  of  hour   hands 
2j8T  spaces  of  hour  hand. 

25  spaces-|-2  j3r  spaces=27/T  spaces,  or  27^  minutes  past  5  o'clock. 
.-.  The  hour  and  minute  hands  are  togetlu  r  at  27A  minutes  past  5. 

3.  At  what  time  between  2  and  3  o'clock  will  the  hour  hand  and  minute 
hand  be  at  right  angles? 

To  be  at  right  angles  the  minute  hand  must  be  15  spaces  from 
the  hour  hand,  hence  it  must  gain  25  spaces.      From  the  table; — 

1  space  gained  by  the  minute  hand  requires  -^  space  of  hour  hand. 

25  spaces  gained  by  the  minute  hand  requires  25XXT  sPace  ot  hour  hand, 
or  2-jaf  spaces. 

25  Bpaces-f-2A  spaces  =  2  7 /Y  spaces,  or  27,^-  minutes  past  2  o'clock. 

.•.  Tin-  hour  and  minute  hands  will   be   at   right  angles  at  27-^  minutes 
past  2  o'clock. 

|.      At  what  time  between  2  and  3  o'clock  are  the   hour  and    minute  hands 

opposite? 

To  be  opposite,  the  hour  and  minute  hands  must  he  30  spaces 
apart.  To  be  30  spaces  apart  after  2  o'clock,  the  minute  hand 
must  gain  40  spaces  on  the  hour  hand.     From  the  table: — 

1  space  gained  by  minute  hand  requires  ^  space  of  hour  hand. 


METHODS  IN  ARITHMETIC.  427 

40  spaces  gained  by  minute  hand  requires  40X7X  space  of  hour  hand=r 
3-jSj  spaces  of  hour  hand. 

40  spaces-(-3T7T  spaces=4317T  spaces,  or  4317T  minutes  past  2  o'clock. 

.•.  The  hour  and  minute  hands  are  opposite  at  43T7T  minutes  past  2 
o'clock. 

From  these  it  will  be  seen  that  after  the  table  is  prepared,  the 
solution  of  the  problem  is  a  very  easy  task.  This  further  illustrates 
the  statement  made  at  first,  that  a  principle  by  which  a  number  of 
problems  may  be  solved  is  of  far  greater  value  than  many  prob- 
lems. Many  other,  and  different  kinds  of  problems  should  be  given 
under  each  one  of  these  heads.  , 

AGE    PROBLEMS. 

21.  The  following  represents  another  class  of  problems. 
When  A  was  married,  he  was  23^  times  as  old  as  his  wife.  After 
they  had  been  married  20  years,  he  was  1  y2  times  as  old  as  she 
was.     What  were  their  ages  when  they  were  married? 

1.  Let  1  time  the  wife's  age=her  age  at  marriage. 

2.  Then  2 yz  times  the  wife's  age= A's  age  at  marriage. 

3.  1  time  the  wife's  age-)-20  years=her  age  after  20  years. 

4.  2  >£  times  the  wife's  age-)-2o  years= A's  age  after  20  years. 

5.  2*2  or  \  times  the  wife's  age-f-20  years=i  ^  or  |X(i  time  the  wife's  age 
-)-20  years.) 

6.  §  times  the  wife's  age-j-20  years=|  times  the  wife's  age-{-30  years. 

7.  \  times  the  wife's  age=f  times  the  wife's  age=3o  years — 20  years.-. 

8.  1  time  the  wife's  age— 10  years.     Her  age  at  marriage. 

9.  zy2  times  the  wife's  age=25  years.     A's  age  at  marriage. 

Running  through  these  problems  is  seen  the  principle,  "Find 
all  in  terms  of  one  quantity." 

FISH    QUESTIONS. 

22.  The  head  of  a  fish  is  20  inches.  The  tail  is  as  long  as  the 
head  and  y2  the  length  of  the  body ;  and  the  body  is  as  long  as  the 
head  and  tail ;  required  length  of  the  fish. 

1.  20  in.=length  of  the  head. 

2.  20  m.-\-Y2  the  length  of  body  =  length  of  tail. 

3.  20  in.-4-20  in.-|-^  length  of  body=length  of  body. 

4.  If  to  y2  the  length  of  body  20  in.-j-2o  in.,  or  40  in.,  must  be  added  to 
equal  the  length  of  the  body,  then 

5.  yz  the  length  of  body=40  in. 

6.  f  or  the  length  of  bo'dy=2  X40  in.=8o  in. 

7.  2oin.-(-40  in.=6o  in.  length  of  tail. 

8.  20  in.-(-8o  in.-f6o  in.=i6o  in.  length  of  fish. 

2.  The  head  of  a  fish  weighs  30  lbs.;  the  tail  weighs  as 
much  as  the  head  and  3/3  of  the  weight  of  the  body;  and  the  body 
weighs  as  much  as  the  head  and  tail.  What  is  the  weight  of  the 
fish? 


428  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

i.    30  lbs. = weight  of  the  head. 

2.     30  lbs.-f-2^  of  weight  of  body  =  weight  of  tail. 
j.     30  lbs.4-30  lbs.-|-%  of  weight  of  body  =  weight  of  body. 
4.     If  to  J$  of  weight  of  body  30  lbs.-]~3o  lbs.  must  be  added  to  equal  weight 
of  body,  then 

'.  ol  weight  of  body =60  lbs. 

I  or  weight  of  body  =  3X60  lbs.  =  180  lbs. 

7.  30  lbs.-f-ino  lbs.=  i5o  lbs.  weight  of  tail. 

8.  30  lbs.-j-iSo  lbs  .-(-150  lbs.=36o  lbs.  weight  of  fish. 

FOX     QUESTIONS. 

23.  A  fox  is  90  leaps  in  advance  of  a  hound.  The  fox  takes  8 
leaps  to  the  hound's  6,  but  2  of  the  hound's  leaps  equal  5  of  the 
fox's.     How  many  leaps  must  the  hound  take  to  catch  the  fox? 

1.  The  hound  takes  6  leaps  to  the  fox's  S  leaps. 

2.  The  hound  takes  1  leap  to  the  fox's  ^  leap. 

3.  2  of  the  hound's  leaps— 5  of  the  fox's  leaps. 

3.  1  of  the  hound's  leaps=2>£  of  the  fox's  leaps. 

4.  2%  or  4  of  the  fox's  leaps — £  of  the  fox's  leaps=£  of  the  fox's  leaps. 

6.  It  is  evident  that  for  every  leap  the  hound  takes  he  gains  J  of  a  fox's 
leap. 

7.  I  of  the  fox's  leaps  gained  requires  1  leap  of  the  hound. 

8.  ,V  of  the  foxes  leaps  gained  requires  i  leap  of  the  hound. 

9.  J  or  1  of  the  fox's  leaps  gained  requires  5  leap  of  the  hound. 

10.     90  of  the  fox's  leaps  gained  requires  90X  ?  leap  of  the  hound=78$  leaps 
of  the  hound. 


24.  We  shall  not  continue  this  subject  farther.  The  principles 
are  illustrated.  It  will  now  be  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  furnish 
numerous  practical  problems,  which  will  have  a  tendency  to  fix 
these  principles  indelibly  in  the  mind.  Let  the  pupil  know  these 
and  be  able  to  use  them,  and  the  entire  subject  of  Mental  Arithmetic 
is  mastered.  It  may  be  well  to  say  that  the  subject  of  Mental 
Arithmetic  is  too  much  neglected  in  many  of  our  schools.  It 
should  form  an  important  factor  in  the  study  of  Arithmetic. 

Of  course  what  is  given  here  is  a  mere  outline  of  the  work. 
The  teacher  must  be  full  of  illustrations,  problems,  and  solutions. 
None  nl  these  should  be  worked  out  by  himself,  but  he  should  so 
use  his  ingenuity  as  to  bring  them  all  out  of  the  pupils. 

This  is  the  great  secret  of  the  successful  teacher. 

After  the  children  are  well  versed  in  good  methods  of  solution, 
then  let  them  solve  the  problems  in  the  shortest  -possible  time.  The 
teacher  need  nol  require  anything  but  the  answer.  But,  until  the 
subjects  and  principles  are  mastered,  he  should  insist  that  the  full 
demonstrations  he  given. 

PRACTICAL    ARITHMETIC. 

25.  The  subject  of  Practical  Arithmetic  will  now  be  resumed, 
beginning  with  Factoring.  Before  this  subject  is  reached,  it  is 
supposed  that  the  teacher  has  given,  in  addition  to  the  fundamental 


METHODS  IN  ARITHMETIC.  42i> 

principles,  a  thorough  drill  in  Cancellation ;  has  shown  the  pupils 
the  different  results  occasioned  by  the  different  operations  on  the 
dividend  and  divisor,  etc. 

DEFINITIONS. 

26.  I.  A  Factor  is  a  divisor. 

2.  Any  number  may  be  factored. 

3.  A  prime  factor  is  one  that  cannot  be  divided  by  any 
other  integral  number  excepting  itself  and  unity  and  give  an 
integral  quotient. 

4.  A  divisor  of  two  or  more  numbers  is  a  divisor  of  their 
sum. 

5.  A  divisor  of  two  or  more  numbers  is  a  divisor  of  their 
difference. 

6.  A  divisor  of  a  number  is  a  divisor  of  any  multiple  of 
that  number. 

7.  A  divisor  of  two  numbers  is  a  divisor  of  their  remain- 
der after  division. 

8.  The  Greatest  Common  Divisor  of  any  set  of  numbers 
is  the  greatest  number  that  will  divide  each  of  the  numbers  and 
give  an  integral   quotient. 

FACTORING. 

27.  Teacher. — Class,  in  division,  what  did  we  call  the  number 
by  which  we  divided? 

Class. — The  divisor. 

Teacher. — What  did  we  call  the  result? 

Class. — The  quotient. 

Teacher. — To  what  did  we  compare  the  divisor  and  quotient? 

Class. — To  the  multiplicand  and  multiplier  in  multiplication. 

Teacher.— In  multiplication,  what  did  we  call  the  multiplicand 
and  multiplier? 

Class. — The  factors. 

Teacher. — Then  what  are  the  divisor  and   quotient? 

Class. — The  factors  of  the  dividend. 

Teacher. — If  the  divisor  and  quotient  are  factors,  what  is  a 
factor  ? 

Class. — The  divisor  or  the  quotient. 

Teacher. — Then  a  factor  of  a  number  is  what? 

Class. — Any  number  that  will  divide  it. 

Teacher. — In  division,  sometimes  the  divisor  was  not  exactly 
contained  in  the  dividend;  then,  what  did  we  have? 

Class. — A  remainder. 

Teacher. — Can  any  number  be  factored? 

Class. — It  can. 

Teacher. — What  are  the  factors  of  6? 

Class. — 2  and  3. 

Teacher. — What  are  the  factors  of  7? 


430  TEACHERS1   AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 

Class. — 2  and  y/2. 

Teacher. — Is  $%  a  factor? 

Class. — Yes. 

Teacher.— Why? 

Class. — Because  it  is  a  divisor  of  7. 

Teacher. — Can   you  factor  7  so  that  each  factor  will  be   an  in- 


: 


C'Ar.v.v. — We  cannot. 

Teacher. Can  von  think   of  any  other  number  that  cannot  be 

factored  so  that  the  factors  will  be  integers? 
Class. — 5,  11,  13. 
Teacher. — What  shall  we  call  such  numbers? 

Perhaps  no  one  may  be  able  to  answer  this  question.  If  it  is  not  answered, 
it  may  be  leftover  untifthe  next  day.  If  then  it  is  not  answered,  the  teacher 
can  sav,  "  We  will  call  such  numbers  prime  numbers."  In  the  large  majority 
of  cases,  the  question  will  be  answered  by  the  children. 

Teacher. — Then  what  do  we  call  such  numbers  as  cannot  be> 
separated  into  integral  factors? 

Class. — Prime  numbers. 

Teacher. — What,  then,  is  a  prime  number? 

Class. — A  prime  number  is  one  that  cannot  be  divided  by  any 
other  integral  number  excepting  itself  and  unity  and  give  an  in- 
tegral quotient;  or,  a  prime  number  is  one  that  cannot  be  separated 
into  integral  factors. 

Of  course.it  is  not  expected  that  the  few  questions  given  here  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  bring  out  all  of  these  answers  so  promptly.  Yet  enough  are  given  to 
show  how  a  subject  may  be  developed. 

Teacher. — Suppose   we   should   divide  by  one  of   these    prime 
numbers,  what  would  we  call  it? 
Class. — A  prime  factor. 
Teacher. — Then  what  is  a  prime  factor? 
Class. — A  prime  factor  is  the  same  as  a  prime  number. 

The  teacher  may  now  explain  that  in  Factoring,  as  well  in  the  Least  Com- 
mon Multiple  and  the  Greatest  Common  Divisor,  and  in  fact  wherever  we 
u  factors  for  any  other  purpose  than  as  they  are  used  in  simple  division,  we 
refer  to  prime  factors.  This  one  lesson  will  be  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  man- 
ner  In  which  each  new  subject  should  be  developed.  Let  the  children  see  its 
relation  with  something  they  have  passed  over,  and  they  will  soon  begin  to  rea- 
son and  think  tor  themselves. 

GRK  \  II   ST    COMMON    DIVISOR. 

28.     1.  Find  the  (J.  C.  D.  of  12,18,  24. 

The  prime  factors  of  12  are  2,  2,  and  3. 
The  prime  factors  of  1 8  are  2,  3,  and  3. 
The  prime  factors  of  24  are  2,  2,  2,  and  3. 
The  prime  factors  that  are  common  to  all  are  2  and  3.     Their 
product,  which  is  6,  is  the  G.  C.  D. 


METHODS   IN  ARITHMETIC.  431 

2.  Find  the  G.  C.  D.  of  15,  20,  25,  and  30. 
The  prime  factors  of  15  are  3  and  5. 
The  prime  factors  of  20  arc  2,  2,  and  5. 
The  prime  factors  of  25  are  5,  and  5. 
The  prime  factors  of  30  are  2,  3,  and  5. 
The   prime  factor   which   is  common  to  all  is  5,  hence   5  is  the 
G.  CD. 

With  small  numbers  this  method  is  preferable.  With  large 
numbers,  it  is  easier  to  use  the  method  of  dividing  the  greater  num- 
ber by  the  less,  and  that  divisor  by  the  last  remainder,  etc. 

This  method  may  be  understood  by  observing  the  following: 

1.  The  numbers  of  which  we  are  to  find  the  G.  C.  D.  are  dif- 
ferent; that  is,  we  do  not  wish  to  find  the  G.  C.  D.  of  12,  12,  12, 
but  of  different  numbers. 

2.  The  G.  C.  D.  cannot  be  greater  than  the  lesser  number. 

3.  If  the  lesser  number  contains  the  G.  C.  D.  once  and  no 
more,  the  greater  number  must  contain  it  at  least  twice;  it  may 
contain  it  any  number  of  times,  but  must  contain  it  twice;  hence  the 
G.  C.  D.  of  two  numbers  is  always  a  divisor  of  their  differences,  or 
their  remainder  after  division,  and  can  never  be  greater  than  either. 

Find  the  G.  C.  D.  of  12  and  20. 
i2^2of  1  If  12  were  the  G.  C.  D.,  it  would  be  necessary 

1 2  for  it  to  be  contained  in    20   at   least  twice, 

also  in  their    difference   once.     Since  this  is 

8)12(1  not  the  case,  and   since  the  G.  C.  D.   cannot 

S  be  greater  than   the  difference  of  the  num- 

To/  bers,  then    the    G.  C.  D.   cannot   be  greater 

o  than  S.     We  then  take  8  and    12,  and  so  con- 

tinue  until  we  find  that  4  contains  itself  and 

is  contained   integrally  in  S  more  than  once,  and  that  it  is  integrally 
contained  in  the  difference  of  the  numbers  S  and  4;  hence  it  is  the 

G.  C.  D. 

29.     This  may  be  further  illustrated   by  means  of  the  following 

problems : — 

A  man  has  a  piece  of  land,  the  sides  of  which  are  12,20,  and  2S 
feet  respectively.  He  wishes  to  fence  it  with  boards  of  equal  length; 
what  is  the  greatest  possible  length  of  the  boards? 

The  first  supposition  is  that  the  grea test  length  the  boards  can 
be  is  12  ft.  But  when  this  measurement  is  applied  to  the  side  that 
is  20  ft.,  there  is  a  remainder  of  8  ft.  .Since  this  remainder  must  be 
fenced  with  the  same  length  of  boards  as  any  other  part,  the  boards 
cannot  be  longer  than  8  ft.  The  second  supposition  is  that  the 
greatest  length  the  boards  can  have  is  8  ft.;  but  when  this  measure- 
ment isappiicd  to  the  side  that  is  12  ft.  in  length,  there  is  a  remainder 
of  4  ft.  Since  this  remainder  must  be  fenced  with  the  same  length 
of  boards  as  any  other  part,  the  boards  cannot  be  longer  than  4  ft. 
The  third  supposition  is  that   the    greatest    length   the  boards   can 


TEACHERS    AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

have  is  \  ft.  When  this  measurement  is  applied  to  the  first  re- 
mainder, S  ft.,  the  measurement  is  exact,  and  since  this  measures 
I  ft.  and  S  ft.,  it  will  measure  their  sum,  according  to  the  principle. 
And  since  it  measures  8  ft.  and  12  ft.  it  will  measure  their  sum,  20 
ft.  Hence  4  ft.  is  the  greatest  possible  length  of  boards  that  will 
W\\^<j  the  two  sides,  which  are  12  ft.  and  20  ft.  This  measurement 
is  now  applied  to  the  side  that  is  2S  ft.  Of  this  it  is  found  to  be  an 
exact  measure.  Hence  the  greatest  length  of  boards  that  will 
fence  the  piece  of  land,  and  all  to  be  of  the  same  length,  is  4  it. 

This  idea  may  he  further  developed  in  the  solution  of  other 
practical  problems. 

LEAST    COMMON    MULTIPLE. 

30.  As  in  Factoring,  so  in  this  a  preliminary  drill  would  be 
necessary. 

This  drill  would  suggest  the  following: — 

1.  Definition. — The  L.  C.  M.  of  any  set  of  numbers  is  the 
least  number  that  will  contain  each  of  the  given  numbers  and  give 
an  integral   quotient. 

2.  Principle. — No  number  will  contain  another  number  integ- 
rally unless  it  contains  all  the  prime  factors  of  that  number. 

Find  the  L.  C.  M.  of  15,  iS,  21,  25,  and  26. 

From  the  definition,  the  L.  C.  M.  must  contain  each  of  these 
numbers  integrally.  For  convenience,  we  begin  with  the  largest 
number,  since  the  L.  C.  M.  cannot  be  less  than  the  largest  number. 

Teacher'. — Are  there  any  prime  factors  found  in  25  not  found 
in  26? 

Class. — 5  and  5. 

Teacher. —  What  shall  be  done  with  these? 

Class. —  Place  them  as  factors  of  the  L.  C.  M. 

Teacher. — Why  ? 

Class. — Because  the  principle  is  that  no  number  will  contain 
another  number  integrally  unless  it  contains  all  the  prime  factors  of 
that  number. 

Teacher. — Are  there  any  factors  in  21  not  found  in  2501"  26? 

C/ass. — 3  and  7. 

Teacher. — What  shall  be  done  with  these? 

Class. — Place  them  as  factors  of  the  L.  C.  M. 

7'f  acher. — Why  ? 

Class. —  Because  of  the  principle  just  given. 

Teacher.  -Are  there  any  prime  factors  in  iS,  not  found  in  any 
of  the  preceding  numbers? 

Class.  —One  factor,  3. 

Teacher. — But  the  factors  of  iS  arc  2,  3,  3;  why  not  use  all? 

Class. — Because  2  is  found  in  26,  and  3  is  found  in  21  and  these 
factors  have  already  been  used;  and  according  to  the  preliminary 
drill  which  you  gave  us,  in  order  to  have  the  least  common  multiple, 


METHODS   IN   ARITHMETIC.  433 

the  different  prime  factors  need  to  be  used  only  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  times  they  occur  in  any  one  number.  By  using  the  3,  then, 
the  product  will  contain  all  of  the  prime  factors  of  18. 

Teacher. — Are  there  ary  prime  factors  in  15,  not  found  in  any 
of  the  preceding  numbers? 

Class.— There  are  none. 

Teacher. — What  then  will  be  the  factors  of  the  L.  C.  M.? 

Class. — 2,  13,  5,  5,  3,  7,  3.  Their  product  is  40950,  the  L.  C. 
M.  of  15,  18,  21,  25,  and  26. 

31.  Other  problems  of  the  same  kind  should  be  given  until 
the  child  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  subject.  Numerous  prac- 
tical problems  should  be  given.  These  serve  to  fix  the  principles. 
It  is  not  the  purpose,  as  was  stated  in  the  beginning,  to  give  a  full 
discussion  of  any  subject,  but  a  hint  only.  The  teacher  will  take 
these  suggestions,  when  found  good,  and  build  up  a  discussion  which 
will  be  complete.  The  idea  is  to  teach  the  child  to  reason  and  think 
for  himself. 

COMMON    FRACTIONS. 

32.  Teacher. — (Holding  up  four  sticks.)  What  have  I  in  my 
hand  ? 

Class. — Four  sticks. 

Teacher. — Suppose  I  place  these  in  lots  of  two  sticks  each,  how 
many  lots  will  I  have? 

Class. — Two  lots. 

Teacher. — What  operation  have  I  performed? 

Class. — Division. 

Teacher. — By  what  have  I  divided? 

Class. — -By  2. 

Teacher. — Suppose  I  place  them  in  lots  of  1  stick  each,  how 
many  lots  have  I? 

Class. — Four  lots. 

Teacher. — How  many  sticks  in  each  lot? 

Class. — One  stick. 

Teacher. — What  operation  have  I  performed? 

Class. — Division. 

Teacher. — By  what  have  I  divided? 

Class. — By  4. 

Teacher. — Suppose  I  take  one  of  these  sticks  and  break  it  into 
two  equal  parts,  what  shall  I  call  one  part? 

Class. — One-half  of  the  stick. 

Teacher. — What  operation  have  I  performed? 

Class. — You  have  broken  the  stick  into  two  parts. 

Teacher. — But  when  we  break  or  separate  into  two  parts,  what 
operation  do  we  call  it? 

Class. — Division. 


l.;i  TEACHERS      \.JVD   STUDENTS'   LIBRART. 

Teacher.  —Who  can  place  on  the  board  that  which  will  represent 
the  one-half?      One  hand  rises. 

Teacher. —  Mary,youmay  place  it  on  the  board.  Mary  writes 
one-hal) '. 

Teacher. — Is  there  any  other  way  by  which  this  may  lie  repre- 
sented?    Another  hand  rise-. 

Teacher.  —Willie,  you  may  write  it.     Willie  writes  it  I. 

If.  however,  no  one  in  the  class  should  be  able  to  do  this,  leave  it 
for  the  next  lesson.  All  will  then  be  prepared.  Suppose,  however, 
that  it  is  written  \. 

Teacher. — What, then, shall  we  call  this? 

Class. — A  fraction. 

Teacher.      What  is  a  fraction? 

Class. — A  part  of  anything  considered  as  a  whole,  or  the  expres- 
sion of  two  numhers,  one  above,  and   the  other  below,  a  horizontal 

line. 

Teacher. — What  does  the  number  above  the  line  represent? 

Class. — The  quantity  or  thing  divided. 

Teacher. — Have  we  passed  over  anything  to  which  this  may 
correspond  ? 

Class. — Yes;  in  division  of  simple  numbers. 

Teacher. — To  what  in  division  does  it  correspond? 

Class. — The  dividend. 

Teacher. — What  does  the  dividend  always  show? 

Class. — The  thing  or  things  to  be  divided. 

Teacher. — What  "does  it  tell  about? 

Class. — The  number  taken. 

Teacher. — What,  then,  does  the  number  above  the  line  in  frac- 
tions show  ? 

Class. — It  shows  how  many  have  been  taken. 

Teacher. — Then  what  shall  we  call  it? 

If  the  class  is  unable  to  answer,  leave  it  over.  It  will  be 
answered  the  next  day.  In  the  same  way,  lead  them  to  see  the  value 
of  the  denominator.  In  the  same  way,  the  improper  fraction  may 
he  illustrated;  also  the  complex,  etc. 

The  pupils  will  then  he  ready  tor  the   following: — 

33.     Principles. 

I.  Multiplying  the  numerator  of  a  fraction  without  changing   the  denomi 
nator,  multiplies  the  fraction. 

W*hy?  Because  it  increases  t  he  number  of  parts,  while  the  size  of  the  parts 
remains  the  same. 

II.  Dividing  the  denominator  of  a  fraction  without  changing  the  numera- 
tor, multiplies  the  fraction. 

Why  ?—  Because  it  increases  the  size  of  the  parts,  while  the  number  of  parts 
remains  the  same. 

III.  Dividing  the  numerator  of  a  fraction  without  changing  the  denomi- 
nator, divides  the  fraction. 

Why  I — Because  it  decreases  the  number  of  parts,  while  the  size  of  the  parts 
remains  the  same. 


METHODS   IN  ARITHMETIC.  435 

IV.— Multiplying  the  denominator  of  a  fraction  without  changing  the 
numerator,  divides  the  fraction. 

Why  ? — Because  it  decreases  the  size  of  the  parts  while  the  number  of  parts 
remains  the  same. 

V.  Multiplying  both  numerator  and  denominator  of  a  fraction  by  the 
same  number  does  not  alter  the  value  of  the  fraction. 

Why?  Because  it  increases  the  number  of  parts  and  decreases  the  size  of 
the  parts  in  the  same  ratio. 

VI.  Dividing  both  numerator  and  denominator  of  a  fraction  by  the  same 
number  does  not  alter  the  value  of  the  fraction. 

Why?  Because  it  decreases  the  number  of  parts  and  increases  the  size  of 
the  parts  in  the  same  ratio. 

34.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  pupils  use  correct  terms, 
and  learn  to  express  themselves  as  forcibly  as  possible,  and  with  as 
few  words  as  possible.  We  shall  now  give  a  few  problems  illus- 
trating the  principles  in  fractions. 

i-    33/=¥whJ? 
Reason. 


i  = 


.-.   In  3%  there  are  J^. 

1/     * — -La     16     whv9 

Reason. 
The  Least  Common  Denominator  is  20. 

1    T       T  _20 
II.     I  —  5;7. 

1/ —  1/  nf  2  0  —  5 
-,4  OI  ?TS  —  TO-1 
-  1  5 
-YIP 


3-  #=3X&--J 


1  = 


20 


II.  {2.  i=fr  of  M=A. 

.-.    In  3^  and  A  there  are  i%  and  ^g. 

This  gives  the  process  for  reducing  fractions  to  a  common  de- 
nominator, and  as  the  same  would  be  used  in  Addition  and  Sub- 
traction of  fractions,  these  subjects  will  be  omitted. 

3-    2/3XiX=&='A  why? 
Reason. 

1.  1  time  %  =  %. 

2.  ltime%=iof^=X. 

3.  3/  times  ^=3XA=A=#- 

.-.   The  product  ot  %  by  }(  is  T6¥  or  %. 

#-*-#=!  why? 

Reason. 

1.  %  Is  contained  in  1,  4  times. 

2.  %  are  "      1,  j^  of  4  times =|  times. 

3.  3^      u  ,«        2/3i2/3X*         U       =|  H 

In  this  it  will  be  seen  that  finding  how  often  the  divisor  is  con- 
tained in  unity,  inverts  the  divisor;  hence,  we  invert  the  divisor  to 
find  how  often  it  is  contained  in  unity. 

Another  method: — 


\3ti  TEACHERS*  AND   STUDENTS'   LIBRARY 

tf+|=ttor  ft  why2 
i.     i  ib  contained  in  ^  ,  -J4  tim<    . 

£,  6xJ4 '  tiineszr-y-  limes. 
|  are  "       *  .  \  «»f  ',Minics=iH  or  ^  ti 


iff  or  i?ty  times. 


A.gain,  the  fraction  may  be  divided  by  reducing  them  to  a  com- 
mon denominator;  then  dividing  the  numerator  of  the  dividend  by 
the  numerator  of  the  divisor. 

DECIMAL    FRACTIONS. 

35.  i.      Object  Lesson.      (Here  omitted.) 

By  means  of  the  object  lesson,  we  determine  what  a  decimal 
fraction  is,  and  its  uses.  Now  from  what  is  known  of  whole 
numbers,  the   places  that  the   decimals  occupv  may  be  determined. 

Take  the  whole  number  mi.  It  is  evident  that  a  unit  in 
hundred's  place  is  one-tenth  of  a  unit  in  thousand's  place.  A  unit 
in  ten's  place  is  one-tenth  of  a  unit  in  hundred's  place,  or  one-hun- 
dredth of  a  unit  in  thousand's  place.  A  unit  in  unit's  place  is  one- 
tenth  of  a  unit  in  ten's  place,  or  one-hundredth  of  a  unit  in  hun- 
dred's place,  or  one-thousandth  of  a  unit  in  thousand's  place. 

Following  the  same  law  of  decrease,  one-tenth  of  a  unit  in  unit's 
place  would  occupy  the  place  at  the  right  of  units.  In  order,  how- 
ever, to  show  that  this  is  not  a  whole  unit,  mathematicians  have 
established  a  (.)  separatrix,  and  have  placed  this  decimal  part  at 
the  right  of  the  separatrix.  Hence,  one-tenth  of  a  unit  in  unit's 
place  occupies  the  first  place  at  the  right  of  the  separatrix. 

Following  the  same  law  of  decrease,  it  may  be  shown  that 
hundredths,  or  one-tenth  of  one-tenth,  should  occupv  the  second 
place  at  the  right  of  the  separatrix;  thousandths  the  third  place, 
ten-thousandths  the  fourth  place,  and  so  on  for  any  number  of 
places. 

Having  established  the  places  that  the  decimals  occupy,  the 
next  topic  of  most  importance  is  the  writing  of  decimal  fractions. 

To  this  topic  usually  but  little  attention  is  given.  If  the  pupil 
is  able  to  write  and  understand  six  examples  such  as  will  now  be 
given,  he  will  be  able  to  write  and  to  understand  any  decimal 
fraction. 

It    is    not    the    number   of   exercises    given    or  the  number   of 
problems  solved    that    makes   one    thorough,  but    the   number  of 
principles    mastered.     These   are    what  are  brought  into  practical 
use  in  life. 

36.  i.  Write  three  thousand  six  hundred  seventy-five  hun- 
dred-thousandths.    .03675. 

_.  \\  rite  three  thousand  six  hundred  seventy-five  hundred 
thousandth-.       \<>~i-y  •< ». 

3.  Write  three  thousand  six  hundred,  and  seventy-five 
hundred-thousandths.      5600.00075. 


METHODS   IX   ARITHMETIC.     ,  4:$7 

_i.     Write    three    thousand    six    hundred,    and    seventy-five 

hundred  thousandths.      3607.500. 

5.      Write  three  and  one-half  tenths.      .3^. 
().      Write  three,  and  one-half  tenths.      3.01^. 

In  the  first,  the  word  "and  "  is  not  used,  and  the  hyphen  occurs 
between  hundred  and  thousandths;  hence  the  name  of  the  decimal 
is  hundred-thousandths. 

In  the  second,  the  word  "  and  "  is  not  used,  and  the  hyphen 
does  not  occur  between  hundred  and  thousandths;  hence  the  name 
of  the  decimal  is  thousandths,  and  is  so  written  that  the  right  hand 
figure  stands  in  thousandth's  place. 

In  the  third,  the  word  "and"  occurs,  and  the  hyphen  is  used 
between  hundred  and  thousandths,  and  the  fraction  is  written  as 
above.  The  pupil  will  remember  that  all  which  precedes  the  word 
"  and  "  is  a  whole  number,  and  that  which  follows  is  considered 
with  the  decimal,  though  not  always  all  a  decimal,  as  is  seen  in  the 
fourth  problem,  in  which  the  word  "and  "  is  used,  but  the  hyphen 
omitted. 

In  the  fourth,  the  word  "  and  "  is  used,  but  the  hyphen  is 
omitted,  hence  the  name  of  the  decimal  is  thousandths. 

In  the  fifth,  the  word  "and"  is  used;  but  the  word  "and"  is 
always  proper  between  a  whole  number  and  a  fraction,  and  the 
quantity  should  be  written  together  unless  separated  by  a  comma, 
when  it  is  written  as  in  the  sixth  problem. 

These  exercises  are  not  given  because  they  are  the  most  practi- 
cal, hut  because  they  serve  best  as  a  means  of  calling  the  attention 
of  the  learner  to  the  principles  used  in  writing  decimal  fractions. 

37.  The  pupil  should  observe  the  following  hints  in  decimals. 

1.  Determine  the  name  of  the  decimal. 

2.  Determine  the  use  of  the  hyphen. 

3.  Determine  the  use  of  the  word  "and." 

4.  Fix  the  separatrix. 

5.  Think  of  the  number  of  places  given. 

6.  Think  of  the  number  of  decimal  places  required. 

7.  Write  so  that  as  many  places  may  he  at  the  right  of  the 
separatrix  as  the  decimal  requires. 

t    1.    Pure. 

8.  Kinds  of  Decimals.  <  2.    Mixed. 

(  3.   Complex. 

9.  The  number  of  decimal  places  is  always  one  less  than 
the  number  of  places  in  a  whole  number  hearing  a  corresponding 
name. 

38.  In  addition  and  subtraction  of  decimals,  the  pupil 
will  have  no  trouble.  In  multiplication,  the  only  difficulty  is  in 
giving  a  reason  for  pointing  off  in  the  product  as  many  places  for 
decimals  as  there  are  in  both  multiplicand  and  multiplier.  This, 
however,  is  very  simple,  because  at    the    beginning    of  this    subject 


438  TEACHERS}  AND  STUDENTS1  LIBRART. 

the  places  that  the  decimals  occupy  are  determined.  Then,  by  re- 
membering  that  whenever  we  multiply  by  a  fraction  we  are  in 
reality  dividing,  the  whole  reason  is  given. 

Suppose  we  wi^h  to  multiply  .1  by  .1.  By  taking  an  object,  it 
is  plain  that  . I  of.l  is  one-hundredth  of  the  whole.  But  we  have 
established  the  fact  that  hundredths  occupy  the  second  place  at  the 
right  of  units,  and  we  have  learned  in  whole  numbers  that  vacant 
orders  are  filled   with  ciphers;  hence  we   have  .ix-i=-01- 

Again,  multiply  .01  by  .1.  By  the  object,  we  see  that  one- 
tenth  of  one-hundredth  is  one-thousandth  of  the  whole;  and  it  has 
been  shown  that  thousandths  occupy  the  third  place  at  the  right  of 
the  separatrix,  and  that  the  vacant  orders  are  filled  with  ciphers; 
hence  .oix.i  =.001.     And  so  it  may  be  shown  of  any  number. 

In  the  first,  .IX. i=.oi,  we  see  that  there  is  one  place  in  the 
multiplicand,  one  place  in  the  multiplier,  and  two  places  in  the 
product. 

In  the  second,  .01  X.i=.ooi,  we  see  that  there  arc  two  places 
in  the  multiplicand,  one  in  the  multiplier,  and  three  in  the  product. 
So  in  any  case,  the  number  of  places  in  the  product  must  equal  the 
number  of  decimal  places  in  both  multiplicand  and  multiplier. 

Hence  the  Rule: — 

Rule. — Point  oft' in  the  product  as  many  places  for  decimals  as  there  are 
in  both  multiplicand  and  multiplier. 

There  arc  other  and  simpler  ways  of  showing  this,  but  they 
must  be  omitted. 

In  order  to  give  an  explanation  of  division,  it  is  only  necessary 
that  the  pupil  remember  that  the  dividend  corresponds  to  the  pro- 
duct in  multiplication,  the  divisor  to  the  multiplier,  and  the  quotient 
to  the  multiplicand. 

Then  the  divisor  and  quotient  together  must  have  as  many  dec- 
imal places  as  the  dividend.  If  the  dividend  has  three  decimal 
places,  and  the  divisor  one,  then  the  quotient  must  have  two.  If 
the  dividend  has  five  decimal  places,  and  the  divisor  two,  the  quo- 
tient must  have  three.     The  same  is  true  for  any  number. 

Change  i/x  to  a  decimal  fraction  by  analysis. 

1.  4=i.oo. 

2.  \~\  of  I.OO=.25. 

3-     ^=3X.25=-75- 

.-.     ^  changed  to  a  decimal  fraction  is  .75. 

Change  .65  to  a  common  fraction  by  analysis. 

1.  1.00=1. 

2.  .01  =Tiff  of  I  = 


3.    .65=65 xTh=rWF=lf     ,      . 

.-.     .65  changed  to  a  common  fraction  is  ft. 

Find  the  L.  C.  M.  of  .25,  .035,  .0055. 
Find  the  G.  C.  D.  of  .35  and  .0065. 


METHODS    IX    ARITHMETIC.  439 

And  a  host  of  similar  questions  should  he  given,  until  every 
principle  in  the  subject  is  thoroughly  developed. 

COMPOUND     NUMBERS. 

39.  In  this,  a  few  examples  will  suffice  to  illustrate  the  prin- 
ciples. 

i.     Object  Lesson.     (Here  omitted.) 
Problem.      Reduce  5  bu.  3  pk.  and  2  qt.  1  pt.  to  pints. 

1.  1  bu.=4  pks. 

2.  5  bu.  =  5X4  pks.  =  20  pks. 

3.  20  pks.+3  pks.=23  pks. 

4.  1  pk.=S  qts. 

5.  23  pks.  =  23X8  qts.=  i84  qts. 

6.  184  qts.-|-2  qts. =  186  qts. 

7.  I  qt.  =  2  pt. 

8.  1S6  qts.=  iS6X2  pts.=372  pts. 

9-     372  PM"1  Pt-=373  Pt-  ' 

.-.     In  5  bu.  3  pk.  2  qt.  1  pt.  there  are  373  pints. 

The  sign  (X)  is  read  times  and  not  ?nultiplicd  by.  The  objec- 
tion urged  against  this  is  that  it  is  too  long.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  when  the  pupil  understands  one  problem  thus 
solved,  he  understands  the  whole  of  Redtiction  Descending.  After 
the  subject  is  thoroughly  understood,  then  the  problems  may  be 
solved  in  the  shortest  possible  way.  What  is  desired  is  that  the 
child  be  able  to  give  a  reason  for  every  step  as  it  advances;  then  it 
will  not  be  obliged  to  go  over  the  same  thing  term  after  term. 

Reduce  585  pints  to  bu. 

1.  2  pts.  =  i  qt. 

2.  I  pt.  =  J^  qt. 

3.  585  pts.  =  585X>^  qt.=^-|£  qts.  =  292^  qts.  or  292  qt.  1  pt. 

4.  8  qt.=  i  pk. 

5.  1  qt.=  >^  pk. 

6.  292  qt.  =  292X>^  pk.=^p  pk.  =  36|  pk.  =  36  pk.  4  qt. 

7.  4  pk.=  t  bu. 

8.  1  pk.=  »4;  bu. 

9.  36  pk.  =  36x  x4  bu.=r-3^  bu.=9  bu. 

.-.     In  585  pts.  there  are  9  bu.  4  qt.  1  pt. 

This  problem  illustrates  Reduction  Ascending.  In  changing 
from  one  table  to  another  the  principles  of  Reduction  Ascending 
and  Reduction  Descending  are  combined. 

In  30  lbs.  Troy,  how  many  lbs.  Avoirdupois? 

1.  1  lb.  Troy  =  5760  gr. 

2.  30  lb.  Trov=3oX576o  gr.=  172800  gr. 

3.  7ooogr.=  i  lb.  Avoir. 

4.  I  gr.^y^jnr  lb-  Avoir. 

5.  172800   gr.=  i728ooX7TJVc    lb-   Avoir.->-ft$f».    lb.    Avoir .  =  24f|    lb. 


Avoir 


In  30  lbs.  Troy  there  arc  24^  lb.  Avoir. 


440  TEACHERS'  AMD  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY* 

It  would  be  impossible  to  give  a  model  problem  under  each 
tabic,  and  in  fact,  it  would  be  wholly  unnecessary.  Multiplying 
problems  would  make  the  subject  no  clearer. 

One  problem  in  Square  Measure  and  one  in  Cubic  Measure  will 
be  given, because  they  will  be  aids  in  illustrating  Square  and  Cube 

Root 

40.      How  main-  sq.  ft.  in  a  board  15  ft.  long  and  3  ft.  wide? 
From  the   principles    in   multiplication,    1st.      That   the    product 
must  always  be  of  the  same  kind  as  the  multiplicand,  and  2d.   That 
the  multiplier  must  be  an  abstract  number,  it  will  not  do  to  multiply 
15  ft.  by  3ft.  and  call  the  result  sq.  ft. 

In  order  to  understand  a  problem  of  this  kind,  the  learner  must 
know  that  a  table  cannot  be  formed  without  having  a  unit  of 
measure.  In  Troy  weight,  the  grain  is  the  unit  of  measure;  in 
Time  measure  the  second  is  the  unit  of  measure.  In  short,  a  ta 
cannot  be  made  without  a  unit  of  measure;  consequently  there  must 
be  some  unit  in  Square  measure.  Let  us,  then,  assume  that  a 
surface  1  ft.  long  and  1  I't.  wide,  which  equals  one  square  foot,  be 
the  unit  of  measure  in  Square  measure.  Any  basis  might  be  taken, 
but  some  unit  must  be  taken,  aad  for  our  problem,  the  above  is  the 
most  convenient.     Then, 

1.  A  surface  1  ft.  long  and  1  ft.  wide=i  sq.  ft. 

2.  "         15      "         "        1      "         =15x1  sq.  ft. =  15  sq.  ft. 

3.  "       15     "       "      3     "       -3x15  sq-  ft=45  sq- ft- 

.-.     In  a  board  15  ft.  long  and  3  ft.  wide  there  are  45  sq.  ft. 

It  will  be  said  by  some  that  in  the  first  equation  feet  are  multi- 
plied by  feet.  Let  such  persons  suggest  some  unit  of  measure,  and 
by  means  of  it,  we  can  build  up  a  table  that  can  solve  the  problem. 

The  same  is  true  of  Cubic    Measure. 

In  a  solid  S  ft.  long,  6  ft.  wide,  and    5  ft.  thick,   how    many    cu. 


ft. 


1.  A  solid  1  ft.  long,  1  ft.  wide,  1  ft.  thick  =  1  cu.  ft. 

2.  "          8      "  1      "          1      "         =8X1  cu.  ft.=8  cu.  ft. 

3.  «         8      "  6      "         1      "         =6x8  cu.  ft.=48  cu.  ft. 

4.  "         8      "  6      "          S       "         =5X48  cu.  ft.=240  cu.  ft. 
.-.  In  a  solid  8  ft.  long,  6  ft.  wide,  5  ft.  thick,  there  are  240  cu.  ft. 

41.  LONGITUDE    AND     TIME. 

i.  Object  lesson  with  use  of  globe.     (  I  [ere  omitted.) 
f  In  24  hours  the  earth  passes  through  360^ 


»o 


j   «     ,  hour        «  »  f36o°=ir. 

I  M     1  sec.         "  "  of  15' =  15'. 

In  this  subject  there   are  two  cases,  illustrated   by  means    of  the 
following  problems. 

1.      The  difference  of  time  between  two  places  is  ^  hr.  25  min, 
»0  -«e.     Required  their  difference  in  longitude. 


METHODS    IN    ARITHMETIC.  441 

i.     In  1  sec.  of  time  the  earth  passes  through  15". 

2.  In  30  "  •  3oXi5'=45°'- 

3.  6o'=i\ 

4.  l"  =  vV 

5.  450"  =450 x  ,'„  '  =  W '  =lVz '  or  7 '  30" ■ 

6.  In  1  min.  of  time  the  earth  passes  through  15'. 

7.  In  25        "  "  "  "   '      25Xi5'=375'- 

8.  60  =1   . 

9-     i'=A  • 

10.  375'=375X,;,„   =^r=(>X  "=''     i5  ■ 

11.  In  1  hr.  of  time  the  earth  passes  through  1  s   . 

12.  In  S        '•  "  "  "  SXIS0=7S°- 
13-    7S°-f6°  *5'+7'  3o'=8i°22'3o». 

.-.  If  the  difference  of  time  between  two  places  is  5  hr.  25  mm.  30  sec, 
the  difference  in  longitude  Is  Si  ■  22  '  30". 

Instead  of  adding  the  different  remainders  as  in  the  problem 
solved,  it  is  more  simple  to  omit  them  until  the  last  equation,  then 
add  all  at  one  time. 

2.  The  difference  in  longitude  between  two  places  is  35°4o' 
50".     Required  the  difference  in  time. 

1.  150  corresponds  to  1  hr. 

2.  i°  corresponds  to  -jV  hr. 

3.  350  correspond  to  35XyV  hr.=:2^  hr.  =  2  hr.  20  min. 

4.  15'  correspond  to  1  min. 
15.  1 '  corresponds  to  ^  min. 

6.  40'  correspond  to  40X1V  min.  =  22,£  min.  =  2  min.  40  sec. 

7.  15"  correspond  to  1  sec. 

8.  1"  corresponds  to  T*F  sec. 

9.  50"  correspond  to  50X^*5  sec.  =  3j^  see. 

10.     2  hr.  20  min. -[-2  min.  40  sec.-)-3^  sec.  =  2  hr.  22  min.  43J/3  sec. 
.-.     If  the  difference  in  longitude  between  two  places  is  350  40'  50",  the 
difference  in  time  is  2  hr.  22  min.  43^  sec. 

3.  The  longitude  of  Pekin  is  1 1S0  East,  and  the  longitude 
of  San  Francisco  is  122°  West.  When  it  is  noon,  Tuesday,  at 
Pekin,  what  is  the  time  at  San  Francisco? 

1.  I22"-f-]l80=24Oc. 

2.  150  correspond  to  1  hr. 

3.  i°  corresponds  to  TV  hr. 

4.  2400  correspond  to  240 X^V  hr.=l6  hr. 

5.  12  hr.,  or  noon,  Tuesday — 16  hr.  =  S  P.  M.  Monday. 

.-.  When  it  is  noon  at  Pekin,  longitude  1180  E.,  it  is  8  P.  M.the  pre- 
vious day  at  San  Francisco,  longitude  122     W. 

42.  In  the  above  problem,  the  longest  distance  around  the  earth 
is  counted.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  International  Date  Line 
passes  between  the  two  points  named,  to  the  west  of  San  Francisco, 
cutting  the  shortest  distance  into  two  parts  which  must  be  reckoned 
as  belonging  to  different  day-. 

This  date  line  extends  from  pole  to  pole  on  nearly  the  iSoth 
meridian.  It  passes  through  Behring's  Straits  on  the  180th 
meridian, then  deflects  westward  to  i6op  East,  passing  through  the 
Celebes  Islands;    it    then  recurves  to  the    eastward,   passing    south 


44'J  TEAi  HERS1  AND  STUDENTS'  LJBRAR1'. 

through  Chatham   Islands,  northeast  of  Australia,  and  then,  again 

coinciding  with  the  l8oth  meridian,  it  passes  to  the  South  Pole. 
It  is  the  line  agreed  upon  by  the  navigators  of  the  civilized  nations 
a^  the  point  where  one  day  ends  and  another  begins.  For  instance, 
if  it  is  noon  Tuesday  <>n  tbe  side  of  the  line  toward  Pekin,  it  is  said 
to  be  noon  of  the  previous  day  on   the  side  toward  San  Francisco. 

PROPORTION. 

43.  1.     Object  lesson.      (Omitted.) 

The  difficulty  in  this  subject  is  not  so  much  the  abstract  work 
of  solving  the  problem,  as  in  not  having  any  definite  process  for  the 
solution.  If  the  pupil  will  observe  the  following  steps,  there  will 
be  no  difficulty  in  the  statement  of  any  question  in  proportion. 
Statement. — Every  problem  in  proportion  consists  of  two  parts,  a 
known  and  an  unknown. 

i.     First  determine  the  known  part. 

2.  Second,  determine  the  3d  or  base  term. 

3.  In    reasoning  always  begin    with  the    known   part,    and 
reason  from  the  known  to  the  unknown. 

4.  Always  reason  to  the  3d  or  base  term. 

"  Third  term "  is  used  when  a  statement  is  made  by  pro- 
portion. "  Base  term  "  is  used  when  the  statement  is  made  by 
analysis. 

A  problem  in  Simple  Proportion  is  given,  which,  if  understood, 
will  form  a  key  to  the  whole. 

If  3  hats  cost  $15,  what  will  5  hats  cost? 

Known  part,  3  hats,  $15.  « 

Unknown  part,  5  hats,  $x. 

Write  $15  for  the  3d  term,  because  it  is  of  the  same  kind  as  is 
required  in  the  result.  If  3  hats  required  $15,  5  hats  will  require 
more,  therefore  write  the  greater  number  for  the  2d  term  and  the 
lesser  for  the  1st.  Multiplying  the  3d  term  by  the  2d  and  divid- 
ing by  the  1st,  the  result  is  $25. 

44.  Compound  Proportion  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  simple 
proportions,  and  is  but  a  repetition  of  the  above. 

If  20  men,  in  30  days  of  10  hr.  each,  build  a  wall  500  ft.  long, 
5  ft.  wide,  S  ft.  high,  in  how  many  days  of  o'  hr.  each,  tan  30  men 
build  a  wall  900  ft.  long,  6  ft.  wide,  5  ft.  high? 

Known  part,  20  men,  30  da.,  10  hr.,  500  ft.  long,  5  ft.  wide,  S  ft.  high. 
Unknown  part,  30  men.  X  days,  8  hr.,  900  ft.  long,  6  ft.  wide,  5  ft.  high. 

The  known  and  the  unknown  parts  having  been  determined, 
the  next  is  to  determine  the  3d  term.  This  is  30  days.  In  the 
reasoning,  it  must  hi'  borne  in  mind  that  we  begin  with  the  k?wwn 
part  and  reason  to  the  unknown. 


METHODS   IN  ARITHMETIC.  443 

Statement  by  proportion: 

30:  20 

8:  10 

500:900:  =30  days:  33^  days. 

5  =  6 

8:5- 

Write  30  days  for  the  3d  term  because  it  is  of  the  same  kind  as 

is  required   in  the  result. 

1.  If  20  men  require  30  da.,  30  men  will  require  fewer  days, 
therefore,  write  the  lesser  number  for  the  2d  term   and  the  greater 

for  1st. 

2.  If  10  hr.  a  day  require  30  da.,  S  hr.  a  day  will  require 
more  days,  therefore,  write  the  greater  number  for  the  2d  term 
and  the  lesser  for  the   1st. 

3.  If  a  wall  500  ft.  long  require  30  da.,  a  wall  900  ft.  Long 
will  require  more  days,  therefore,  write  the  greater  number  for  the 
2d  term  and  the  lesser  for  the  1st. 

4.  If  a  wall  five  ft.  wide  require  30  da.,  a  wall  6  ft.  wide 
will  require  more  days,  therefore,  write  the  greater  number  for  the 
2d  term  and  the  lesser  for  the  1st. 

5.  If  a  wall  8  ft.  high  require  30  da.,  a  wall  5  ft.  high  will 
require  fewer  days,  therefore,  write  the  lesser  number  for  the  2d 
term  and  the  greater  for  the  1  st. 

Employing  cancellation, — multiplying  the   3d   by  the  continued 
product  of  the   2d,  and  dividing  by  the  continued    product  of  the 

1st,  the  result  is  333/  days. 

*     . 

In*the  solution  of  this  question,  it  is  seen  that  the  process  is  a 
continuous  repetition  of  the  work  in  Simple  Proportion. 

45.  A  problem  will  now  be  given  by  the  method  called 
Shorter  Analysis. 

In  how  many  days  of  8  hr.  each,  can  40  men  build  a 
wall  300  ft.  long.  8  ft.  wide,  and  15  ft.  high,  if  30  men,  in  25 
da.  of  10  hr.  each,  build  a  wall  500  ft.  long,  3  ft.  wide,  and 
8  ft.  high? 

Known  part— 30  men,  25  da.,  10  hr.,  a   wall  500  ft.   long,  3   ft.  wide,  S  ft. 
Unknown  part— 40  men,  x  da.,  8  hr.,  a  wall  300  ft.  long,  8  ft.  wide,  15  ft. 

25  da.X3QXioX30oXSXi5^2g,,  da 
40x8X500X3X8 

1.  Write  25  da.  for  the  base  term,  because  it  is  of  the  same 
kind  as  is  required  in  the  result. 

2.  If  30  men  require  25  da.,  1  man  will  require  more  da., 
therefore  multiply  by  30;  and  40  men  will  require  fewer  da.,  there- 
fore divide  by  40. 


high, 
high. 


ill  TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENT*  LIBRART. 

3.  [f  io  hr.  per  da.  require  25  da.,  1  hr.  per  da.  will  require 
more  da.,  therefore  multiply  by  10;  and  8  hr.  per  da.  will  require 
fewer  da.,  therefore  divide  by  8. 

|.  If  a  wall  500  ft.  long  require  25  da.,  a  wall  1  ft.  long 
will  require  fewer  da.,  therefore  divide  by  500;  and  a  wall  300  ft. 
long  will  require  more  da.,  therefore  multiply  by  300. 

5.  It"  a  wall  3  ft.  wide  require  25  da.,  a  wall  1  ft.  wide  will 
require  fewer  da.,  therefore  divide  by  3;  and  a  wall  S  ft.  wide  will 
require  more  da.,  therefore  multiply  by  8. 

6.  If  a  wall  S  ft.  high  require  25  da.,  a  wall  1  ft.  high  will 
require  fewer  da.,  therefore  divide  by  8;  and  a  wall  15  ft.  high  will 
require  more  da.,  therefore  multiply  by  15. 

7.  Employing  cancellation,  the  result  is  28^  da. 
*     

In  this  solution,  when  we  say,  for  example,  "  if  thirty  men 
require  2  =;  da.,  therefore,  multiply  by  30,"  we  simply  abbreviate  the 
long  analysis.  When  we  say  "40  men  will  require  fewer  days, 
therefore  divide  by  40,"  we  mean  fewer  days,  or  -4\r  as  many  days 
as  1  man;  and  so  on  with  each  point.  This  process  shows  why  a 
statement  in  proportion  is  true. 

Now,  the  teacher  should  give  numerous  problems,  until  the 
learner  has  fully  mastered  the  principles,  and  then  he  can  use  them 
for  himself. 

PERCENTAGE. 

46.      1.     Object  lesson.      (Omitted.) 

In  this  subject  the  learner  should  have  a  thorough  drill  on  the 
four  cases;  viz: 

1.  To  find  any  per  cent,  of  a  number. 

2.  To  find  what  per  cent,  one   number  is  of  another. 

3.  To  find  the  number  when  a  certain  part  of  it  and  the  rate 
per  cent,  are  given. 

4.  To  find  a  number,  when  one  which  is  a  certain  per  cent. 
greater  or  less  than  the  one  required,  is  given. 

It  is  not  so  much  the  number  of  problems,  as  the  principles  that 
must  be  given. 

These  cases  will  now  be  illustrated. 

I.      Case  I. 

bind  6  per  cent,  of  800. 

1.  100^=800. 

2.  i£=TJta  of  800=8. 

3.  6^=0x8=48. 
.-.  (••.  of  800  is  48. 

bind  3/(  per  cent,  of  600. 

1.     ioo£=6oo. 

2-  l%  —  tHo  of  6oo=0. 

3-  X%=HX6-4X. 


METHODS   IN  ARITHMETIC.  445 

II.     Case  II. 

$15  is  how  many  per  cent,  of  $600? 

In  every  problem  there  is  some  quantity  that  is  represented  by 
100  per  cent. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  whatever  is  desired  in  the  result, 
must  come  at  the  right  of  the  sign  of  equality.  In  this  case,  per 
cent,  is  required  in  the  result,  hence — 


1.    $6oo=ioo0. 

2-      $I=s£z5ot'  I°°0  =  |0. 

.-.     $15  is  2l/i%  ot  $600. 
i/x  is  what  per  cent,  off? 


1.  £=JOO0. 

2.  $  —  1  Ot'  IOO0=2O0. 

3.  £  or  i=6X2o0=i2O0. 
4-  ^  =  #Xi2O0=9O0. 

.-.  3/  is  905?  Off. 

III.  Case  III. 

300  is  6  per  cent,  of  what  number. 

1.  ioo0=the  number. 

2.  60=300. 

3.  i0=£  of  300=50. 

4.  100^=100X50=5000. 
300  is  60  of  5000. 

1  lb.  Troy  is  what  per  cent,  of  a  lb.  Avoirdupois? 

1.  1  lb.  Troy  =  5760  gr. 

2.  1  lb.  Av.  =  7ooo  gr. 

3.  7000  gr.=  ioo0. 

4 .  1  gr . = yTJ\j?T  °  f  '  °°% = -fat- 

5.  5760  gr.=576oX^=82l^ 

.\  1  lb.  Troy  is  82f0  of  1  lb.  Avoirdupois. 

IV.  Case  IV. 

160  is  20  per  cent,  less  than  what  number? 

1.  ioo0=the  number. 

2.  ioo0— 2O0=8o0. 

3.  8o0=i6o. 

4.  10=^  of  160=2. 

5.  100^=100X2  =  200. 

.-.  160  is  2O0  less  than  200. 

420  is  40  per  cent,  more  than  what  number? 

1.  ioo0=the  number. 

2.  1000+400=  140^. 

3.  1400=420, 

4.  i0=TJoof42o=3. 

5.  ioo0=iooX3=3°°- 

.-.  420  is  400  more  than  300. 


4i,;  TEACHERS'   AND   STL/DENTS'   LIBRART. 

Now  Let  the  teacher  give  numerous  practical  problems,  until  the 
pupils  thoroughly  understand  these  four  cases,  and  the  principles 
will  enable  him  to  solve  any  problem   in  any  of  the  applications  of 

percentage. 

a  Miscellaneous  Applications. 

47.  i.  A  man  purchases  cloth  at  20  per  cent,  above  par  and 
sells  at  30  per  cent,  less;  what  is  the  selling  price? 

1.  ioo£  =  par. 

2.  ioc#-|-2o#=  120&  cost. 
By  Case  I  we  find, 

3.  IOO£=I20#. 

4.  ijg  =  TJTof  12<#=1.2%. 

5-     3°$=3°'X1-2%=36%- 
6.     120^—36^=84^,  selling  price. 

.-.  If  a  man  purchases  cloth  at  2C#  above  par  and  sells  it  at  30%  less,  the 
selling  price  is  84$. 

The  pupil  will  observe  that  in  this  problem  the  100  per  cent., 
which  occurs  twice,  is  not  the  same  in  each. 

2.  A  man  buys  cloth  at  30  per  cent,  below  par  and  sells  at 
40  per  cent,  more;  what  is  the  selling  price? 

1.  ioo#=par. 

2.  100^—30^=70^,  cost. 

3.  100^=70^. 

4-     '£  =  105  of7°#=f5#- 

5.  4o£=40XT7,j£=28£. 

6.  70^+28^=98^,  selling  price. 

.-.  If  a  man  buys  cloth  at  30$  below  par  and  sells  for  40^  more,  the  sell- 
ing price  is  98$. 

3.  A  man  buys  cloth  at  $4.50  per  yard.  How  must  he 
mark  it  so  that  he  may  deduct  30  per  cent,  of  the  marked  price  and 
yet  gain  20  per  cent.? 

1.  ioo^=$4-so. 

2-       I^=1JTyOf$4.50=$.O45. 

3.  2c#=2oX$-045  =  $.oa 

4.  $4.5o+$.qo=$5.40,  cost  price. 

5.  100$= marked  price. 

6.  100^—30^=70^. 

7.  70^  of  marked  price  =  $5. 40. 

•     8.     i*=TVof$5.4o=$HV- 
9.     ioo#=iooX$V<r=$77- 

.-.  If  a  man  buys  cloth  at  $4.50  per  yard,  he  must  mark  it  at  $7^  if  he 
wishes  to  deduct  30%  and  yet  gain  20$. 

|.     M\   key  is  Charleston.     How    must   I   mark  goods   that 
cost  $8.45  per  yard,  so  as  to  gain  20  per  cent.? 

i.     ioo#=$8.4:;. 

2.  1%.-.  ,,',,  of$8.45=$.o845. 

^.       20#  =  20X  $.084^  =  $1.69. 

4.     $8,454-$  i,69  =  $io.i4,  or  Cn.  Cr. 


METHODS  IN   ARITHMETIC. 


11: 


5.  A  man  wishing  to  sell  a  cow  and  a  horse,  asked  4  times 
as  much  for  the  horse  as  for  the  cow.  Failing  to  sell,  he  reduced 
the  price  of  the  cow  20  per  cent,  and  of  the  horse  30  per  cent.,  at 
which  price  I>  took  them,  paying  $300.  What  was  the  selling 
price  of  each? 

1.  ioo^=asking  price  of  cow. 

2.  400^=     "  "       "  horse. 

3.  ioo<£ — 20#=So£,  selling  price  of  cow. 
By  Case  I, 

4.  ioo#=40o£. 

5-  i£=tJu  of4oo£=4<;. 

6.  30^=30X4%'=  I2C#. 

7.  400^—1 20#=2Sc#,  selling  price  of  horse. 

8.  2So#-|-So#=36c#,  selling  price  of  both. 

9.  360^  =  $300. 

10.  12=:^  of  $300=$;:. 

11.  So#=SoX$f=$66%,  selling  price  of  cow. 

12.  2So#=28oX$!i  =  $233j4,  selling  price  of  horse. 


6.  A  man  sold  two  horses  tor  the  same  price, 
gained  25  per  cent.;  on  the  other  he  lost  50  per  cent, 
loss  was  $25.      What   was  the  selling  price  of  each? 


On  one  he 
His  whole 


M 


11. 


ioo#=value  of  1st  horse. 

ioo#-|-25#=:  1 2$%,  selling  price  of  1st  horse. 

1 25$ = ioo#. 

ioo%=iooXi%=So%,  the  actual  value   of  1st   horse  in   terms  of 

selling  price. 
roo#=  value  of  2d  horse, 
ioojg — 50^=50^,  selling  price  of  2d  horse. 
50^=100^. 


ot  1 


=  2%. 


III. 


ioo#r=  100X2^=200^,  the  actual  value  of  2d  horse  in  terms  of  the 
selling  price. 

1.  ioo# — 8o#=20#  gain. 

2.  200#  —  IOO#=:  IOO<&  10SS. 

3.  ioo# — 2o#=8o#  whole  loss. 

4.  8o£=$25. 

6.  ioo^=ioox$-3i25  =  $3i.25,  selling  price  of  each  horse. 


These  examples   are  given  to  show  how  the  four  cases  are  ap- 
plied to  the  different  questions  that  may  arise. 

COMMISSION. 

48.      In  this  there  are  but  three  cases  to  be  considered,  and  they 
are  illustrated  by  the  following  problems: — 

1.     A  man  received  $30  commission  for  selling  $1,500  wrorth 
of  wheat.      What  is  the  rate? 

1.  $1500=100^. 

2.  $i=TJST!  of  ioo£=Tl5*. 

3.  $3o=3oxT15#=2*. 


448  TEACHERS*  AND  STUDENTS1  LIBRART. 

2.  A  man  received  $3,000  with  which  to  buy  wheat;  com'. 
3  per  cent.;  how  much  does  he  invest? 

It  is  a  principle  among  business  men  that  when  money  is  re- 
ceived to  be  invested,  as  in  this  problem,  the  amount  received  in- 
cludes the  commission;   hence — 

1.  ioo#=the  investment.  - 

j.  ioo£-j-3£=ic>3#=in vestment  and  com. 

3.  io3£=$3ooo. 

4.  ij<=T§¥of$3C<x>=$VoV- 

5.  ioc^=iooX$Yo°/=*29i2TVs- 


3.  A  collected  $3,000  for  B,  com.  3  per  cent.  How  much 
should  he  remit  ? 

I.  ioo$=$3ooo. 

-•     i#=TJTiof$30oo=$30. 

3*=3X$3°=$9°. 

).     $3000 — $90=^2910,  amount  to  be  remitted. 

Sometimes  the  following  is  given  as  an  exception  to  the  general 
rule.  But  when  it  is  remembered  that  it  is  also  a  business  principle, 
that  when  the  whole  amount  is  not  invested,  and  there  is  enough 
left  to  pay  all  charges,  then  the  whole  amount  ordered  to  be  in- 
vested is  invested,  then  the  seeming  difficulty  is  overcome. 

4.  A  man  sells  wheat,  com.  5  per  cent,  and  invests  "h/x  of  the 
sale  in  cotton,  com.  2  per  cent.,  and  remits  $300.  What  is  the  sale 
of  the  wheat  and  the  value  of  the  cotton? 

1.  ioo£  =  sale  of  wheat. 

2.  ^  of  ioo#=75#,  amount  invested  in  cotton 

3.  ioo<g=75#. 

5.  2^=2X54^=1^0tlOO!(. 

7.  100^— 79.5^=20.5^. 

8.  20.  ^=$300. 

9.  1*=^  of  $3«>=$§H-  ,      ,    ,_ 

10.     ioo#=iooX$£20k=$i403tt<  sale  of  wheat. 

II.  }{  of  $1463}]  =$1097.1*,  value  of  cotton. 

5.  A  man  sold  wheat,  com.  3  per  cent.,  and  invested  the 
net  proceeds  in  corn,  com.  2  per  cent.;  his  whole  commission  $250. 
For  how  much  did  the  wheat  sell,  and  what  was  the  value  of  the 


corn? 


ioo#=sale  of  wheat. 

ioc#— 3#=97#- 

ioo#=am't  invested  in  corn. 

lOO%-\-2<j(—\02%. 

!*=-,&,.  «>f')7V-  ,". 

3Jf-f'IH£=4£f£'i  w'10'«-'  commissions. 


METHODS   IX    ARITHMETIC.  449 

ii.     £}#or  i#=5iX$i=$5i- 

12.  ioo^=iooX$5i=$5ioo,  sale  of  wheat 

13.  $5100 — $J50=$4S5u,  value  of  corn. 

In  this  problem  it  is  seen  that  there  is  a  combination  of  two  of 
the  principles,  the  2d  and  3d;  the  first  two  equations  referring  to 
the  2d  principle;  the  others  to  the  8th  equation  inclusive,  to  the  3d 
principle.  The  remaining  equations  come  under  the  3d  case  in 
Percentage. 

6.  A  man  sold  5,000  bu.  of  wheat  at  $1.20  per  bu.  and  in- 
vested the  net  proceeds  in  cotton.  After  reserving  3  per  cent,  for 
selling  and  2  per  cent,  for  buying,  and  $52  for  charges,  how  much 
did  he  invest  in  cotton? 

1.  The  sale  of  1  bu.=$i.2o. 

2.  The  sale  of  5000  bu.=50ooX$i-20=$6ooo. 

3.  ioc#=$6ooo. 

4.  I^=T^j  of  6oOO=r$6o. 

5-     3*=3X$6o=$i8o. 

6.  $lSo-|-$52  =  $232. 

7.  $6000— $232  =  $5768. 

8.  100$= the  investment. 

9.  100^+2^=102^. 
.     10.     I02g=$s768. 

11.  i^=T^of$5768=$-V56/. 

12.  ioo^=iooX$-5iw:=$5654Bf'am't  invested. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  no  commission  is  computed  on 
charges  of  any  kind  unless  by  special  contract.  The  student  must 
bear  in  mind  that  commission  is  computed  on  the  work  done,  and 
on  nothing  else.  The  first  three  problems  given  illustrate  all  of 
the  cases,  and  the  others  are  but  combinations. 

SIMPLE    INTEREST. 

49.  In  finding  Simple  interest,  there  are  three  classes  of  prob- 
lems, the  solutions  of  which  are  given  by  tbe  formulas;  also  by 
analysis. 

Find  the  simple  interest  on  $300  for  2  yrs.  at  6  per  cent 

Formula:— PXRXT=I. 
$300X^X2 


100 


,$36. 


By  analysis. 

1.  ioc#=$3oo. 

2-  i*=ikof  $3o°=$3- 

3.  6g=6x$3=$i8- 

4.  The  interest  for  1  yr.  =  $i8. 

5.  The  interest  for  2yrs.=2X$i8=$36. 


26 


450  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS  LIBRARY. 

In  this,  the  time  is  years  only. 

Find  the  interest  on  $540  for  2  yrs.  3  mo.  at  7  per  cent. 

2  yr.  3  mo.=27  mo.=f$  yr. 

By  analysis. 

1.  ioo£--$540. 

2.  i^=!,U  of  $54°=$5-4°- 
3-     7^=7X$5-40=$37-So. 

4.  The  int.  for  1  yr.  =  $37.80. 

5.  The  int.  for  ||  yr.  =  f£X$37-8o=$85.05. 

This  example  will  serve  as  a  model  for  all  problems  where  the 
time  is  years  and  months,  or  months  only. 

Find  the  simple  interest  on  $800  for  2  yr.  3  mo.  20  da.,  at  9 
per  cent. 

2  yr.  3  mo.  20  da.=83o  da.  or  |f  J  yr. 
$800X9X830 =$l66 
100        360 


By  analysis. 

1.  ioo#=$Soo. 

2.  i*=T^of$8oo=$8. 

3.  9£=9x$S=$72. 

4.  The  int.  for  1  yr.=$72. 

5.  The  int.  for  «f§  yr.  =  |»$X$72  =  $i66 

This  example  will  serve  as  a  model  for  all  problems  in  which 
the  time  is  years,  months,  and  days,  or  months  and  days,  or  days 
only.  The  amount  in  each  case,  is  to  be  found  by  adding  the  prin- 
cipal to  the  interest.  It  is  unnecessary  to  continue  the  discussion  of 
this  case  further.  The  processes  are  so  simple  that  the  pupil  will 
learn  them  readily. 

50.  The  following  are  the  formulae  for  the  different  cases 
included  in  the  subject  of  interest.  They  are  all  based  upon  and 
derived  from  the  one  given  above: 

1.     To  find  the  Principal.     P.= 


R.XT 

To  find  the  Rate.  R.: 


P.XT 

3.  To  find  the  Time.  T.=  = — '-=- 
J  P-XR- 

4.  To  find  the  Principal,  or  present  worth,  having  the  amount,  time,  and 


rate  given. 

P.= 


1  +  (R.XT.) 


METHODS   IX   ARITHMETIC.  451 

Applications  of  the  Formula. 

51.      i.     What    principal    will  produce  $75  int.  in  2   yr.  3  mo., 
at  6%  ? 

p.=    L    =  6$758 

R-XT.     xoffXff 
When  we  divide  by  a  fraction,  we  invert  the  divisor,  then  this  becomes: 
$75X100X12 


5 


6X27        ^$555r 


In  analyzing  any  of  these  problems,  the  student  must  remember 
that  the  value  for  one  year  must  be  found.  Then  the  difficulty  is 
mastered. 

Analysis  of  the  problem  given : 

1.  The  interest  for  §4  yr.=  $7 5. 

2.  "        "  "    1  yr.=if  of  $75=$14fi, 

3.  6#of  Prin.  =  $Mp." 

4.  i*«      "     =£of$l$a=$^. 

5.  ioo£of  Prin.  =  iooXjV°-=$555f- 

2.     At  what  rate  per  cent,   will  $600   produce    $60  int.  in 
1  yr.  8  mo.? 

R-  =  PO<T:=6oo  X  |o=?^Xi*=$A=^- 


By  analysis: 

{1.     The  interest  for  1  vr.  8  mo.  or  f|  jr. =$60. 
2.       "  '"         "     1  yr.=£§  of  $60= $36. 

3.     $36  are  how  many  per  cent,  of  $600. 

In  every  instance  it  is  brought  to  one  year. 

!i.    $600=100^. 
2.    $    i=4* of  i<x#=\%. 
3.    $  36=36  X-J*=6*. 


3.     In  what  time  will  $960  produce  $120  interest,  at  io£  ? 

I.        _       $I2Q       _$I2QXlOO_     ,, 

'_P.XR._9<JOXTV°ff-   960X10  ~l*  yt' 

This  is  purely  mechanical. 
By  analysis: 

1.  ioo#= $960. 

2.  i%=jhjf  of  $^=$9.6. 

3.  io£=ioX$9-6-  =  $96- 

4.  $  96  is  int.  for  1  vr. 

5.  $   1   M     "    *V>- 

6.  $120  "     u    120X5*1  yr=l/4  y-i or  *  y-  3  m°- 


452  TEACHERS   AND  STUDENTS    LI  BR  ART. 

4.      What    principal    in    3   yrs.  4.  mo.  will   amount   to    $1260 
at  6'.    ■ 

,,  _        _Al_  _»l36°       =$^=li^=$I26ox|^$iQ5o. 

By  analysis : 

Assume  $1.00  as  a  principal. 

I.        lOO#=$I. 

-■        ^  =  T0(7  of   $1=$lk- 

3.  6j«=6x$tU=$bV 

4.  The  int.  for  1  yr.=  $r,:ill. 

5.  "       "       "    j«  vr.  =  f  2  X  $&=$*<»  $.20. 

6.  $i+$.2o=$i.20,  am'I  of  $1  at  6%  for  3  yr.,  4  mo. 

7.  $1.20  amount  requires  $1  Prin. 

8.  *i  "         requires  $ I'nn. 

1  '  I  .2D 

q.     &1260       ,l         requires   1260X* P.  =  $1050  Prin. 

7      *  1 . 20 


This,  with  the  exception  of  Simple  Interest,  is  by  far  the  most 
important  of  the  several  cases.  By  means  of  this,  Present  Worth 
is  found ;  also  True  Discount.  True  Discount  is  found  by  subtracting 
the  Present  Worth  from  the  debt, 

5.     Find  the  Present  Worth  and  True  Discount  of  $940,  due 
in  2  yr.  3  mo.,  at  S%   ? 

Assume  $1  as  a  Prin. 

,.      ^lX8X27  =  $.i8. 
100    12 

2.  $i.oo4-$.iS=$i.i8,  am'tof  $1. 

3.  $1.18  Am'tr$i  Pres.  W. 

$1  «      =$  _ L-Pres.  W. 

1  .ib 


A 


1 


5.  $944       "     =94^X$ gPres.  W. =800,  Pres.  W. 

6.  $944— $Soo=$i44,  True  Dis. 

$800  put  on  int.  at  8f*  for  2  yr.  3  mo.,  would  amount  to  $944. 
Hence  the  definition  of  Pies.  W. 

Partial  Payments. 

52.  In  this,  teach  the  pupils  how  to  solve  the  problems  by 
the  following  rule,  and  it  will  he  sufficient. 

Rule.  —  Find  the  amount  of  the  principal  from  the  time  that  note  was 
given  until  the  time  of  settlement.  Find  the  amount  of  each  payment  from 
the  time  it  was  made  until  the  time  of  settlement.  From  the  amount  of  the 
principal  subtract  the  amount  of  t lie  payments;  the  result  will  be  the  sum  due. 

\-    this  is  hut  a  repetition  of  finding   the    simple    interest,  the 
problems  will  be  omitted. 


METHODS   IN   ARITHMETIC  453 

Hank  Discount. 

53.     The  following-    statements    observed,  the    student    will  be 
able  to  solve  all  questions  coming  under  the  subject  Bank  Discount. 

i.     Banks  deal  with  the  faee  of  the  note. 

2.  The  face  of  the  note  is  the  amount  due  at  maturity;  hence,  if  a  note 
is  drawing  interest,  the  face  will  he  the  principal. 

3.  The  note  is  nominally  due  at  the  expiration  of  the  time  indicated  in 
it.  It  is  legally  due  three  days  afterward.  In  all  computations  the  three  day> 
should  be  added.  » 

4.  Bank  discount  is  the  simple  interest  on  the  face  of  the  note. 

The  examples  following    will    illustrate    the    several    questions 
that  arise  in  actual  business. 

1.  Find  the  bank  discount  and  proceeds  of  a  note  of  $540 
due  in  60  da.,  at  6%- 

$540x6x60       „   ,   ,      ,    .. 
^      —      ,    =  $5.67  bank  dis. 
ico  360        -     ' 

$540— $5. 67 =$534.33  proceeds. 

This  may  be  analyzed  the  same  as  in  Case  I,  Simple   Interest. 

2.  What  is  the  face  of  a  note  on  which  I  can  borrow  $900 
for  90  da.,  money  worth  8%  ? 

Assume  $1    as   the  face  of  a  note   due    in   90  da.  and   find  how 
much  it  is  worth  now. 


$iX  8  x  00 

1.  ^-^ ^^=  $»i=$.o2TV  bank  dis. 

100    360      *TS    ^     T® 

2.  $1 — $.o2T1j=$.97}|,  proceeds  of  $1. 

3.  $-97^1  or received  require  $1  face  of  note. 

4.  $1  received  requires  $ — ^-  face  of  note. 

14.69 

5.  $900    "        require  900X$ — ^-  face  of  note=$9i9  face  of  note. 


These  two  examples  illustrate  the  two  cases  by  means  of  which 
all  of  the  problems  may  be  solved,  the  student  all  the  time  re- 
membering the  statements  made  at  the  beginning.  To  explain 
further,  a  few  examples  will  be  given. 

1.      A  note  of  $1260,  due  in  S  mo.,  is  given  March  15.     3  mo. 
afterward  it  is  discounted  at  a  bank  at  io£-     What  are  the  proceeds? 


1.  Mar.  [ 5-4-8  mo.  =  Nov.  15. 

2.  Mar.  15-J-3  mo.=June  15. 

3.  From  June  15  to  Nov.  15  =  153  da. 

4.  153  da.-f-3  da.=  iq6  da. 

$i26ox  10x156     ...      ... 

5.      ^=$=u.6o,  bank  dis. 

100     360 

6.  $1260 — $54.60= $1205.40,  proceeds. 


454 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 


2.  A  note  of  $720  due  in  1 20  da.,  drawing  interest  at  io#,  is 
given  Jan.  15.  30  da.  afterward  it  is  discounted  at  a  bank,  at  6%- 
What  are  the  proceeds? 


2. 
3- 

4- 

5- 


:  $24.60. 


$720X10X123 
IOO     360 

$72o-(-$24.6o= $744.60,  face  of  note. 
120  da. — 30  da. =90  da. 
$744-60X6x93 

100    360  J^  ' 

$744.60 — $1 1. 54  =  $733.06  proceeds. 


3.  A  man  purchased  $3000  worth  of  goods  on  3  mo.  time, 
or  5#  off  for  cash.  If  he  borrows  the  money  at  bank,  at  7^,  will  he 
gain  or  lose,  and  how  much  ? 

The  5#  off  is  commercial  discount  and  has  no  reference  to  time. 


I. 


1. 
2. 

3- 
4- 


:$3000. 


JOC#: 

7#=7  X  $30=  $2 10. 

$3000 — $2io=$2790  ain't  to  be  borrowed. 


-rh>  of  $3000= $30. 


Assume  $1  as  face  of  a  note  due  in  three  mo. 


II. 


$iX  7  X93 


:$f^  =  $.OI^. 


100  360 
$1— $.oi}§=$.98££  proceeds  of  $1. 

$.9S|i  or  $^lil  ree'd  require  $1  face  of  note 
40 

$1  ree'd  requires  $—    -  face  of  note. 


39-41  Q  [note. 

5.  $2790  ree'd  require  279oX$— — face  of  note=$283i-77  face  of 

39-41 

6.  $3000 — $2831.77  =  $169.23   gain  by  borrowing  the  money  and 

paying  cash. 


4.     A  note  of  $450,  drawing  interest  at  8%,  due  in  90  da.,  is 
discounted  at  bank  at  6%,  for  60  da.     What  are  the  proceeds? 


1. 

2. 

3- 
4- 


$450  X  8  X93 


=  $9.30. 


100   360 

$450-r-$93<i=$4 159.30,  face  of  note. 
$459-3QX  6  X63 
100   360 
$459-3°—  4-8-  =  $454-4s,  proceeds. 


Annua/  Interest. 

54.      A  problem   in  Annual    Interest    will    now   be    given  as  a 
model,  by  which  all  others  of  the  same  class  may  be  solved. 

A  man   bought  a  farm   for   $4500,  and  agreed  to  pay  principal 


METHODS    IN   ARITHMETIC. 


455 


and  interest  in  four  equal   annual   installments:  how  much   was  the 
annual  installment,  interest  being  6%  ? 

The  first  year  he  will  pay  the  interest  on  $4500,  which  will  be 
$270,  and  he  will  also  pay  part  of  the  principal. 

The  second  year  he  will  pay  interest  on  the  principal  ?inpaidy 
which  interest  will  be  less  by  the  interest  on  the  part  of  the  principal 
paid  the  year  before;  now  it  is  evident  that  if  the  payments  are 
equal  and  the  interest  is  less  the  second  year,  enough  more  of  the 
principal  must  be  paid  to  equal  this  amount  of  interest. 

Therefore,  we  make  this  general  statement:  As  the  interest 
paid  each  year  decreases  by  the  interest  on  the  principal  paid  the 
preceding  year,  the  principal  must  be  increased  by  the  same 
amount. 

The  part  of  the  principal  paid  the  4th  yr.  is  ioo#- 

f  a.  Also  let  ioo#=:part  of  principal  paid  3d  year 

b.  Then  6$=int.  on  that  prin. 

I.  I  1.  io6#  of  prin.  3dyear=ioo#  of  prin.  4th  yr. 

2.  1%        "  ■«        =Tiff  of  vx$=tf&%,  4th  year. 

3.  ioc#    "  =iooXUS$=94-34#Prin-  Paid  3d  J""- 

Now,  reasoning  as  before,  we  have 


(a. 
1. 


II. 


Let  ioo$=:part  of  prin.  paid  2d  yr. 
106%  of  prin.  2d  yr.=94.34#  prin.  3d  yr. 


ioc# 


=Tfr  of  94.34£=?±L|% 


=  IOOX^~T#: 
106 


106 

89$  prin.  2d  yr. 


III.  i 


a.     Let  ioo#=part  of  prin.  paid  istyr. 
1.     io6#  of  prin.  1st  yr.  =  89#  prin.  2d  yr. 

2-   1%  "    =r^°fs9£-ve<g. 


3.      IOC# 


100X 


,.,. 


^3.96^. 


1.  ic<#-f-94.34£-t-89£4-83.96#=367.3#  entire  prin. 

»■  367-3#=$45°°- 

3-  l%=Zjfa- -of  $4500=$!  2.2516. 

4.  ioc#=iooX$i2.25i6=$i225.i6,  part  of  prin.  paid  4th  yr. 

5.  Int.  on  $i225.i6@6«g=$73.5i. 

6.  $i225.i64-$73.5i  =  $i298.67. 


BONDS. 

55.  There  are  three  principal  cases  in  Bonds.  The  examples 
given  below  illustrate  not  only  what  is  true  of  Bonds  but  of  notes 
as  well. 

1.     Which  is  the  better  investment  and  what  per  cent.,  s>2o's 
at  105,  or  logo's  at  102,  gold  worth  1 10? 

For  convenience,  assume  the  L.  C.  M.  of  105  and  102,  which 
is  3570,  as  the  number  indicating  the  amount  of  money  to  be 
invested. 


l.v; 


l(  7/AA's      \\/>   STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 


IlJ 


III. 


Let  $3570= the  amount  invested. 

105* =$3570. 

«*=Toirof$357o=$34- 

100^=  iooX^34=$340o,  face  of  bond. 

6#=6x$34  =  $-04,  gold  interest. 

$1  gold=$i. 10  currency. 

$204  gold =$20.1  X $1.10  currency =$224.40  currency  interest. 

io2#=$357o. 

i^=r>,of$357o  =  $35. 
ioo^=iooX$35  =  $350o,  face  ot  bond. 

5*=5X$35  =  $i75»  g°ld  interest. 

$1  gold.— $ 1. 10,  currency. 

$175  gold  =  i75X$i-io  currency=$i92.5o,  currency  interest. 

$224.40— $192. 50=  $31. 90,  gain  in  favor  of  5-20S. 
$31.90  are  how  many  %  of  $3570? 
$3570=  ioog. 

$3i-9°=3«-9°X-,ry¥,o*=H?*  >"  favor  of 5-20S. 


2.     How  much  must  I  invest  in  5-2o's  at  105,  that  my  annual 
income  may  be  $600  in  currency,  gold  worth  120? 

i.  $120  currency=:$ioo  gold. 

2.  $1  currency  =  T^ff  of  $100  gold  —  $£  gold. 

3.  $600  currency=6ooX$«-  gold  =  $500  gold. 

4.  100;;  -face  of  bonds. 

5.  6g=$5oo. 

6.  i*=£of  $5oo  =  $S3.33M- 

7.  100^=  100X  $83.33^  =  $8333^  face  of  bonds. 

8.  $1  bond=:$i.o5  currency. 

9-  $8333/4  bonds=8333)£X$i-05  currency =$8750  investment. 


3.      What  per  cent,  shall  1  make  on  my  investment,  if  I  pur- 
chase 5-20's  at   105,  gold  worth  108? 

Let  $105=  the  investment. 
$105  currency  =  $100  bond. 

IOO#  =  $IOO. 

l%=lhsot  $ioo=$i. 
0jg=6x$i=$^  gold  interest. 


II. 


$1  gold  =  $1.08  currency. 

$6  gold  =  6x$i.oS  currency =6.48  currency. 

$6.48  are  how  many  %  of  $105? 
$105  =  100^. 

$6.48=6.4SXK^=6^. 


EXCHANGE. 

58.      There  are  two  rases  in  this  subject: — 

I.  A  person  has  a  debt  in  a  distant  city,  and  wishes  to 
know  how  much  he  must  pay  here  for  a  draft  that  will  liquidate 
the  debt. 


METHODS   IX   ARITHMETIC. 


15 


■  u 


II.  A  poison  has  a  certain  amount  of  money,  say  in  Chicago, 
and  he  wishes  to  know  how  much  it  will  he  worth  in  a 
distant  city. 

The  following  prohlems  will  illustrate  these  cases: — 
I.  A  merchant  in  Natchez  wishes  to  pay  $10000  in  Boston. 
He  transmits  through  New  Orleans  and  New  York.  From 
Natchez  to  New  Orleans,  exchange  is  %%  premium;  from  New 
Orleans  to  New  York,  $/%%  discount;  and  from  New  York  to 
Boston,  J/£%  discount.  By  this  exchange,  what  amount  at  Natchez 
will  pay  the  debt? 


Natchez,  $9062.22 


Boston,  $10,000 


99%% 


100% 


I-      \ 


II. 


III. 


New  Orleans,  $9912.65     y%%  Dis.     New  York,  $9975. 

1.  ioo$=amount  due  in  Boston. 

2.  «j£#=dis.  from  N.  Y.  to  Boston. 

3.  100$ — ]^%=^i^%  what  he  must  pay  in  N.  Y 

4.  ioo#=$ioooo. 

5.  i#=TJff  of  $IOOOO=$IOO. 
.6.  99^=99^x$ioo=$9975. 

1.  100$  =  what  he  must  pay  in  N.  Y. 

2.  ^<£=dis.  from  N.  O.  to  N.  Y. 

3.  ioo#— ^#=993^  ain't  at  N.  0. 

4.  ioo#=$9975  value  in  N.  Y. 

5-  i£=Tffff°r  $9975  =  $99-75- 

6-  99^=99^X9>75=$99i2.654  value  in  N.  O. 

1.  ioo<£=what  he  must  pay  in  N.  O. 

2.  ^<£=prem.  from  Natchez  to  N.  O. 

3.  io<y]l>-\-IA%=i(X)l4%  what  he  must  pay  in  Natchez. 

4.  ioo^=r$99i2.6q4  value  in  N.  O. 

5-  ^=Tffff  of  $99i::r,54=$99I26M- 

6.  ioo^^=ioo>^X$99i2+=$9962.i7  cost  of  draft  in  Natchez. 


2.  A  merchant  of  St.  Louis  wishes  to  remit  $7165.80  to 
Baltimore.  Exchange  on  Baltimore  is  ^%  premium;  but  on  New 
Orleans  y^%  premium,  from  New  Orleans  to  Havana  it  is  %  % 
discount,  from  Havana  to  Baltimore  it  is  \£%  discount.  What  will 
be  the  value  in  Baltimore  by  each  method,  and  how  much  better 
is  the  circular? 


458  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRARY. 

St.  I,.,  %-j\fi^Sa — Bait.,  87147.0,; 


ootf  % 


100  % 


N.  O.,  09%  X 


Hav.,  100  % 


$7156.85 

I.     By  Direct  Exchange. 


$7'65-Si 


ra.  \oq%%  St.  L.=ioo#  Bait. 

1.  iooj^  St.  L.=$7i65-8o  am't  to  be  remitted. 

h     \  2.  1%  St.  L.^-^of  $7 1 65.80= $7 1. 4793. 

3.  ioo#  St.  L.=  iooX$7i-4793=$7I47-93  value  by  direct  ex 

57.  CIRCULAR    EXCHANGE. 

a.  iooYi%  St.  L.=  ioo#  N.  O. 

1.  \ooy%%  St.  L.=$7i65.So  am't  to  be  remitted. 

2.  1%  St.  L.=  — ^  of  $7i65.8o=$7i.568$. 
ioo"/§ 

3.  ioo#  St.  L.  =  1 00  X $7 1  -5685  =  $7156.85  value  in  N.  O. 
«■  99#s#  N.  0.=ioo£  Hav. 
i-  99J&Z  N.  O. =  $7156.85  val.  in  N.  O. 


II.   \ 


III. 


2.     1%  N.  O. 


"99% 


of  7i56.S5  =  $7i.65Si. 


3.     ioo#  N.  0.  =  iooX$"i-65Si=$7i65.Si  val.  in  Hav. 

a.    99^$  Hav.=ioo#  Bait. 

1.     99^  Hav.  =  $7165.81  val.  in  Hav. 


IV. 


58. 


2.     1%   Hav. 


WV 


of  $7i65.Si  =  $7i.S377. 


3.  ioo£  IIav.  =  iooX$7i-S377=$7iS3.77  val.  in  Bait. 

4.  $7183.77— $7i47.93=$35-84  gain  by  cir.  ex. 

Practical  Problem. 


3.  A  Cincinnati  manufacturer  receives,  April  18th,  an  account  of 
sales  from  New  Orleans;  net  proceeds,  $5284.67  due  June  4-7.  He 
advised  his  agent  to  discount  the  debt  at  6%,  and  invest  the  proceeds 
in  a  seven-day  bill  on  New  York,  interest  off  at  6%,  at  y2%  discount 
and  remit  it  to  Cincinnati.      The  agent  does  tin's,  April  27. 

The  bill  reaches  Cincinnati,  May  3,  and  is  sold  at  ^%  premium. 
What  are  the  proceeds,  and  how  much  greater  than  if  a  bill  had 
been  drawn  May  3,  <>n  New  Oilcans,  due  Jan.  7,  sold  at  %%  pre- 
mium, and  interest  off* at  6    .- 


METHODS  IN  ARITHMETIC. 


45» 


Fiom  April  26  to  June  7,  is  47  days,  time  for  which  the  debt  was 

discounted. 
$5284.67X6X47 


100 
$1X6  X  10 


\(x; 


=  $36.99  discount. 


=  $ 


'thvz 


\%  discount. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


3- 
a. 
b. 
1. 


13- 
a. 
1. 
2. 

3- 
a. 

1. 


100    360 
y2%  discount-f^  discount=^£  wliole  dis. 
Let  ioo#=val.  in  N.  Y. 
ioog— ^#=99>£&  val.  in  N.  O. 
99^= $5247.68,  val.  in  N.  O. 

ij«=— y  of  $5247.68= $52,829.  x 

ioo^=iooX$52.829=$5282.90,  face  of  10-day  bill. 

ioo^-(-»4'^=iooXjg,  what  was  rec'd  for  bill. 
Let  ioo^=$52S200,  face  of  bill. 
i*=Tk  of  $VS2.90=$52.S29. 
100^=100 J<X$S3-S29=$S-96.io,  proceeds. 
From  May  3  to  June  7  is  35  days,  time  for  which  N.  O.  draft 
would  have  been  discounted. 

$1  X  6  X  35  =$    ,     or  ^  discount. 

100    360       1-uu 
£$  discount— yi%  premium  =  \{%,  actual  dis.  of  sale. 

Let  ioo<g=  $5284.67,  face  of  bill. 

*%=tU  of  $5^4.67 =$52.8467. 

M^-iiX$52.S467=$24-22,  discount  Phe.bi1L 

$5284.67— $24.22  =  $526o.40,  what  would  have  been  realized  for 

$5296.10— $526o.+o=$35.64,  gain. 

SQUARE    HOOT. 

59.  The  solutions  of  questions  in  Square  Root  is  not  so 
difficult,  but  the  work  is  usually  made  too  mechanical.  While  it 
would  not  be  advisable  for  the  student  to  follow  the  form  at  all 
times,  yet  it  is  necessary  that   he  should  see  a  reason  for  each  step. 

Steps: — 

1.  Beginning  at  the  right,  point  the  number  into  periods  of  two  figures 
each;  because  the  square  of  no  one  of  the  nine  digits  exceeds  two  places;  it 
also  gives  the  number  of  figures  in  the  root. 

2.  Find  the  greatest  square  in  the  left  period  whose  root  is  an  integer, 
and  find  its  root. 

Subtract. 

Double  the  root  found,  to  find  the  length  to  which  we  add. 

Divide. 

Find  the  area  of  the  two  oblong  additions. 

»       '<       "         "       small  square. 

"       "     total  area  of  the  additions  thus  made. 
Subtract. 
Repeat,  beginning  with  the  4th  step. 


3- 
4- 
5- 
6. 

7- 

8. 

9- 
10. 


Extract  the  square  root  of  15625  sq.  in.: — 


I. 


1.  A  surface  1  in.  long,  1  in.  wide  =  i  sq.  in. 

2.  A  surface  100  in.  long,  1  in.  wide=iooXl  sq.  in.  =  100  sq.  in. 

3.  A  surface  100  in.  long,  100  in.  wide=ic©X  100  sq.  in. =  10000  sq.  in. 
L4.  15625  sq.  in.— 10000  sq.  in. =5625  sq.  in. 


400 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBEART. 


II-   i 


III. 


i.  :  times  ioo  in.  =  200  in., 
length  to  which  we  add. 
Since  the  5625  is  sq.  in. 
and  the  200  is  linear 
inches,  it  is  impossible  to 
divide  the  one  by  the 
other,  as  that  which  has 
length  and  breadth  can- 
not be  divided  by  that 
which  has  no  breadth ; 
hence  we  have: 

2.  An   addition    1   in.  wide   to 

200    in.    in    length  =  200 
sq.  in. 

3.  An  addition  of  200  sq.  in. 

requires  1  in.  in  width. 

4.  An  addition  of  1  sq.  in.  re- 

quires jjj  In.  in  width. 

5.  An  addition  of  5625  sq.  in.  requires  5625X^0$  m>  *n  width  =  20  in. 

in  width.     This  is  true  to  one  place. 

1.  100X20X2=4000,  area  of  the  two  oblong  additions. 

2.  20X20         =  400,     "      "     "    small  square. 

3.  4000-I-400  =4400,  total  area  of  additions. 
14-  56-5— 44°°=i225. 


*s 

120 

S 

400 

sq.in. 

20 

to 

O 

2,000  sq.  inches. 

u 

0 

IOO 

N 

c/i 

0 

u 

c 

8 

10,000 
square  inches. 

8 

s 

30 

100 

We  now  repeat,  beginning  with  the  4th  step: — 


IV. 


3- 

4- 

IS- 
i. 

3- 

4- 
Th 


2  times  120  in.  =  240  in.,  length  to  which  we  add. 
An  addition  1  in.  wide  to  240  in.  long=240  sq.  in. 

"  "       of  240  sq.  in.  requires  1  in.  wide. 

"  "        of  1  sq.  in.  requires  ^|-ff  in.  wide. 

"        of  1225  sq.  in.  requires  1225X^-5  in-  wide=5  *n-  wide. 
120X5X^  =  1200,  area  of  two  oblong  additions. 
5X5  =     25,  area  of  small  square. 

1200-4-25  =1225,  total  area  of  additions. 
1225 — 1225=0. 

e  square  root  of  15625  is  125. 


After  this  is  thoroughly  understood,  numerous  practical  problems 


should  be  <^iven. 


CUBE    HOOT. 


60.  Required  the  cube  root  of  2460375  cubic  feet. 
I.     Steps: — 

1.  Beginning  at  the  rijjht,  point  into  periods  of  three  places  each;  be- 
cause the  cube  of  no  one  of  the  digits  exceeds  three  places. 

2.  Find  the  greatest  cube  in  the  left  period,  and  find  its  root. 

3.  Subtract. 

4.  Find  surface  to  which  we  add. 

5.  Divide. 

6.  Find  the  solidity  of  the  three  large  additions. 

7.  Find  the  solidity  of  the  three  obiong  additions. 

8.  Find  the  soliditv  of  the  small  cube. 

9.  Find  the  total  solidity  of  additions. 

10.  Subtract . 

11.  Repeat,  beginning  with  4th  step. 


METHODS   IN   ARITHMETIC. 


461 


II.     Solution: — 

Suppose  the  numbers  to  represent  cubic  feet. 
100 

3° 

5 


2 '46o' 375' 


*35 


1.     Place  a  point  over  units,  thousands,  and  millions  figure. 
The  greatest  cube  in  left  period  is  ioooooo;the  root  is  100: — 

"1.     A  solid  1  ft.  long,  1  ft.  wide,  1  ft.  thick  =1  cubic  foot. 
2.     A  solid  100  ft.  long,  1  ft.  wide,   1   ft.  thick  =  ic©Xi  cubic  ft.=  ioo> 
cubic  feet. 
I  3.     A  solid  100  feet  long,  100  feet  wide,   1  foot  thick=iooXioo  cubic 
feet =10000  cubic  feet. 
4.     A  solid  100  feet  long,  100  feet  wide,  100  feet  thick  =  1 00 X  1 0000 

cubic  feet=ioooooo  cubic  feet. 
2460375  cu.  ft. — 1000000  cu.  ft.  =  1460375  cu.  ft. 
'  1.     A  surface  1  foot  long,  1  foot  wide  =  i  square  foot. 

2.  A  surface  100  feet  long,  1  foot  wide=iooXi  &q.  ft.=  ioo  sq.  ft 

3.  A  surface  100  ft.  long,  100  ft.  vide=iooX  100  sq.  ft.=  ioooo  sq.  ft. 

4.  The  surface  of  1  face=ioooo  sq.  ft. 

5.  The  surface  of  3  faces=3X  10000  sq.  ft.=30000  sq.  ft.,  surface,   to 
which  we  add, 

'  1.     An  addition  1  ft.  thick  to  30000  sq.  ft.  requires  30000  cu.  ft. 
2.     An  addition  of  30000  cu.  ft.  requires  1  foot  in  thickness. 
HI  J  3.      «  "  "  "        I       "  "       refonf  ft.  in  thickness. 

I  4.      '•  "  "    1460376"  "       1460375 X^iffrr    ft-  '"  lhick- 

ness=30  ft.  in  thickness,  true  to  ten's  place. 

By  remembering  that  when  the  solid  content  of  any  solid  are 
to  be  found,  the  analysis  of  the  first  is  always  given,  the  rest  may 
be  solved  mechanically. 


II. 


IV. 


100X100X30X3=900000,  solidity  of  3  large  additions. 
iooX3oX3oX3=-70°oo>  solidity  of  the  3  oblong  additions. 
30X30X30=270000,  soliditv  of  small  cube. 
9000004-270000-1-27000=  11 97000,  total  soliditv  of  additions. 
1460375— 1 197000=26337;. 


Repeat,  beginning  with  4th  step:- 


VI. 


VII. 


A  surface  1  ft.  long,  1  ft.  wide=i  sq.  ft. 

«•         »    1^0"       "       1"       "     =130X1  sq.  ft.  =  130  sq.  ft. 

"         »    130"       '•  130"       "     =i3oX  130  sq.  ft  =16900  sq.  ft. 

The  surface  of  1  side =16900  sq.  ft. 

"         "        ■•  3  sides=3X  16900  sq.  ft.=507oo  sq.  ft. 
An  addition  of  1  ft.  thick  to  50700  sq.  ft.=  507on  cu.  ft. 

«  "        of  ^0700  cu.  ft.  requires  1  ft.  thick. 

"  "  "  I    "      "  "  5uJ0(J  ,u  tnick- 

263375 ^'3375X5C7Cncu-ft-  =  5t't-th- 

i30Xi30X5X3  =  -535o°-  solidity  of  3  large  addition-. 
130X5X5X3  =  5850,  soliditv  3  oblong  additions. 
cX5X5=i25i  solidity  of  small  cube. 
253500+5850+1 25  =  263375. 

263375—263375=o- 

The  cube  root  of  2460375  cu.  it.  i>  100+30+5,  or  135  ft. 


4f»2  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBKART. 

I.XIIIAi    I  ION     OF     ANY     ROOT. 

61.  The  fourth  root  may  be  found  by  extracting  the  square 
root  of  the  square  root.  The  sixth  root,  by  extracting  the  square 
root  of  the  cube  root.  The  eighth  root,  by  extracting  the  square 
root  <>f  the  square  root  of  the  square  root.  The  ninth  root,  by  ex. 
ti  acting  the  cube  root  of  the  cube  root,  and  so  on.  Whenever  the 
index  of  the  root  can  he  resolved  into  factors,  these  factors  indicate 
the  root  to  be  extracted. 

Since  5,  7,  11,  etc.,  are  prime  numbers,  the  index  of  the  root  is 
not  the  product  of  factors;  hence  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  general 
rule. 

For  example,  we  will  extract  the  fifth  root  of  36936242722357. 

1.  Point  the  number  into  periods  of  5  figures  each. 

2.  Find  the  greatest  5th  root  in  the  left  period. 

3.  Subtract  the  5th  power  of  this  root  from  the  left  period. 

4.  To  the  remainder  bring  down  the  first  figure  in  the  next  period  for  a 
dividend. 

5.  Raise  the  root  thus  found  to  a  power  one  less  than  the  index  of  the 
root,  and  multiply  it  by  the  number  denoting  the  given  power,  for  a  divisor. 

6.  Divide. 

7.  Raise  the  whole  root  to  the  power  indicated  by  the  index  of  the  root. 

8.  Subtract  this  amount  from  the  two  left  periods. 

9.  To  the  remainder  bring  down  the  first  figure  of  the  next  period  for  a 
new  dividend. 

10.     Repeat,  beginning  with  the  5th  step. 

3693 '62427 '22357'  I  517 

1-  5X5X5X5X5=3125. 

2-  3693— 3 J -5  =  568. 

3.  After  subtracting,  bring  down  first  figure  of  next  period. 

3-  54X5  =  3125,  filst  divisor. 

4.  5680-^3125  =  1,  second  figure  of  the  root. 

5.  515=345125251.     This  amount  is  to  be  subtracted  from  the  first  two 
periods,  as  follows : 

6.  369362427—345125251  =  24337176. 

7.  To  this  remainder  bring  down  the  first  figure  of  the  next  period,  and 
we  have  243371762. 

S.  We  now  repeat,  beginning  with  the  5th  step. 

9.  5i*X5  =  3!8j6oo5,  second  divisor. 

10.  243371762-^-33826005  =  7,  third  figure  of  root. 

11.  517^3693'u .( 2722357.     This  is  to  be  subtracted  from  the  entire  three 
periods. 

12.  36936242722357—36936242722357=0. 

This  same  process   may  he  used  for  the  extraction  of  any  root 
The  only  difference  in  the  steps  would  be  in  the  pointing.     If  the 
7th  root  is  to  be  extracted,  then  point  into  periods  of  seven  figures; 
if  the  1  ith  root,  then  into  periods  of  11  figures;  and  so  on. 

62.  Wiih  this  brief  outline  of  the  parts  of  Arithmetic  as  a 
guide,  the  teacher  will  be  able  to  analyze  all  the  other  parts;  and 
to  teach  it  to  the  pupils  so  that  they  may  make  practical  use  of  it. 
Alter  the   child    thoroughly    understands    the  "why,"  then    let  the 


METHODS   IN  ARITHMETIC.  463 

problems  be  solved  in  the  shortest  ways.  The  teacher  cannot 
over-estimate  the  importance  of  numerous  practical  problems 
suited  to  the  needs  of  all  kinds  of  business. 

QUESTIONS    ON     ARITHMETIC. 

i.  What  is  the  chief  thing  to  he  considered  in  studying  Arithmetic?  2 — 8 
Define  Arithmetic.  A  number.  Problem.  Example.  Unit.  Abstract  number. 
Concrete  number. 

io.  How  would  you  conduct  your  first  lessons  in  Primary  Arithmetic? 
n.  Give  the  steps  in  the  solution  of  a  problem.  12.  What  is  the  concrete 
method?  What  other  method?  13.  Define  multiplication.  What  is  the  basis 
of  reasoning  in  analysis?     14.  Give  a  model  solution  in  multiplication. 

15.  Define  division.  Give  a  model  solution.  What  is  the  chief  difficulty 
in  long  division?  17.  How  do  you  square  a  number  of  two  places  ending  in  5? 
State  several  "  short  methods  of  squaring." 

18.  State  the  two  processes  (principles)  of  reasoning  in  mental  arithmetic. 
What  is  the  unit  of  a  fraction?  What  is  a  fractional  unit?  19.  Construct  and 
solve  a  problem  under  each  of  the  two  principles. 

20.  What  general  principle  is  involved  in  the  solution  of  algebraic  prob- 
lems. If  ?  of  the  time  past  noon  equals  )/$  of  the  time  to  midnight,  what  is  the 
hour?  Make  and  solve  a  "  clock  problem  "  in  \\  hich  the  hands  are  together. 
One  in  which  the  hands  are  opposite.  One  in  which  the  hands  are  at  right  an- 
gles. 21.  What  general  principle  runs  through  "  age  "  problems?  Make  and 
solve  an  age  problem.  22.  Make  and  solve  a  "  fish  "  question.  23.  Make  and 
solve  a  "  fox"  question.  24.  Would  you  insist  on  your  pupils'  giving  the  full 
formula  laid  down  for  the  solution  of  each  class  of  questions? 

26.  What  is  a  factor?  A  prime  factor?  A  divisor?  The  greatest  com- 
mon divisor?  2S.  Give  the  two  methods  of  finding  the  G.  C.  D.  On  what  is 
the  second  method  based?  Construct  a  problem  which  is  an  application  of  the 
G.  C.  D.     30.  What  is  the  L.  C.  M.?     Give  a  method  of  finding  it. 

32.  How  would  you  begin  to  teach  common  fractions?  33.  State  four 
general  principles  applicable  to  fractions  with  the  reason  for  each.  34.  Explain 
the  process  of  reducing  fractions  to  their  least  common  denominator.  Explain 
the  process  of  inverting  the  divisor  in  division  of  fractions. 

35.  What  is  a  decimal  fi action?  Explain  the  use  of  the  separatrix.  36. 
Explain  the  use  of  the  hyphen  and  '•and''''  in  writing  decimals.  37.  What  points 
are  to  be  remembered  specially  in  writing  decimals?  Kinds  of  decimals?  38. 
Give  the  rules  for  pointing  in  multiplication  of  decimals.  Rule  for  pointing  in 
division  of  decimals.     Reason  of  rule? 

39.  What  is  a  compound  number?  Explain  and  illustrate  the  difference 
between  reduction  descending  and  reduction  ascending.  40.  What  is  a  unit  of 
measure?  41.  What  two  cases  in  longitude  and  time?  Illustrate  both.  42. 
What  is  the  date,  line? 

43.  What  two  parts  exist  in  every  problem  in  proportion?  Give  the  steps 
in  the  solution  of  a  problem  in  simple  proportion.  44.  What  is  compound  pro- 
portion? In  the  statement  of  a  problem  what  does  x  represent?  45.  Explain 
the  "  Shorter  Analysis." 

46.  Name  the  different  cases  in  percentage.  Illustrate  each  by  an  example 
and  state  what  is  involved  in  each.  47.  In  problem  one  of  this  section,  explain 
how  100  #  equals  120$.  48.  What  are  the  three  cases  in  commission.  Problem. 
John  Ford  &  Co.  receive  $2,700  with  which  to  buy  mess  pork.  Commission  is 
I  of  one  per  cent.     How  much  will  they  invest? 

49.  How  many  cases  in  interest?  50.  Give  a  formula  for  each.  Which  is 
preferable,  the  solution  of  problems  in  interest  by  the  formula  or  by  analysis? 
51.     What  is  present  worth? 

52.  What  is  the  best  method  in  partial  payments?  55.  What  is  the  face 
of  a  "note?     What  is  bank  discount?     Define    proceeds.     54.     What    principle 


464  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

arises  where  tonal  payments,  consisting  of  principal  and   interest  are  to  be  ap- 
plied to  the  payment  of  a  debt?     55.     What  cases  arise  under  Bonds} 

57.  What  is  circular  exchange?  58.  What  cases  arise  under  exchange? 
59.  Give  the  steps  In  finding  the  square  root.  60.  How  point  in  finding  the 
cube  root?  Give  the  steps  in  finding  the  cube  root.  61.  How  may  roots 
higher  than  the  cube  root  be  found? 


•■••■tll|^||ll>ii» 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT. 


See  Hints  on   Teaching  after  each  of  the  branches. 

the  teacher's  qualifications. 

1.  The  teacher  should  be  morally,  mentally  and  physically 
well  qualified  for  his  work.  He  should  be  a  model  man  if  he 
would  be  a  true  teacher,  for  he  teaches  every  moment  of  his  life  by. 
bis  example.  Children  unconsciously  imbibe  the  moral  and  men- 
tal atmosphere  which  the  teacher  carries  about  him.  He  cannot 
he  a  successful  hypocrite.  His  good  or  bad  qualities  will  shine 
through  any  mask  he  may  attempt  to  wear.  Children  are  natural 
mind  readers,  and  while  we  may  think  we  are  deceiving-  them 
their  conduct  will  bear  out  the  assertion  that  what  good  or  bad 
qualities  they  may  exhibit  are  in  a  great  measure  but  a  reflection 
of  the  real  character  of  those  who  act  as  their  teachers. 

2.  Man  is  in  great  measure  a  creature  of  education.  Natural 
endowments  go  a  great  way;  but  the  power  of  education  is  often 
much  more  important  in  its  effects  on  the  human  mind.  Let  the 
teacher  cultivate  especially  the  qualities  named  below: — 

1.  A  Cheerful  and  Hopeful  Disposition. — The  man  or 
woman  who  is  placed  in  charge  of  the  buoyant  and  cheerful  natures 
of  children  should  have  the  same  disposition. 

2.  A  Frank  and  Unsuspicious  Nature. — While  a  certain  de- 
gree of  supervision  should  be  exercised  over  children  and  youth,  il 
should  be  remembered  that  we  must  appeal  to  a  certain  sense  of 
honor  which  all  possess  in  some  degree  if  we  would  gain  control 
over  them.  Do  not  make  a  show  of  watching,  but  be  ever 
on    guard. 

5.  Kindness. — This  word  needs  no  comment.  There  are 
many  occasions  where  the  teacher  may  show  a  kind  disposition 
and  gain  a  power  over  children  which  force  would  never  gain. 

4.      Conscientiousness. — This  quality  controls   in  reality  all 

Others.      Mut  especially  does  the  teacher  need   to  be  conscientious  in 

ard    to    his    particular    work.      He    should  leave  nothing  undone 


SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT. 

which  his  conscience   tells   him    to   do  and  which  is  in  his  power  to 
do  for  the  advancement  of  those  under  his  care. 

5.  Firmness  and  Self-reliance. — Avoid  extremes  here.  The 
golden  mean  is  to  he  firm  without  being  despotic;  to  be  self-reliant 
without  being  either  conceited  or  obstinate. 

6.  Agreeableness. — The  teacher  above  all  others  needs  this 
quality.  He  cannot  instruct  unless  he  is  agreeable  to  his  pupils. 
He  should  guard  his  expressions  and  conceal  his  feelings  many 
times,  lest  he  make  himself  unnecessarily  disagreeable.  This  im- 
plies the  power  of  adapting  himself  to  the  different  classes  of 
persons 'with  whom  he  may  be  thrown. 

7.  A  Love  of  Order. — This  is  sadly  deficient  in  many  teachers. 
It  can  be  cultivated. 

S.  A  Love  of  the  Work. — It'  von  have  not  a  natural  love  for 
the  work  and  cannot  cultivate  a  taste  for  it,  for  the  good  of  yourself 
and  your  pupils,  leave  the  profession. 

9.  Xeatncss. — Not  only  neatness  in  person  and  dress,  hut  in 
all  things.  The  teacher  who  is  careless  and  slovenly  in  appear- 
ance cannot  have  much  influence  with  his  pupils,  and  he  who  can- 
not place  work  on  the  blackboard  or  elsewhere  neatly  and  accu- 
rately, cannot  expect  his  pupils  to  do  so. 

to.  Politeness. — The  teacher  should  be  the  true  gentleman. 
It  is  easy  to  say  "  Thank  you"  in  the  proper  place,  and  we  should 
remember  that  all  these  little  civilities  are  not  thrown  away  upon 
children  or  inferiors. 

11.  Punctuality. — The  teacher  who  is  not  punctual  to  his 
own  appointments  ought  not  to  expect  it  from  his  pupils.  A  com- 
mon error  is  to  hold  a  class  over  its  time  or  hold  school  a  few 
minutes  after  the  proper  time.  This  latter  the  pupils  justly  resent 
as  robbing  them  of  their  time.      Its  effect  is  very  bad. 

12.  Health. — The  teacher  should  have  good  health.  Many 
make  a  great  mistake  in  supposing  that  because  they  have  delicate 
constitutions  they  can  teach  more  successfully  than  they  can  engage 
in  more  active  pursuits.  The  delicate  nervous  person  is  the  last 
one  who  should  enter  the  school-room.  Teaching  is,  at  the  best, 
wearing  on  the  nerves,  and  such  a  person  will  sooner  or  later  break 
down.  Be  careful  of  your  habits;  do  not  eat  too  much;  avoid  fats 
and  rich  dishes.  When  very  tired  and  nervous  at  night,  a  very 
light  supper  and  a  good  night's  sleep  is  infinitely  better  than  a 
heavy  supper  and  a  restless  night.  Take  all  the  out-door  exercise 
possible.  Remember,  all  the  above  enumerated  points  will  depend 
largely  on  the  state  of  your  health. 

3.  Attainments. — The  entire  tenor  of  this  volume  is  that  the 
teacher  should  be  well  prepared  a--  to  scientific  and  literary  qualifi- 
cations for  his  work.  He  should  bear  in  mind  that  knowledge  of 
branches  outside  of  his  special  work  will  aid  him  greatly.  A  teacher 
can    teach    geography    much    better    for    having    studied    geology, 


*> 


\ 


TEACHERS1  AND  STUDENTS  LIBRART. 

zoolog}  and  botany.  He  can  teach  arithmetic  better  for  having 
studied  algebra,  and  so  on.  If  he  has  not  had  the  opportunity  of 
studying  these  collateral  branches  in  school,  he  should  procure 
books  and  read  up  these  subjects.  It  is  hoped  the  texts  and  out- 
lines, etc.,  in  this  volume  will  stimulate  the  teacher  of  the  common 
branches  to  a  study  of  the  Sciences,  History  and  Literature.  The 
teacher  should  read  much  and  read  a  great  variety  of  hooks,  lie 
should  read  with  some  definite  system.  He  should  make  notes  of 
hi-,  readings  and  think  as  he  goes,  otherwise  much  reading  only 
results  in  mental  dyspepsia.  He  should  select  his  books  as 
carefully    as    his    friends,    for    hooks    are   really   the    most    intimate 

friends. 

4.  Teachers  should  attend  their  county  and  township  institute-, 
and  not  only  attend  them  faithfully,  hut  take  part  in  them.  Do 
not  let  some  "big  :41m  "  do  all  the  talking.  Make  yourself  free  to 
ask  questions  and  discuss  points  that  may  come.  up.  The  teachers 
of  country  schools  and  the  primary  teachers  in  our  cities  may  learn 
much  from  each  other,  by  an  exchange  of  ideas  and  methods,  and  if 
the  opportunity  is  not  given  in  regular  institutes  for  such  exchange 
of  thought,  organize  institutes  of  your  own  and  discuss  matters 
pertaining  to  your  own  special  work. 

THE    SCHOOL GENERAL    HINTS. 

5.  The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  please  hi-  patrons,  not  by  a 
fawning  servility,  but  by  showing  them  that  he  is  really  interested 
in  his  work,  anil  by  doing  good  work.  He  should  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  parents  as  far  as  it  is  within  his  power.  It  fre- 
quently happens  that  trouble  arises  because  of  a  pupil's  misrepre- 
senting matters  to  his  parents,  who  believe  implicitly  in  the 
declarations  of  the  child.  Such  difficulties  would  occur  less  fre- 
quently were  the  parents  better  acquainted  with  the  purposes  and 
plans  of  the  teacher.  If  a  child  brings  instructions  to  the  teacher 
from  the  parent,  the  teacher  ought  to  visit  that  parent  a-  soon  as 
possible  and  talk  the  matter  over  with  him.  The  best  condition  of 
affairs  is  where  the  teacher  and  parents  work  together,  and  it  lies 
with  the  teacher  in  a  great  measure  to  secure  this  co-operation. 

6.  It  is  not  proper  for  the  teacher  to  be  a  strong  partisan.  It' 
he  have  radical  views  on  any  subject,  whether  in  religion  or  pol- 
ities for  his  own  sake  it  is  best  that  he  keep  his  views  to  himself. 
As  much  to  be  avoided  on  the  other  hand  is  the  attempt  to  stand 
on  both  sides  of  every  question  in  order  to  be  popular.  It  is  the 
surest  way  for  any  man  to  become  unpopular.  Let  him  be  straight- 
forward and  outspoken  in  the  expression  of  those  views  which  are 
held  by  the  majority,  but  reserved  upon  questions  in  which  he 
stands  'nearly  alone."  He  will  gain  nothing  by  forcing  his  views 
upon  people,  and  necessarily  make  many  enemies.  His  motto 
should  be,  the  greatest  good  to  the  greatest  number. 


I 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT.  167 

7.  There  are  manv  reasons  why  a  teacher,  if  he  he  a  strangen 
should  spend  a  week  at  least  among  the  patrons  and  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  his  school  before  it  opens,  lie  should  learn  as  much  as 
possible  about  the  nature  of  the  work  he  is  about  to  undertake. 
He  can  obtain  much  information  that  will  assist  him  in  making 
out  his  programme  of  daily  work.  This  information  he  can  get 
from  the  directors,  from  the  parents,  from  the  former  teacher  per- 
haps, and  from  the  pupils  whom  he  may  meet.  If  repairs  or  ap- 
paratus are  needed,  the  board  should  be  consulted,  for  in  many 
cases  if  the  teacher  does  not  see  after  such  matters,  no  one  will.  I  Ie 
should  have  the  general  outline  of  a  programme  made  out  before 
the  school  opens.  This  programme  will  need  to  he  modified  ami 
completed,  of  course,  afterward. 

8.  For  an  ungraded  school  map  out  a  programme  somewhat 
as  follows:  Draw  vertical  lines  so  as  to  make  six  columns,  heading 
them  respectively,  Begins,  Ends,  Continues,  A  grade,  B  grade,  C 
grade.  In  the  first  column  place  the  hours  at  which  each  exercise 
begins;  in  the  second  the  hours  at  which  each  exercise  ends;  in  the 
third  the  number  of  minutes  each  exercise  lasts;  in  the  fourth 
column  place  the  name  of  the  recitation  or  exercise  which  comes 
in  that  grade;  in  the  fifth  and  sixth,  the  B  and  C  grades  arranged 
similarly.  Follow  the  programme  strictly,  giving  definite  time  to 
each  exercise  and  intermissions. 

9.  A  country  school  may  be  graded  on  the  basis  of  reading, 
all  including  the  3d  reader  and  below  being  in  the  A  grade,  the 
4th  and  5th  reader  the  B  grade,  and  the  6th  reader  the  C  grade. 
This  grading  is  only  for  convenience  in  arranging  a  programme. 
Some  pupils  may  belong  to  two  grades  as  to  certain  other  branches. 
A  programme  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  provide  a  proper  time 
for  study  as  well  as  recitation,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
time  for  the  study  of  any  branch  should  be  immediately  after 
the  recitation.  Grade  your  school  so  as  to  reduce  the  number 
of  classes  to  a  minimum.  If  you  attempt  to  hear  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  classes  per  day  you  cannot  do  justice  to  any  of 
them. 

10.  It  is  best  to  have  between  each  intermission  a  few  minutes 
set  apart  for  rest  or  some  kind  of  general  exercise.  Say  five 
minutes  be  allowed  upon  programme  in  the  middle  of  each  quarter 
day's  session.  This  time  may  be  occupied  in  various  ways.  Some- 
time it  may  be  a  mere  relaxation  from  all  duties,  allowing  the  pupils 
to  rise  and  move  about  the  room  and  engage  in  conversation  and 
laughter,  hut  not  to  leaye  the  room.  Many  times  an  intermission 
of  tin's  kind  will  act  as  a  safety  valve  to  let  off  the  surplus  nervous 
activity,  and  it  will  be  much  easier  to  maintain  quiet  during  the  re- 
mainder of  the  session.  The  teacher  may  make  use  of  these  five 
minutes'  intervals  in  talking  on  subjects  which  will  interest  the 
whole  school,  or  the  pupils  may  be  taken  through  a  course  of  gvm- 


TEACHERS'  AND  A /7  YV..V7V  LIBRARY. 

nastic  exercise,   or   be   given  a   blackboard   or  map  drill  on  some 
points  of  general  interes 

11.  The  matter  of  ventilation  should  not  be  neglected.  .V 
room  is  properly  ventilated  when  there  is  free  access  of  fresh  air 
and  a  free  egress  for  foul  air  ami  the  room  is  so  arranged  that  no 
occupant  is  subject  to  drafts.  As  most  schooihoiisc--  are  constructed 
it  is  difficult  to  secure  a  free  access  of  fresh  air  without  exposing 
some  one  to  a  cold  draft.  Cold  air  is  heavier  than  warm  air.  Air 
made  impure  by  breathing,  that  is,  by  being  impregnated  with 
carbonic  oxide  from  the  lungs,  is  heavier  than  pure  air  of  the  same 
temperature.  The  exhalation  from  the  lungs  first  rises  because  it 
is  warmed  by  the  animal,  heat  of  the"  body  to  a  degree  above  that 
of  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  but  if  not  allowed  to  escape  at  the 
top  of  the  room  it  becomes  cooler  after  a  while  and  sinks  to  the 
level  of  the  occupants,  and  may  be  again  inhaled. 

12.  If;;  room  be  made  perfectly  tight  and  a  number  of  persons 
be  shut  up  in  it  without  fire,  the  temperature  will  soon  rise  because 
of  the  warm  exhalations  from  their  lungs  and  skin.  They  would 
consume  the  oxygen  gradually  and  return  in  its  place  carbonic  ox- 
ide, a  poisonous  gas,  and  in  a  comparatively  short  time  all  would 
sink  down  exhausted,  both  from  the  lack  of  the  life-sustaining  oxy- 
gen and  from  the  depressing  poisonous  effects  of  the  carbonic 
oxide.  Hut  if  a  window  be  opened  at  the  top  and  bottom  a  cool 
current  of  fresh  air  will  pour  in  at  the  bottom  and  a  warm  current 
of  foul  air  will  rush  out  at  the  top.  If  this  cool  current  strikes  any 
person  who  is  inactive  he  will  be  very  apt  to  "take  cold,"  because 
under  the  depression  of  the  impure  air  and  the  higher  temperature, 
his  pores  will  be  relaxed  and  the  cold  current  will  suddenly  close 
them  so  that  excretion  through  the  skin  cannot  take  place.  So 
the  d.inger  of  improper  ventilation  arises  from  two  entirely  different 
causes. 

13.  If  a  window  be  opened  at  one  place  only,  either  at  top  or 
bottom,  there  will  be  two  currents  established  side  by  side,  one  of 
pure  cold  air  rushing  in  and  the  other  of  warm  foul  air  rushing  out, 
and  a  cold  draft  will  occur  as  before.  What  (hen  is  to  be  done  to  se- 
cure immunity  from  drafts  and  an  abundant  supply  o!  fresh  air  at 
the  same  time?  There  are  various  devices.  One  is  to  have  the 
cold  air  warmed  before  it  circulates  through  the  room.  This  may 
be  done  in  a  common  room  by  having  a  tube  communicating  with 
the  outside  of  the  house  and  opening  under  the  stove.  Another 
plan  is  to  shield  the  opening  so  that  the  draft  be  not  direct.  This 
may  be  done  with  a  curtain.  Or  a  window  may  be  opened  in  a 
part  of  the  room  which  is  not  occupied.  There  is  an  objection  to 
having  the  air  warmed  before  it  circulates  through  the  room,  as 
wanning  the  air  also  dries  it,  and  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  in 
the  air  is  necessary  to  health}  breathing.  This  may  be  obviated  in 
part  by  keeping  a  vessel  of  water  on  the  stove. 


SCHOOL    MAXAOEMEVT  4<j«j 


CONDUCTING     It  KCITA TIONS. 


14.  The  objects  of  a  recitation  are:  (i)  To  find  out  what 
the  pupil  knows  about  the  lesson  assigned.  (2)  That  the  pupil 
may  receive  instruction  from  the  teacher  and  other  pupils.  (3)  To 
cultivate  the  power  of  expression  and  habits  of  accuracy  and  neat- 
ness. (4)  To  teach  the  pupil  how  to  study  and  investigate.  (5) 
To  excite  and  stimulate  a  love  for  study. 

15.  All  written  work  (see  p.  104)  prepared  by  pupils  should 
be  examined  by  the  teacher.  A  part  of  the  written  work  should 
be  placed  on  the  blackboard  by  pupils,  that  the  class  may  criticise 
and  the  whole  he  corrected  by  class  and  teacher.  In  selecting 
work  to  be  put  on  the  board,  choose  some  of  the  best  and  some  of 
the  poorest,  not  to  compare  the  work  of  pupils,  but  that  the  class 
may  model  after  the  best  and  avoid  the  errors  of  the  worst.  A  ju- 
dicious use  of  questions  by  the  teacher  will  determine  the  ability  of 
the  pupil  to  a  great  extent.  Questions  should,  as  a  rule,  be  such  as 
will  not  suggest  the  answer  and  should  always,  if  possihle,  he  in 
such  language  that  the  pupil  cannot  answer  in  the  language  of  the 
book.  First  determine  if  the  pupil  has  clear  ideas  upon  the  suh- 
ject.  If  he  has,  he  will  be  able  to  express  them  in  mjiiic  way  unless 
deterred  by  extreme  diffidence.  To  begin  with,  however,  any  an- 
swer which  is  not  absolutely  incorrect  should  be  accepted  from  a 
very  timid  pupil.  Do  not  require  too  much  at  first  from  such 
pupils;  work  up  gradually.  The  true  theory  of  education  is,  keep 
your  work  just  enough  ahead  of  the  capacities  of  the  pupil  to  keep 
him  constantly  stimulated  to  better  efforts. 

16.  Many  abuse  the  topic  system  by  'requiring  pupils  to  com- 
mit to  memory  the  language  of  the  text-book  and  recite  it  like  a 
parrot.  Our  modern  text-books  are  very  convenient  for  this,  being 
nicely  divided  off  into  paragraphs,  with  the  topics  in  bold,  black 
letters  at  the  head  of  each,  and  the  lazy  teacher  will  naturally  drift 
into  this  kind  of  work.  It  is  even  worse  than  the  old  plan  of  re- 
quiring pupils  to  commit  the  printed  answers  to  the  printed  ques- 
tions in  the  hooks.  It  is  easy  to  know  when  the  pupil  is  reciting 
from  the  book  or  giving  in  his  own  language  his  own  ideas  ac- 
quired by  study.  If  a  pupil  simply  repeats  the  words  of  the  author, 
ask  him  to  explain  what  he  mean-,  and  bv  various  questions  com- 
pel him  to  state  the  thought  in  his  own  language.  Never  he 
guilty  of  using  the  hook  in  hearing  recitations,  except  for  the  pur- 
pose of  assigning  work.  The  teacher  who  cannot  hear  a  recitation 
without  the  hook  is  not  prepared  to  hear  such  recitation  at  all.  Be 
well  prepared  in  advance. 

17.  While  the  teacher  should  give  instruction,  he  should  avoid 
too  much  talking.  I  lis  lectures  may  he  all  right  and  to  the  point, 
but  he  will, often  find  that  his  pupils,  though  deeply  interested  lis- 
teners, will  not  retain  the  information  he  gives.     Too  much  lectur- 


470  TEACH  lilts'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

ing  is  like  pouring  water  on  the  back  of  a  water-fowl.     The  puoil 
must  do  the  greater  part  of  the  reciting. 

18.  Review  Often. — A  brief  recapitulation  each  day  of  the 
lesson  of  the  previous  day,  will  many  times  he  of  great  advantage. 
Weekly  and  monthly  reviews  of  all  the  important  points  passed 
over  should  not  he  neglected.  The  questions  in  this  hook  will  he 
found  of  great  advantage  in  such  weekly  and  monthly  reviews.  In 
oral  reviews  introduce  points  not  given  in  the  books.  A  great  va- 
riety of  points  will  occur  to  the  thinking  teacher.  Note  them 
down  ami  give  them  to  your  class.  It  will  teach  them  to  think 
outside  the  books.  This  ability  to  think  in  sudden  emergencies 
constitutes  the  first  element  of  success  in  all  departments  of  life.  It 
is  not  always  what  we  knoxv  but  what  we  can  ?/se.  that  constitutes 
the  real  value  of  an  education.  In  these  extra  topics  do  not  be 
afraid  to  ask  a  question  which  vou  cannot  answer  yourself.  Tell 
your  pupils  frankly  that  no  one  can  know  everything,  that  the 
matter  has  not  occurred  to  you  before  and  that  you  will  try  to 
find  out,  at  the  same  time  asking  them  to  do  so.  They  will  not 
think  any  the  less  of  you  for  not  knowing ;  they  will  lose  respect 
for  you  if  you  pretend  to  know  when  you  do  not.  When  such  ex- 
tra points  are  assigned,  always  bring  them  up  at  the  appointed 
time.  Never  let  than  pass.  Never  assign  such  extra  work  for 
examination.  It  is  unfair,  and  you  will  lose  the  good  will  of  your 
pupils  by  so  doing. 

19.  The  teacher  should  have  a  common-place  book  in  which 
he  may  note  points  gathered  in  his  reading  or  from  lectures,  etc., 
which  may  have  a  bearing  on  the  subjects  which  he  teaches.  By 
frequently  consulting  this  book  he  will  be  able  to  give  much  val- 
uable information,  such  as  his  pupils  would  not  readily  find  in  their 
investigations.  A  scrap  book  will  also  be  of  value  if  the  scraps 
are  properly  selected.  That  teacher  is  the  most  successful  who  is 
most  familiar  with  his  subject  and  with  the  best  methods  of  illustra- 
tion.     He  should  study  the  art  of  illustration. 

20.  Pupils  m  all  classes  should  he  encouraged  to  criticise  each 
other,  yet  this  among  small  pupils  is  apt  to  degenerate  into  mere 
fault-finding,  and  should  he  carefully  guarded. 

21.  To  arouse  an  interest  in  study  and  stimulate  the  j^upil  to 
greater  effort  is  one  of  the  main  objects  of  a  recitation,  yet  it  is  not 
easy  to  tell  how  this  should  be  done.  It  is  by  judicious  use  of 
questions,  by  the  proper  selection  of  topics  for  study,  by  assigning 
lessons  of  proper  length,  by  the  teacher's  explaining  power,  by 
proper  words  of  encouragement  and  commendation,  by  the  teacher's 
general  manner  and  bearing  toward  pupils, that  he  will  succeed  in 
enlisting  all  of  his  pupils  in  a  love  for  their  work. 

22.  Interruptions  in  class  should  never  be  allowed.  No 
teacher  can  successfully  hear  a  recitation  if  there  is  whispering  or 
any  kind  of  disorder  in  the  class.      First  of  all,  secure  order.    Stop 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT.  471 

everything  if  necessary  till  you  have  it.  The  best  method  is  to  say 
quietly,  "  We  will  wait  till  everything  is  quiet."  If  the  disorder 
continues,  it  may  be  necessary  to  add  (kindly  always),  "Some  pu- 
pils here  are  wasting  their  own  time  and  the  time  of  the  class.  I 
hope  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  name  them."  Few  pupils  will 
allow  a  cla^s  to  wait  for  them,  [f  the  disorder  is  continued  or  re- 
peated, excuse  the  pupil  from  that  recitation  or  from  the  room. 
Have  it  constantly  understood  von  must  have  order.  This  applies 
also  to  l"he  general  work  of  the  schoolroom.  Never  talk  to  a 
noisy  school.  Your  words  have  no  effect,  and  you  will  often  be 
laughed  at  behind  your  back. 

GOVERNMENT. 

23.  Those  schools  are  best  governed  where  the  government  is 
least  apparent.  Good  order  is  the  first  requisite  of  a  good  school, 
but  it  should  always  be  remembered  that  schools  are  not  held  for 
the  sake  of  keeping  order.  The  teacher  who  is  obliged  (after  the 
first  few  days)  to  spend  any  considerable  portion  of  his  time  in  pre- 
serving order,  is  a  failure. 

24.  The  secret  of  successful  discipline  lies  almost  wholly  in  the 
ability  of  the  teacher  to  give  every  pupil  something  to  do  just  suited 
to  his  capacity.  This  may  seem  at  first  sight  very  easy,  but  it  is 
really  extremely  difficult,  and  requires  much  study  and  great  dis- 
cernment  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  To  assign  exactly  the  same 
work  to  a  class  of  twenty  pupils  is  like  furnishing  the  same  diet  to 
all  the  patients  in  a  hospital  where  there  may  be  a  dozen  different 
diseases  under  treatment.  A  successful  life  usually  results  from  the 
fact  that  the  successful  man  found  the  right  thing  to  do.  Let  the 
teacher  remember  that  school  is  not  merely  a  preparation  for  life; 
it  is  a  part  of  life. 

25.  It  is  often  the  case  (not  always)  that  the  pupils  most  in- 
clined to  mischief  have  a  large  share  of  natural  ability.  Such  pupils 
may  always  be  kept  from  mischief  by  assigning  them  some  kind  of 
extra  work,  such  as  copying  problems,  etc.,  on  the  blackboard  for 
the  teacher.  This  should  not  be  imposed  as  a  task;  rather  ask  it  as 
a  favor.  It  is  customary  in  grided  schools  to  dismiss  the  primary 
pupils  a  half  hour,  more  or  less,  before  the  regular  time  for  dismissal. 
This  custom  should  prevail  in  country  schools  also.  During  school 
hours  these  smaller  pupils  may  be  employed  with  blocks,  in  print- 
ing lessons  on  the  blackboard,  etc.  There  should  be  great  variety 
hi  their  work.  They  should  never  be  required  to  sit  long  in  one 
position.  Their  tender  bodies  are  verv  easily  deformed  for  life  bv 
requiring  improper  attitudes. 

26.  The  teacher  should  not  lay  down  any  set  of  rules,  but  have 
his  pupils  understand  from  the  beginning   that  he  expects  good  be- 

...\  ior  from  all,  and  he  should  be  prompt  to  check  the  first  tendency 
to   disorder.     The    question    of  whispering,  or   communication    in 


470  /'/•:.  I CHE A'.s'.l  V/>  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

school,  is  one  that  vexes  every  teacher.  1l  is  next  to  impossible  to 
prevent  it  entirely.  The  larger  the  school  the  greater  will  he  the 
necessity  for  a  prohibition  of  whispering.  Pupils  may  usually  be 
cured  of  a  habit  ofwhispering  by  frequently  reminding  them  of  the 
fact  that  they  are  disturbing  the  school.  This  reduces  the  school  to 
a  matter  of business.  Let  the  pupils  feel  that  to  waste  then"  own 
time  is  had,  to  waste  the  time  of  others  is  criminal.  When  a  pupil 
once  realizes  that  to  steal  his  fellow  pupil's  time  is  just  as  bad  as  to 
steal  hi^  money, a  sense  of  justice  will  usually  correct  the  evil.  This 
placing  the  pupils  constantly  on  their  honor  and  sense  of  justice 
will  have  infinitely  greater  effect  than  any  arbitrary  attempts  to 
suppress  whispering  by  punishment.  But  this  course  requires  time. 
You  must  keep  at  it.      If  it  proves  a  failure  try  severer  methods. 

j,  1  /i  ih  <n  Is  of  Discipline. 

27.  Conditions  Involved. — To  understand  the  science  and  art 
of  discipline,  for  it  is  both,  the  teacher  should  understand  thoroughly 
the  conditions  involved.  These  conditions  exist  in  the  teacher,  in 
the  pupil  and  in  the  school.  The  teacher  should  possess:  ( i )  Firm- 
ness, (2)  Tact,  (3)  Deliberation,  (4)  Skill  in  methods,  (5)  Kind- 
ness, (6)  Sense  of  justice,  (7)  Dignity,  (S)  Sociability,  (9)  Reali- 
zation of  the  true  spirit  of  his  calling.  From  all  these  result  self- 
reliance,  or  mastery  of  the  situation.  The  pupil's  relations  to  his 
school  depend  on:  (1)  Inherent  character,  (2)  Disposition,  (3) 
Associations,  (4)  School  status,  and  as  a  result  of  all  these  (5)  As- 
piration or  the  want  of  it. 

As  these  points  in  so  far  as  they  refer  to  the  general  qualifica- 
tions of  the  teacher  have  been  previously  mentioned,  the  aim  is  to 
apply  them  here  to  the  details  of  every-day  schoolwoik. 

28.  Firmness. — The  teacher  should  at  the  very  beginning  of 
his  school  take  a  firm  stand  against  those  things  which  seriously 
threaten  the  success  of  his  school.  The  school  may  be  what  is 
known  as  a  "  hard "  one.  In  that  case  do  not  attempt  too  much. 
Take  the  worst  points  first,  he  sure  you  are  right,  and  then  carry 
your  point  at  all  hazards.  Failure  now  means  failure  for  the 
term.  Exercise  proper  judgment  and  you  will  not  lay  yourself 
liable  to  the  charge  of  obstinacy  or  tyranny. 

29.  Tact  is  very  difficult  to  define.  It  consists  in  a  quick  and 
proper  appreciation  of  every  liltle  circumstance  connected  with  the 
time,  the  pupil,  and  the  occasion.  It  is  the  most  essential  requisite 
of  the  teacher.  Deliberation. — Never  be  hasty.  A  person  who  is 
always  in  a  Hurry  can  never  act  with  proper  judgment,  and  his  acts 
never  carry  proper  weight.  A  breach  of  discipline  may  be  very 
flagrant  and  vet  iK  punishment  may  properly  be  deferred  until  a 
future  time.  Very  often  a  mere  remark  'L  George,  I  wish  to  see  you 
aftei  school,"  has  more  force  than  any  immediate  reproval  or  punish- 
ment.      In    general  private  reproof    i-  much   more  effective   than 


SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT.  473 

public.      Never    humiliate    a   pupil.       Never   threaten;   never   scold. 
See  everything,  bul  do  not  notice  everything.     Master  yourself. 

30.  Skill  in  Methods  implies  scholarship  and  careful  prelimi- 
nary training.  The  young  man  who  draws  the  public  money  merely 
to  pay  his  board  bills  while  he  reads  law  or  medicine,  and  the  young 
woman  who  teaches  tor  the  purpose  of  getting  a  few  new  clothe- 
in  which  to  catch  a  beau,  are  both  lowering  the  profession  and 
working  incalculable  injury  to  the  cause  of  education.  Be  conscien- 
tious. Kindness  needs  no  explanation.  It  accomplishes  infinitely 
more  than  all  the  force  methods  put  together. 

31.  Sense  of  Justice.— It  requires  great  discernment  and  re- 
flection on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  be  just  at  all  times.  The 
health,  the  ability,  the  opportunities  of  pupils  vary  so  greatly  that 
what  would  be  proper  to  require  from  one  pupil  may  seriously 
wrong  another.  Try  to  be  just.  That  teacher  never  tails  who  al- 
ways succeeds  in  convincing  his  school  that  he  is  absolutely  in  the 
right.  Study  your  pupils  well,  however,  lest  you  be  imposed  on. 
Dignity. — Your  calling  is  one  of  honor.  Let  no  man  hold  you  as 
an  inferior.  Never  allow  a  pupil  to  be  disrespectful  to  you  or  in 
your  presence.  From  the  nature  of  the  teacher's  relations  to  society 
he  is  often  severely  tried  and  may  thus  fancy  he  sees  slights  wdiere 
none  are  really  intended.  Do  not  look  for  infringements  on  your 
dignity,  for  you  can  always  find  imaginary  ones  in  abundance. 
Never  sacrifice  manhood  or  womanhood  on  any  consideration. 
Teachers  are  (we  regret  to  say)  sometimes  asked  to  do  this.  Lose 
your  situation  first. 

32.  Sociability. — The  teacher  should  not  only  be  sociable  with 
his  pupils  but  should  know  everybody  in  the  district.  It  may  be 
objected  that  there  are  people  in  the  district  not  fit  to  be  known. 
Very  true.  If  they  are  in  no  way  connected  with  the  school  you 
need  not  know  them.  But  bad  men  often  have  children  and  you 
are  called  upon  to  teach  those  children  (sec.  5).  Your  knowing 
the  man  under,  the  circumstances  does  not  in  any  way  affect  the 
social  differences  between  you. 

33.  Realization  of  the  Spirit  of  His  Calling. — It  is  safe  to  say 
that  most  teachers  do  not  properly  realize  the  duties  and  real  scope 
of  their  calling.  Studv  the  grave  responsibilities  of  the  profession 
and  its  beautiful  possibilities.  Many  a  noble  life  has  taken  its  first 
upward  impulses  from  the  promptings  of  a  noble  teacher.  A  word 
of  caution  here.  Do  not  instill  into  your  pupils  the  idea  that  they 
may  all  rise  above  their  present  sphere.  Most  cannot.  It  is  not 
within  human  possibilities,  and  such  ambition  often  leads  only  to 
hitter  disappointment. 

34.  Self- Reliance  and  mastery  of  the  situation  grow  out  of  all 
that  has  been  heretofore  mentioned.  It  is  not  always  nor  even 
generally  attained.  It  is  that  happy  state  in  which  the  teacher  feels 
that  he  ha-  perfect   control    of  the    complicated    machine  under  his 


474  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

charge,  that  neither  he  nor  the  machine  is  wearing  out  too  rapidl) 

under  unnecessary  friction,  and  that  the  greatest  results  possible  are 
being  attained.  This  feeling  enables1  the  teacher  to  leave  the  cares 
of  the  schoolroom  behind  at  the  close  of  the  day, not  to  be  resumed 
until  next  morning.  Never  worry  about  your  school  work.  It  will 
sooner  or  later  ruin   your  health. 

35.  The  pupil's  relations  to  the  school  as  named  above  (27) 
must  be  carefully  studied.  The  teacher  cannot  hope  to  control  a 
complicated  mechanism  of  which  he  is  ignorant.  After  such  study 
determine  how  best  to  remedy  the  defects  of  character.  Remember 
that  the  imparting  of  instruction  is  not  all  your  duty.  You  are 
forming  character  for  good  or  had  every  day.  Your  pupils  may 
pass  the  best  of  examinations  and  graduate  with  honors;  they  may 
he  able  to  converse  fluently,  nay  brilliantly,  on  all  the  subjects  they 
have  studied  under  your  tuition;  people  whose  advantages  have 
been  fewer  may  exclaim  with  envy,  behold  the  beauties  of  educa- 
tion; and  yet  these  same  pupils  may  lack  the  very  things  they  needed 
most  of  all  to  know.  They  m:iy  fail  to  realize  that  truth  is  the  only 
thing  that  endures  triumphant  forever,  that  nothing  is  so  dear  as  honor, 
or  so  priceless  as  a  good  name;  they  may  he  polite  yet  cold-hearted, 
lavish  vet  uncharitable,  ostentatious  in  friendship,  yet  utterly  heart- 
less and  supremely  selfish.  Part  of  your  duty  is  to  correct  as  far  as 
possible  all  these  defects  of  character.      See  to  it. 

36.  Punishments  should  always  be  proportioned  as  far  as  pos- 
sible to  the  offense.  If  a  hoy  idles  away  his  time  in  play  during 
study  hours  let  him  study  at  recess  while  the  others  are  playing.  If 
a  boy  is  caught  chewing  paper  or  gum  let  him  take  the  platform 
and  in  the  presence  of  the  school  chew  paper  till  he  is  heartily  sick 
of  it.  From  these  examples  the  skillful  teacher  will  readily  see  how 
to  adapt  his  punishment  to  the  case.  Corporal  punishment  is  we  be- 
lieve, excellent  authority  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding,  at  times 
a  necessity.  But  these  times  are  very  rare  indeed,  [f  administered 
at  all  it  should  seldom  be  in  the  presence  of  the  school.  Let  it  be 
quick,  stinging  and  decisive.  The  old  style  ot"  heavy  flogging  is  ;i 
relic  of  barbarism.  lie  calm.  If  you  show  anger  you  are  inflam- 
ing evil  passions  instead  of  allaying  them.  In  this  and  in  fact  in  all 
punishments  let  the  pupil  and  the  school  feel  that  it  is  necessary,  that 
what  you  are  doing  is  a  duty,  and  unavoidable.  The  true  teacher 
will  always  feel  more  or  less  sympathy  for  the  culprit  when  he  in- 
flicts a  severe  punishment.  'In  your  school  work  have  no  Spies  and 
discourage  tale-bearing;  both  are  despicable.  Have  no  favorites. 
Necessarily  you  will  think  more  of  some  pupils  than  others,  but  do 
not  show  preferences  in  the  schoolroom.  Demerit  marks  as  a  means 
of  punishment  are  absurd.  The  teacher  who  can  deliberately  pull 
out  a  class  book  and  mark  a  pupil  so  manv  marks  for  disorder  in 
class  deserves  to  be  laughed  at. 

37.  Restraints  of  the  Schoolroom.— There  is  often  a  restraint 


SCHOOL    MANAGEMENT.  475 

noticeable  in  the  schoolroom  which  is  indeed  painful.  Many 
teachers  dare  not  laugh  in  the  school  lest  their  pupils  laugh  and  the 
teacher  have  difficulty  in  stopping  the  mirth  at  the  proper  time. 
Such  a  teacher  is  not  master  of  the  situation.  If  he  were  he  could 
indulge  in  a  good  hearty  laugh  with  his  pupils  when  something 
funny  occurred  (funny  things  do  happen  in  school  and  it  is  proper  to 
laugh  at  them)  and  all  would  he  well  at  the  proper  time.  Akin  to 
this  feeling  in  the  schoolroom  is  the  feeling  that  the  teacher  may 
possibly  be  insulted  on  the  street.  Young  America  now-a-days  is 
very  fast  and  no  respecter  of  persons.  There  may  be  times  when( 
it  is  best  to  punish  a  pupil  severely  for  such  insults  given  out  of 
school  hours.  The  teacher  must  be  very  cautious  in  this  case  (See 
School  Law,  Decision  of  Sup.  Court  of  Vt.) 

In  associating  with  your  patrons  be  able  to  talk  something  else 
than  school.  A  business  man  will  respect  you  more  if  he  finds  you 
know  something  about  his  business  as  well  as  your  own. 

38.  Predecessors. — Never  say  anything  derogatory  of  your 
predecessor  even  if  he  taught  a  very  poor  school.  It  is  not  honor- 
able in  you  and  besides  as  a  matter  of  policy  you  should  make  his 
friends  your  friends.  If  he  taught  an  extra  good  school  you  must 
proceed  with  caution.     Make  no  radical  changes  at  the  start. 

39.  Principals  of  graded  schools  experience  some  dilhculties 
which  never  occur  in  the  case  of  the  country  teacher.  They  have 
larger,  more  intelligent  and  more  diversified  constituencies.  Hence 
they  must  be  persons  of  ability,  discernment  and  great  tact.  The 
principal  must  know  how  to  manage,  (i)  his  board  of  directors, 
(2)  his  teachers,  (3)  the  community.  But  few  hints  can  he 
given  here.  First,  you  must  have  the  confidence  of  your  di- 
rectors. Be  very  careful  what  you  ask  of  them  and  what  you  recom- 
mend. When  you  once  ask  a  thing  convince  them  it  is  necessary 
and  use  every  reasonable  means  to  carry  your  point.  If  you  sug- 
gest many  things  in  a  careless  sort  of  way  and  do  not  succeed  in 
having  your  views  adopted,  the  Board  will  soon  lose  confidence  in 
you.  Do  not  worry  them  with  little  things,  settle  those  yourself. 
With  regard  to  teachers  treat  them  kindly  and  as  your  equals.  Have 
them  feel  you  are  an  adviser  instead  of  Lord  and  Master.  At  the 
same  time  be  firm.  Consult  the  directors  before  laving  down  your 
details  of  general  management  and  then  set-  that  your  orders  are 
carried  out.  Often  some  teacher  will  try  you  to  sec  how  far  she 
may  safely  disregard  your  instructions.  Usually  she  is  an  ex- 
perienced, favorite  teacher  who  feels  sure  of  her  place,  and  who 
perhaps  looks  upon  you  as  unable  to  advise  her.  Be  deliberate. 
Do  not  precipitate  matters.  You  must  be  chief  or  nothing,  and 
the  Board  will  always  sustain  you  if  you  have  managed  your  ca>e 
properly.  Have  frequent  teachers'  meetings.  Discuss  all  points  of 
interest  in  methods  of  teaching  and  government.  Keep  a  memo- 
randum book  and  note  such  points  from  day  to  day.      You   must  be 


i;  TEACHERS'    AND   STUDENTS'   LIBRARY. 

prepared  to  help  your  teachers.  Never  promise  without  perform- 
ing. Indeed,  this  applies  to  all  school  work.  With  regard  t<> 
managing  a  community  all  that  has  been    said  with  reference  to 

sociability,  mingling  in  society,  etc.,  applies  with  special  force. 


'■'■HO'1"""" 


PROSODY. 


FIGURES. 


1.  A  definition  of  prosody  has  been  given.  (See  Grammar, 
sec.  i.)  Only  figures  of  speech  and  the  principles  of  versification 
will  be  treated  here.  A  figure  is  an  allowable  departure  from  the 
ordinary  established  forms  of  language.  We  may  have  figures  of 
(i)  Orthography,  (2)  of  Etymology,  (3)  of  Syntax,  (4)  of  Rhet- 
oric. 

2.  A  figure  of  orthography  is  an  intentional  deviation  from 
the  proper  spelling  of  a  word.   The  kinds  are: 

1.  Mimesis,  the  spelling  of  a  word  in  imitation  of  an  improper 
pronunciation;  as, 

Kent  in,  ef  you  will, 

Ttutr, — quit !  Take  a  cheer. 
Not  that;  you  can't  fill 

Them  then-  cushings  this  year. — Bret  Harte. 

2.  Archaism,  the  spelling  of  words  in  imitation  of  ancient 

usage;  as, 

"  Righte  learned  is  ye  Pedagogue 

Fulle  apt  to  reade  and  spelle; 
And  eke  to  teache  ye  parts  of  speeche, 
And  strap  ye  urchins  welle."—  Saxe. 

3.  A  figure  of  etymology  is  a  departure  from  the  ordinary 
form  of  the  word.     The  kinds  are: 

1.  Apheresis,  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  letters  from  the 
beginning  of  a  word;  as,  'Neath  the  green  tree's  leafy  shade. 
'Midst  shot  and   shell. 

2.  SYNCOPE,  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  letters  in  the  middle 
of  a  word  ;   as,  o'er,  e'en. 

3.  APOCOPE,  the  elision  of  the  final  letter  or  letters  of  a 
word;  as,  Thro'  forests  wild. 

\.  Prosi  11  i. sis,  the  prefixing  of  a  letter  or  letters  to  a  word; 
as,  Adown  the  glen  rode  armed  men. 

5.  PARAGOGE, the  annexing  of  a  letter  or  letters  to  a  word; 
as,  The  vasty  deep. 


PROSODY.  177 

6.  Syneresis,  the  condensing  of  two  syllables  into  one; 
as,  Thou  stalk' 'st  alone. 

7.  Tmesis,  the  inserting  of  a  word  between  the  parts  of  a 
compound  word;  as  To  us  ward. 

S.  Crasis,  the  condensing  of  two  words  into  one;  as,  We'll 
go;  He'll  do  it;  Thoul't  not  deceive. 

4.     A  figure    of  syntax  is  a  departure  from  the    ordinary  con- 
struction of  a  word.     The  kinds  are: 

1.  Ellipsis,  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  necessary 
to  complete  the  construction  but  not  necessary  to  complete  the  mean- 
ing; as,  Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash — He  who  steals,  etc. 

a.  Asyndeton,  the  ellipsis  of  connectives;  as,  We  walked 
slowly,  noiselessly,  with  bated  breath. 

2.  Pleonasm,  the  use  of  more  words  than  necessary;  as,  I 
saw  it  with  tli esc  eyes. 

a.  Polysyndeton,  the  repetition  of  a  conjunction;  as,  He  is 
noble  and  brave  and  true. 

b.  Anadiplosis,  the  use  of  the  same  word  at  the  end  of 
one  sentence  and  the  beginning  of  the  next;  as,  Has  he  a  gust  for 
blood?     Blood  shall  fill  his  cup. 

c.  Epizeuxis,  the  repetition  of  a  word,  or  words;  as, 

/  am  black,  I  am  black ; 

And  yet  God  made  me,  they  say. — Mrs.  Browning. 

d.  Anaphora,  the  repetition  of  the  same  word  at  the  be- 
ginning of  several  successive  lines  or  sentences;  as, 

Strike  for  your  altars  and  your  fires 
Strike  for  the  green  graves  of  your  sires. 

3.  Enallage,  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another; 
as,  Solomon  than  zvhom  there  never  was  a  wiser;  What  is  writ  is 
writ. 

4.  Syllepsis,  the  agreement  of  one  word  with  another  used 
in  a  figurative  sense;  as,  I  saw  the  moon  in  her  beauty  and  the  sun 
in  his  strength. 

5.  Hyperbaton,  the  transposition  of  words  from  their  or- 
dinary grammatical  order;  a-. 

Much  have  I  traveled  in  the  realms  of  gold. — Keats. 

Up  rose  old  Barbara  Frietchie  then, 

Bowed  with  her  fourscore  years  and  ten. —  W Ait  tier. 

6.  Parenthesis,  the  insertion  of  a  word  or  sentence  be- 
tween the  parts  of  another  sentence;  as, 

Let  us  (since  life  can  little  more  supply 
Than  just  to  look  about  us  and  to  die) 
Expatiate  free  o'er  all  this  scene  of  man ; 
A  mighty  maze,  but  not  without  a  plan. — Pope. 


478  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

7.  Zeugma,  "  a  figure  by  which  an  adjective  or  verb,  which 
agrees  with  a  nearer  word,  is  referred  to  one  more  remote;  as, 
Lust  overcame  shame;  boldness,  fear;  and  madness  reason." 

5.     A  figure  of  rhetoric  is  a  departure  from    the  common  ap- 
plication or  significance  of  words.      The  kinds  are: 

1.  Simile,  a  direct  or  simple  comparison;  as, 

Like  a  dog,  he  hunts  in  dreams. —  Tennyson. 

2.  Metaphor,  an  indirect  or  implied  comparison,  or  the 
use  of  a  word  in  a  sense  different  from  its  original  meaning;  as, 

Sweet  day,  so  cool,  so  calm,  so  bright, 
The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky. — Herbert. 

Remark. — The  difference  between  a  simile  and  a  metaphor  will  be  seen  in  the  following: 

Simile. — He  is  like  a  lamb. 
Metaphor. — He  is  a  lamb. 

3.  Allegory,  a  series  of  metaphors,  or  a  metaphorical  dis- 
course.    Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress  is  a  good  example. 

a.  Fable,  a  short  allegory  in  which  usually  animals  or  in- 
animate objects  are  represented  as  speaking  and  representing  cer- 
tain qualities;  as  the  fox,  cunning;  the  lion,  strength,  etc. 

b.  Parable,  "  a  relation  of  something  real  in  nature  from 
which  a  moral  is  drawn."      The  parables  of  Christ  are  examples. 

4.  Metonymy,  a  change  of  names,  or  the  putting  of  one 
word  for  another,  as  the  cause  for  the  effect,  a  place  for  its  inhabi- 
tants, etc.;  as,  He  read  Homer; ' They  smote  the  city /  He  has  re- 
turned to  his  czips  again. 

5.  Synechdoche,  putting  the  whole  for  a  part  or  apart  for 
the  wbole;  as,  I  invite  you  to  tea  this  evening;  The  world  trembled 
at  the  deeds  of  Napoleon. 

6.  Antithesis,  the  opposition  of  words  and  sentences;  as, 
It  is  sown  in  corruption;   it  is  raised  in  incorruption. 

7.  HYPERBOLE,  an  exaggeration  of  the  truth;  as,  L  have 
hunted  all  over  creation  for  my  hat. 

8.  Apostrophe,  an  abrupt  turning  from  the  narrative  to  a 
direct  form  of  address;  as,  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory.  C) 
Death!  where  is   thy  sting? 

9.  Personification,  the  attributing  of  life  and  intelligence 
to  inanimate  objects  or  brutes;  as, 

The  meek -eyed  Morn   appears,  mother  of  dews. — Thomson. 

10.  Irony,  the  use  of  words  which  convey  a  meaning 
exactly  contrary  to  what  is  intended;  as,  No  doubt  but  ye  are  the 
people,  and   wisdom  will  die  with  you. 

11.  Vision',  the  speaking  of  objects  of  the  imagination  as 
though  present  to  the  senses,  or  the  representation  of  past  or  future 
time  as  present ;  as,  I  see  him  on  the  battle  field;  Soldiers!  from 
yonder  pyramids  forty  centuries  look  down  upon  you! — Napoleon. 


PROSODY.  479 

12.  Climax,  a  series  of  particulars  each  more  important 
than  the  one  preceding;  as,  "He aspired  to  be  the  highest;  above 
the  people,  above  the  authorities,  above  the  laws,  above  his 
country." 

13.  Anti-Climax,  a  series  of  particulars  each  of  less  im- 
portance than  the  preceding;  as, 

That  all-softening,  overpowering  knell 

The  tocsin  of  the  soul — the  dinner-bell. — Byron. 

14.  Antonomasia,  "the  use  of  a  proper  name,  or  the  name 
of  an  office,  rank,  profession,  etc.,  instead  of  a  common  name;"  as, 
He  is  a  Buckeye;  Milwaukee  is  the  Cream  City;  Some  mute,  in- 
glorious Milton  here  may  rest. —  Gray. 

15.  Paronomasia,  punning,  or  playing  upon  words,  the 
same  word  being  used  in  different  senses,  or  words  of  similar  sound 
being  used  in  antithetic  relations;  ;is, 

1 1  is  death  which  happened  in  his  berth 

At  forty  odd  befell, 
They  went  and  told  the  sexton 

And  the  sexton  tolled  the  bell. — Hood. 

16.  Paralipsis,  a  figure  by  which  the  speaker  pretends  to 
pass  by  a  truth  which  he  really  mentions;  as,  I  will  not  mention 
the  fact  that  he  once  cheated  me  out  of  five  dollars. 

17.  Euphemism,  the  use  of  a  delicate  and  softened  expres- 
sion for  one  that  would  be  harsh  and  disagreeable;  as,  He  was 
slightly  inebriated ;  He  has  shuffled  off  this  mortal  coil. 

18.  Interrogation,  the  putting  what  is  meant  for  a  strong 
affirmative  in  the  form  of  a  question;  as,  Can  the  Ethiopian  change 
his  skin,  or  the  leopard  his  spots  ? 

19.  Exclamation,  the  expression  of  strong  emotion;  as, 
O  that  this  too,  too  solid  flesh  would  melt! 

20.  Cataciiresis,  "  the  using  of  a  word  to  express  some- 
thing at  variance  with  its  true  meaning;  as,  Brass  coppers;  Or 
taste  the  smcM  of  a  dairy. —  Thompson. 

21.  Litotes,  the  asserting  the  truth  of  a  proposition  by  de- 
nying the  contrary ;  as, 

Nor  are  thy  lips  ungrateful,  sire  of  men,  • 

Nor  tongue  inadequate;  for  God  on  thee 
Abundantly  his  gifts  hath  also  poured. — Milton. 

"22.  Inn U e \do,  "  a  covert  suggestion  of  an  author';* meaning, 
instead  of  an  open  expression  of  it;  as,  He  did  his  party  all  the 
harm  in  his  power:  he  spoke  for  it  and  voted  against  it." 

23.  Alliteration,  the  repetition  of  the  same  letter  at  the 
beginning  of  two  or  more  words  which  succeed  each  other;  as, 

In  broad,  sonormb,  silver  swells 

The  air  was  billowed  like  the  sky. — Dr.  Holland. 


■Smi  TEACHERS'  AXD  STUDENTS1  LIBRARY. 

24.  Onomatopoeia,  "such  an  imitation  in  the  sound  of  the 
words  as  may  correspond  with  the  sense,  or  suggest  it;"  as,  Away 
they  went,  pell-mell,  hurry-skurry,  wild  buffalo,  wild  horse,  wild 
huntsman,  with  thing  and  clatter  and  whoop  and' halloo,  that  made 
the  forests  ring. — Irving. 

Rkmark. — The  figures  here  given  are  all  that  are  of  any  importance.  As  many  as  250 
have  been  defined  by  authors.  Goold  Brown  says,  "  To  find  a  learned  name  for  every  particu- 
lar mode  of  expression,  is  not  necessarily  conducive  to  the  right  use  of  language." 

\  BRSIFICATION. 

6.  "  A  verse  is  a  line  consisting  of  a  certain  number  of  accented 
and  unaccented  syllables,  disposed  according  to  metrical  rules." 
Versification  is  the  art  of  making  verse,  or  of  metrical  composi- 
tion. Prose  is  a  discourse  in  language  as  commonly  used,  the  aim 
being  mainly  to  give  a  clear  and  distinct  statement  of  the  author's 
meaning.  Poetry  is  a  metrical  discourse,  or  a  discourse  written  in 
verge  and  designed  to  please  by  appealing  to  the  imagination  ami 
intellect. 

7.  Poetry  is  of  two  kinds,  rhyme  and  blank  verse.  Rhyme 
is  a  correspondence  of  sound  in  the  last  syllables  of  two  or  more 
lines,  either  succeeding  each  other  or  at  proper  distances.  Blank 
verse  is  simple  verse  without  rhyme.  A  couplet  is  two  lines 
rhyming  together.  A  triplet  is  three  lines  rhyming  together.  A 
stanza  is  a  group  of  verses,  or  lines  forming  a  division  of  a  poem. 

8.  A  poetic  foot  is  a  part  of  a  line  consisting  of  two  or  three 
svllables,  one  or  two  of  which  must  be  accented,  accent  being  the 
stress  of  voice  laid  on  a  certain  syllable.  "  In  Greek  and  Latin, 
verse  is  made  according  to  the  quantity  of  syllables;  /.  e.  the  rela- 
tive time  employed  in  pronouncing  them.  A  loig  syllable  requires 
twice  the  time  in  uttering  it  that  a  short  one  requires.  In  English, 
verse  is  composed  wholly  according  to  accent.  An  accented  sylla- 
ble is  considered  long;  an  unaccented  syllabic,  shorty  It  must  be 
remembered  that  in  poetry  monosyllables  receive  accent. 

9.  The  principal  kinds  of  poetic  feet  are: 

1.  The  iambus,  consisting  of  an  unaccented  and  an  accented 
syllable;    as, 

Let  o£-ser-7*7-tion  -with  ex-tew-sive  view, 
Sswr-vey  man-to/rf  from  CAi'-na  to  Pe  ru. 

2.  The' trochee,  consisting  of    an    accented    and    an    unac- 
cented syllable;  as, 

/'<//  me  >iot  in  mourn-fu]  ti/tm-bcrs. 

3.  The  spondee,  consisting  of  two   accented  syllables;  as, 
Rocks,  caves,  lakes,  fens,  bogs,  dens,  and  shades  of  death. 

4.     The  dactyl,  consisting  of  one  accented  and  two  unaccented 
svllables;  as, 

This  i-.  tin-  /i);--est  pri-wc-va!  the  «;///*- mur-ing  pines  and  the  hem-locks. 
The  last  foot  here  is  a  spondee. 


PROSODY.  481 

5.  The  anapest,  consisting  <>f  two  unaccented  and  one  ac- 
cented syllable;  ;is, 

/  knew  by  the  smoke ihal  so  grace-lw\-\y  curled 
A-bove  the  green  elms  that  a  col-lagc  was  near. 

The  first  foot  in  each  line  of  this  example  is  a  spondee. 

6.  The  amphibrach,  consisting  of  one  unaccented,  one  ac- 
cented, and  one  unaccented  syllable;  as, 

A  /rc/-ti-er  din-net  I  nev-er  set  eyes  on. 

7.  The  pyrrhic,  consisting  of  two  unaccented  syllables  and 
sometimes  used  in  iambic  verse  to  avoid  accenting  an  unimportant 
word;  as  in  the  following  line: 

What  could  be  less  than  to  sS-ford  him  preust . 

10.  Verse  is  classified  according  to  the  predominating  kind  and 
to  the  number  of  feet  which  compose  a  line.  A  verse  containing 
one  foot  is  monometer;  two  feet,  dimeter;  three  feet,  trimeter;  four 
feet,  tetrameter;  five  feet,  pentameter;  six  feet,  hexameter;  seven 
feet,  heptameter;  eight  feet,  octomctcr.  We  may  then  have  iam- 
bic monometer,  iambic  dimeter,  etc.;  trochaic  monometer,  tro- 
chaic pentameter,  etc.;  dactylic  monometer,  etc.  A  verse  or  foot 
which  lacks  a  syllable  at  the  end  is  called  catalectic.  One  which  is 
not  lacking  is  called  acatalectic.  One  which  lacks  a  syllable  at  the 
beginning  is  called  acephalous.  One  which  has  a  redundant  sylla- 
ble at  the  end  is  called  hypercatalectic.  Two  kinds  of  feet  are  often 
used  in  the  same  lime. 

11.  Iambic  pentameter  is  called  heroic  measure,  because  epic, 
or  heroic  poetry  is  written  in  it.  It  is  the  verse  of  Milton's  Para- 
dise Lost.  Iambic  hexameter  is  called  Alexandrine  because  a  poem 
written  in  this  verse  was  composed  in  French  on  the  life  of  Alex- 
ander. Iambic  tetrameter  arranged  in  stanzas  of  four  lines,  rhym- 
ing in  couplets  or  alternately  is  called  long  meter.  Common 
meter  is  a  stanza  the  first  and  third  lines  of  which  are  iambic  tetra- 
meter, the  second  and  fourth,  iambic  trimeter.  Short  meter  is  a 
stanza  the  first,  second  and  fourth  lines  of  which  are  iambic  tri- 
meter, the  third  iambic  tetrameter. 

12.  The  elegiac  stanza  consists  of  four  iambic  pentameter  lines 
rhyming  alternately.  Gray's  Elegy  is  an  example.  The  Spense- 
rian stanza  consists  of  eight  iambic  pentameter  lines  and  one  (the 
last)  iambic  hexameter  line.  Spenser's  Fairie  Queen  is  an  exam- 
ple. A  sonnet  is  a  poem  complete  in  fourteen  iambic  pentameter 
lines.     Scanning  is  the  dividing  of  a  verse  into  its  feet. 

13.  Poetic  Pauses. — There  are  two  pauses  which  should  be 
made  in  reading  verse,  the  final  and  csesural.  The  final  pause  is 
made  at  the  end  of  a  line  and  should  always  be  made  even  when 
the  grammatical  construction  does  not  require  a  pause.  The  caesu- 
ra! pause  occurs  generally  near  the  middle  of  the  line  and  used  only 

31 


482  I'll. 1  <  'HERS "   .  1 ND  S  II  DENTS'  LI  UK.  I R  1  . 

in  long  lines.     The    sense  often    requires  it  to  hi'  nearer  the  end  of 
the  line.      The  caesura!    pauses  are  marked  by  bars  in  the  following 

lines: 

"  The  splendor  1  a  11  >i  ||  on  castle  walls 
And  snowv  summits  |  old  in  storv." 

"  From  my  books  surcease  of  sorrow  |  sorrow  for  the  lost  Lenowe — 
Ynr  the  rare  and  radiant  maiden  |  whom  the  angels  call  Lenore — 

Nameless  here  ||  forevermore." 

Remark. — A  demi-caesural  is  also  recognized.    These  i-Tsural  pauses  are  nothing  but 
natural  breaks  in  the  rvthni  which  the  cultivated  ear  can  always  readily  detect. 

14.  Poetic  license  is  an  indulgence  allowed  to  poets  in  the  use 
of  words,  forms  and  expressions  which  are  a  deviation  from  ordi- 
nary correct  prose,  also  an  allowable  departure  from  the  regular 
laws  of  versification.  Poetic  license  permits:  in  spelling  the  elision 
of  letters  or  whole  syllables,  as  e'er  for  ever,  etc.;  in  pronunciation 
the  changing  of  the  accent  in  a  word  or  the  use  of  some  old  pro- 
nunciation to  make  a  rhyme;  the  use  of  antiquated  words  and 
phrases  as  ken,  trow,  yore,  eke,  etc.;  in  syntax,  inversion  of  the 
common  order  of  arrangement,  use  of  adjectives  for  nouns,  adjec- 
tives for  verbs,  past  tense  for  perfect  participle,  etc.  Poetic  style 
abounds  in  figures. 

15.  Some  of  the  kinds  of  poetry  as  to  style  of  composition  are: 
Epic,  which  deals  with  heroic  subjects.  Examples,  Milton's  Para- 
dise Lost,  Homer's  Iliad,  Dante's  Divina  Commedia,  etc.;  Lyric, 
that  which  may  be  set  to  music,  as  the  "Last  Rose  of  Summer;" 
Didactic,  that  which  is  written  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  inculcating 
some  moral  lesson;  Elegiac  that  which  treats  in  solemn  style  of  the 
sadder  phases  of  human  affairs,  as  funeral  odes,  etc. ;  Vers  de  Societc 
(society  verses)  light,  trivial  verses,  such  as  love  songs,  burlesques 
on  the  absurdities  of  life,  etc.  Moore's  and  Saxe's  poems  furnish 
examples.  Satire,  that  which  ridicules  usually  in  a  severe  strain 
some  weakness  of  society  or  of  a  particular  individual.  Horace 
and  Byron  furnish  excellent  examples. 

ill  VIS    TO    THE    TEACHER. 

16.  It  is  common  to  treat  the  subject  of  figures  and  versifica- 
tion in  text-books  on  grammar,  yet  few  teachers  require  a  study  of 
these  subjects.  A  slight  knowledge  at  least  of  what  is  presented 
in  the  foregoing  pages  should  be  had  by  every  teacher  that  lie  may 
be  able  to  explain  fully  many  points  that  may  come  up  in  reading 
(lasses.  These  subjects  should  he  taught  to  pupils  incidentally.  In 
reading  classes,  and  in  composition  and  letter  writing  exercises  op- 
portunities frequently  occur  where  the  teacher  may,  by  asking 
proper  questions  and  making  explanations,  impart  much  useful  in- 
formation in  this  line  and  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  be  of  perma- 
nent value  to  the  pupils. 

17.  The  kinds  of  poetic  feet  most  in  use  arc  the  iambus,  the 
trochee,  and   the   dactyl.     These   will   easily    be  comprehended  by 


PARLIAMENTA R  V    I TSA  t  i ES.  483 

pupils  and   they    will  readily  learn  to   scan  a  stanza  of  poetry.     It 

will  aid  the  memory  perhaps  if  we  observe  that  the  first  two  sylla- 
bles of  the  word  iambus  form  an  iambus,  that  is,  the  first  syllable  is 
unaccented  and  the  second  accented;  and  that  the  word  trochee  in  a 
similar  manner  is  a  trochee,  the  accent  being  on  the  first  syllable; 
also  that  the  word  dactyl  is  from  a  Latin  word  meaning  finger,  and 
that  as  the  finger  consists  of  two  joints,  one  long  and  two  short 
ones,  so  the  dactyl  foot  consists  of  one  accented  (or  long)  and  two 
unaccented  (or  short)  syllables. 


■..*\&i,... 


PARLIAMENTARY  USAGES. 


1.  In  any  collection  of  men  assembled  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
cussing certain  questions  and  deciding  upon  certain  measures,  some 
regular  system  of  procedure  is  necessary,  or  confusion  results.  A 
deliberative  assembly,  or  body,  is  one  governed  in  its  actions  mainly 
by  certain  general  usages,  or  customs,  commonly  known  as  parlia- 
mentary law.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  Parliament  of  England 
where  the  fundamental  principles  which  govern  such  bodies  in  this 
country  had  their  origin. 

2.  Many  organized  bodies  adopt  special  rules  to  govern  their 
proceedings.  Besides  these  special  rules  of  order  which  might  be 
called  their  written  or  statute  laws,  they  are  governed  by  what  may 
be  considered  the  established  usage  of  the  country,  or  the  common 
parliamentary  law.  Temporary  assemblies  and  others  which  have 
no  special  rules  are  governed  entirely  by  general  parliamentary 
usage. 

3.  The  first  step  toward  converting  a  collection  of  individuals 
into  a  deliberative  body  is  to  effect  a  temporary  organization.  This 
is  done  in  the  following  manner:  Some  one  rises  and  addresses  the 
assembled  persons,  suggesting  the  propriety  of  coming  to  order, 
and  moves  that  a  certain  person,  mentioning  his  name,  act  as  chair- 
man of  the  meeting.  Some  one  in  the  assembly  then  seconds  the 
motion  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  person  who  called  the  meeting  to 
order  to  put  the  question  to  vote.  The  person  elected  chairman 
then  presides  over  the  assembly,  and  as  a  first  duty  calls  for  nomina- 
tions for  secretary.  A  secretary  being  elected  the  assembly  is  or- 
ganized and  ready  to  transact  the  business  which  called  them 
together. 

4.  If  a  permanent  organization  is  desired  a  motion  to  that  ef- 
fect should  be  offered,  and  if  carried   the  assembly   may    proceed  at 


484  TEACHERS-  AND  STUDENTS'   LIBRARY. 

once  to  organize  by  the  adoption  of  a  constitution  and  by-laws  and 
the  election  of  suitable  officers,  or  these  matters  may  be  referred  to 
committees  elected  tor  that  purpose,  these  committees  to  report  at 
such  a  time  as  the  assembly  may  instruct. 

5.  The  usual  officers  in  a  permanently  organized  body  arc:  (  [) 
a  presiding  officer  styled  president,  chairman,  or  moderator;  (2)  a 
recording  officer,  styled  secretary,  or  clerk;  (3)  a  treasurer.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  frequently  one  or  more  vice-presidents,  a  cor- 
responding secretary  and  sometimes  other  officers,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  organization.  Officers  should  be  elected  by  a  ma- 
jority vote. 

6.  The  principal  duties  of  officers  are  shown  briefly  in  the 
following  outline: — 

1.  PRESIDENT. 

1.  To  call  the  assembly   to  order  and  sustain  order  throughout  the  ses- 
sion. 

2.  To  explain  and  decide  all  points  of  order. 

3.  To  announce  all  business,  state  all  motions,  put  all  questions   to   vote, 
and  give  the  result. 

4.  To  receive  all  communications  and  give  his  signature  when  necessary. 

5.  To  vote  only  in  case  of  tie. 

6.  Sometimes  "to  appoint  committees. 

7.  In  general,  he  is  the  representative  of  the   assembly,  declaring  its  will 
and  obeying  its  commands. 

2.  SECRETARY. 

i.     To  keep  a  record  of  the  proceedings  of  the  assembly. 

2.  To  write  all  orders,  communications,   etc.,  which    the  assembly   may 

direct.  , 

3.  To  read  the  minutes,  or  journal  of  previous  meetings,  and  to  read    all 

papers  and  documents. 

4.  To  call  the  roll  and  mark  the  absentees  and  to  call  the  roll  and  register 
the  votes  of  members  when  yeas  and  nays  are  taken. 

5.  To  notify  committees  of  their  appointment  and  business  and  to  nerform 
such  other  duties  as  the  assembly  may  direct. 

3.  TREASURER. 

1.  To  receive  and  hold  all    moneys  of  the  organization,   disbursing  them 
only  upon  order  of  the  organization  given  by  the  secretary  and  signed  by  the 

president. 

2.  To  report  in  full  all  moneys  received  and  disbursed  as  often  as  the  so- 
ciety may  direct. 

).    VICE-PRESIDENT. 

To  perform  all  the  duties  of  the  president  in  his  absence. 

Remark.— Ihr  above  are  the  duties  usually  devolving  upon  the   officers  named  and  in  the 
•il.s. -nee  of  any  special   rules  they  hold   good,  but  any  society  may  adopt  rules  specifying  the 

duties  of  their  respective  officers.     It  must  he    rememhered  that    any  society  or   organized    body 

c-m  adopt  any  rnles  of  procedure  they  may  see  lit  so  lon^  :,s  they  do  n.'t  conflict  with  the  laws  ol 
,1,,  i.,„,i  in  other  wor.ls,  a  society  is  its  own  master  an, 1  is  not  bound  by  any  code  of  parlia- 
mentary laws  although  it  is  customary  to  follow  the  general  practice  of  parliamentary  hodies. 

7.  The  duties  of  members  may  be  summarized  as  follows: — 


/*.  \RLL  IMEN  /'.  \RT  ( rSAGBS.  485 

i.  To  obtain  the  floor  before  speaking.  This  he  does  by  rising  in  his 
place  ami  a  Idressing  the  presiding  officer  by  his  proper  title,  Air.  President,  or 
Mr.  Chairman,  and  on  being  recognized  by  the  chair  he  is  at  liberty  to  speak, 
which  he  should  do  standing,  unless  physically  unable. 

2.  To  avoid  speaking  upon  any  question  until  it  is  properly  brought  be- 
fore the  assembly  by  a  motion.  A  member  may,  however,  make  a  suggestion 
or  a  statement,  but  it  cannot  be  discussed  by  others  unless  put  in  the  form  of  a 
motion  and  properly  presented  from  the  chair. 

3.  To  speak  upon  the  question  pending. 

4.  To  abstain  from  all  personalities. 

5.  To  yield  the  floor  to  calls  for  order. 

6.  To  avoid  disturbing  the  assemblv  or  any  speaker. 

8.  The  rights  of  members  are  briefly: — 

1.  To  offer  any  motion  or  resolution  to  the  assembly  and  to  explain  or  dis 
cuss  the  same. 

2.  To  call  another  member  to  order  when  necessary  and  to  appeal  from 
the  decision  of  the  chair  to  that  of  the  assembly. 

3.  To  hold  the  floor  when  properly  obtained  until  through  speaking  or 
until  called  to  order  for  any  breach  of  propriety. 

9.  "  When  any  member  wishes  to  obtain  the  sense  of  the  meet- 
ing;, or  the  will  of  the  assembly  on  any  matter,  he  moves  its  adop- 
tion, hence,  is  said  to  make  a  motion.''''  All  business  is  transacted 
through  motions.  When  a  motion  is  adopted  it  becomes  a  resolu- 
tion, law  or  order  of  the  assemblv.  A  motion  cannot  be  entertained 
unless  it  is  secotided,  that  is,  it  must  obtain  the  favor  of  another 
member  who  rises  and  says,  "  I  second  the  motion."  It  is  then 
stated  to  the  assemblv  by  the  presiding  officer  and  may  be 
discussed. 

10.  After  discussion  of  the  motion  or,  if  after  the  president  has 
called  for  remarks  and  none  are  offered,  he  should  rise  and  "put  the 
question,"  which  is  done  somewhat  in  this  form:  "All  who  are  in 
favor  of  the  motion  will  say  aye  (members  in  favor  respond.)  All 
opposed,  say  «o,"  (members  opposed  respond.)  The  chair  then  de- 
cides which  side  has  the  majority  and  says  the  "  motion  is  carried," 
or  "  the  motion  is  lost;"  or  "  the  ayes  have  it,"  or  "  the  noes  have 
it,"  as  the  case  may  be.     The  motion  is  then  said  to  be  adopted. 

11.  The  steps  in  a  motion  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  — 

1.  Obtaining  the  floor  by  addressing  the  chair  and  being  recognized. 

2.  Making  the  motion,  verbally  or  in  writing. 

3.  The  presidenl  stating  the  motion,  verbally  or  by  reading. 

4.  Discussion  and  remarks  by  member-. 

5.  Putting  the  motion  by  the  president  restating  it  if  necessary,  that  all 
may  vote  intelligibly. 

6.  Voting  by  acclamation,  by  ballots,  or  by  yeas  and  nays. 

7.  Announcing  result  by  the  president. 

12.  Voting. — The  most  common  manner  of  voting  is  by  ac- 
clamation, that  is, by  the  members  saying  aye  and  no.  Frequently 
it  is  dene  b\-  members  rising  to  their  feet  or  raising  their  hands.  If 
the  chair  is  unable  to  decide  from  the   voices   which  side  has  a  ma- 


486  TEACHERS'    AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

jority  he  can  call  for  a  "  rising  vote  w  and  require  the  members  to 
stand  until  counted.  This  is  frequently  necessary.  En  questions  of 
great  importance  the  voting  is  usually  by  ballots.  This  consists  in 
writing  yes  or  not  or  when  it  is  an  election  of  officers  the  name  of 
the  candidate  which  the  voter  i^refcrs,  on  a  slip  of  paper.  These 
papers  are  collected  and  counted,  the  president  usually  reading  the 
ballots  and  the  secretary  keeping  tally.  Another  manner  is  by  call- 
ing for  the  yeas  and  nays.  This  is  done  by  the  secretary  calling  the 
roll  and  each  member  responding  with  yes  or  «<?,  and  the  secretary 
marking  each  vote  as  given.  A  majority  of  votes  decides  questions 
unless  there  is  a  special  rule  to  the  contrary.  Some  organizations 
require  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  of  all  the  members  present  to  de- 
cide certain  questions. 

13.  As  a  general  rule  the  motion  made  first  should  be  heard  at 
once  and  no  other  can  be  entertained  until  that  is  disposed  of,  but 
there  are  important  exceptions  which  in  the  nature  of  things  are 
necessary.  These  exceptions  form  the  most  difficult  and  perplexing 
part  of  parliamentary  procedure.  They  are  considered  under  the 
head  of  privileged  questions. 

MOTIONS. 

14.  When  a  motion  is  made  simply  to  bring  before  the  assem- 
bly for  its  consideration,  any  particular  subject,  it  is  called  a  princi- 
pal motion,  or  main  question.  It  cannot  be  made  when  any  other 
question  is  pending  and  it  yields  to  all  privileged  incidental  and 
subsidiary  questions.  In  the  following  sections  the  motions  are  con- 
sidered in  the  order  of  their  precedence. 

PRIVILEGED     MOTIONS. 

15.  A  motion  to  Jix  the  time  to  which  the  assembly  shall   ad- 
journ takes  precedence  of  all  others  and  is  in  order  any  time  before 

the  chairman  has  announced  the  result  of  a  motion  to  adjourn.  If 
made  when  another  question  is  pending,  it  is  undehatable.  It  can  be 
amended  by  altering  the  time.  It  is  debatable  when  it  is  made  as  a 
principal  motion,  there  being  no  other  motion  pending. 

16.  An  unqualified  fnotion  to  adjourn  takes  precedence  of  all 
others,  except  (15).  It  is  undehatable  and  cannot  be  qualified  in 
any  way  nor  can  a  vote  on  it  be  reconsidered.  It  cannot  be  re- 
peated unless  some  business  intervenes  which  maybe  simply  pro- 
gress in  discussion. 

17.  Motions  as  to  privileges  of  members  as  charges  against 
official  character,  the  punishment  of  an  offender,  etc.,  take  prece- 
dence of  all  others  except  the  two  preceding.  When  such  a  ques- 
tion is  raised  it  is  the  duty  of  the  chair  to  decide  whether  it  is  a 
question  i>t"  privilege  from  which  decision  an  appeal  can  be  taken, 
if  it  is  one  requiring  immediate  action  a  member  may  be  interrupted 
in  his  speech.     Final   action  need  not  be  taken  on  it  at  once,  but  it 


PARLIAMENTARY  USAGES.  187 

may  be  referred  to  a  committee,  <>r  laid  on  the  table  or  have  any 
other  subsidiary  motion  applied  to  it,  without  affecting  the  question 
pending  at  the  time  the  question  of  privilege  was  raised.* 

18.  A  Motion  for  Orders  of  the  Day.— "When  a  certain  busi- 
ness has  been  assigned  for  a  certain  day  it  may  take  precedence  of 
any  other  business  when  the  time  comes,  and  may  he  brought  up 
by  :i  "  motion  for  orders  of  the  day."  It  yields  to  the  three  preced- 
ing, is  not  debatable,  and  cannot  be  amended  and  is  in  order  when 
another  member  has  the  floor.  The  effect  of  an  affirmative  vote  on 
this  motion  is  to  remove  the  question  pending  from  before  the  as- 
sembly the  same  as  a  motion  to  adjourn.  The  effect  of  a  negative 
vote  is  to  dispense  with  the  orders  of  the  day  merely  so  far  as  they 
interfere  with  the  consideration  of  the  question  before  the  assembly. 

INCIDENTAL    MOTIONS. 

19.  Questions  of  order  take  precedence  of  the  question  which 
srives  rise  to  them  and  must  he  decided  by  the  chair  without  debate. 
If  any  member  objects  to  his  decision  he  should  say.  "  T  appeal 
from  the  decision  of  the  chair."  The  appeal  must  be  seconded  and 
then  ihe  chair  states  the  question:  "Shall  the  decision  of  the  chair 
be  sustained? "  In  case  of  tie  the  decision  of  the  chair  is  sustained. 
An  appeal  yields  to  Privileged  Questions,  and  cannot  be  amended. 
It  is  debatable  except  "  when  it  relates  to  indecorum,  or  to  trans- 
gressions of  the  rules  of  speaking,  or  to  the  priority  of  business,  or  if 
it  is  made  while  the  Previous  Question  (25)  is  pending."'  The  presid- 
ing officer  can  state  the  reasons  for  his  decision.  When  an  appeal  is 
debatable  the  motions  to  Lie  on  the  Table  (24)  and  the  previous 
question  (25)  can  be  applied  to  it,  and  they  effect  nothing  but  the 
appeal.  A  new  appeal  cannot  be  made  while  one  is  already  pending. 
When  any  member  perceives  a  breach  of  a  rule  he  has  Liie  privilege 
of  rising  from  his  seat  at  the  time  and  saying,  "  Mr.  President,  1  rise 
to  a  point  of  order."  The  person  speaking  should  immediately  take 
his  seat,  and  the  president  request  the  member  to  state  his  point  of  or- 
der, which  he  does.  The  chair  should  then  decide,  and  if  no  appeal 
be  taken  the  person  speaking  may  resume  his  speech. 

20.  When  any  question  has  been  introduced  before  it  is  debated 
a  member  or  the  chair  may  object  to  the  consideration  of  the  ques- 
tion. It  is  similar  to  a  question  of  order  (19)  and  can  be  made  while 
a  member  has  the  door  and  does  not  require  a  second.  It  is  not  de- 
batable, cannot  be  amended  or  have  any  other  subsidiary  motion 
applied  to  it.  The  chair  asks,  "  Shall  the  question  be  considered  ?" 
A  two-thirds  vote  shall  decide. 

21.  Any  member  has  the  ri<^ht  to  call  for  the  reading  of  any 
paper  before  he  votes  upon  it.      If  no  one  objects,  the  chair    grants 

*A  "  question  of  privilege  "  most  not  be  confounded  with  ;i  "  privileged  question.'     Si  i 
sec.  13. 


1-  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRAR1 

the  privilege.     The    question  of  permission  to  have  papers  read  is 
not  debatable  and  cannot  be  amended. 

22.  The  mover  of  a  question  can  withdraw  or  modify  or  sub- 
stitute another  in  its  place  if  no  one  objects,  but  if  objection  be  made 
a  motion  for  leave  to  withdraw,  etc.,  must  be  made,  which  motion 
cannot  be  debated  or  amended. 

23.  A  motion  to  suspend  the  rules  cannot  be  amended,  recon- 
sidered, or  debated,  and  no  subsidiary  motions  can  be  applied  to  it, 
and  should  be  decided  by  a  two-thirds  vote. 

SUBSIDIARY      MOTIONS. 

24.  A  motion  to  lie  on  the  table  yields  to  any  Privileged  or  In- 
cidental Question,  and  takes  precedence  of  all  other  Subsidiary 
Questions.     It  is  not    debatable,  cannot    be  amended,  or    have  any 

»  other  subsidiary  motion  applied  to  it.  When  decided  in  the  affirma- 
tive it  cannot  be  reconsidered.  Its  object  is  to  postpone  the  main 
question  in  such  a  way  that  it  may  be  taken  up  at  any  time.  Its 
effect  is  frequently  to  suppress  a  question  entirely,  ii  an  amend- 
ment be  laid  on  the  table  the  subject  which  it  is  proposed  to  amend 
goes  with  it.  An  appeal  laid  on  the  table  has  the  effect  of  sustain- 
ing the  decision  of  the  chair  for  the  time  but  does  not  carry  the 
original  subject  with  it.  If  a  motion  to  reconsider  is  laid  on  the 
table,  the  original  question  is  left  where  it  was  before  the  reconsid- 
eration was  moved. 

25.  The  term  previoics  question  is  a  misnomer  and  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  subject  under  previous  consideration.  To  move  the 
previous  question  is  equivalent  to  demanding  that  the  debate  now 
cease,  and  the  house  immediately  proceed  to  vote  on  the  pending 
question.  It  takes  precedence  of  every  debatable  question  and 
yields  to  Privileged  and  Incidental  Questions  and  to  the  motion  to 
lie  on  the  table.  It  cannot  be  amended  and  is  not  debatable,  nor 
can  it  have  any  other  subsidiary  motion  applied  to  it.  It  requires 
a  two-thirds  vote.  The  chair  puts  the  question  thus:  "  Shall  the 
main  question  be  now  put?"  Its  effect  is  immediately  to  close  de- 
bate and  bring  the  house  to  a  vote  on  the  question  pending,  except 
when  to  amend  or  commit  is  pending,  when  it  his  the  effect  of  forc- 
ing a  vote  not  only  upon  these  questions  but  upon  the  question  to 
be  amended  or  committed. 

26.  A  motion  to  post  pone  to  a  certain  day  yields  to  any  Privi- 
leged or  Incidental  Question,  and  to  the  motion  to  lie  on  the  table, 
or  for  the  previous  question,  and  takes  precedence  of  a  motion  to 
commit  or  amend,  or  indefinitely  postpone.  It  allows  limited  de- 
bate confined  to  the  propriety  of  the  postponement,  and  can  be 
amended  bv  altering  the  time.  When  the  time  comes  to  which  it 
is  postponed  it  is  entitled  to  be  taken  up  in  preference  to  everything 
except  Privileged  Questions. 

27.  A    motion  to  commit,  or  refer  to  a  committee,  yields  to  any 


PARLIAMENTARY  USAGES.  W9 

Privileged  or  Incidental  Question  and  to  all  the  Subsidiary  motions 
mentioned  previous  t'>  this,  and  takes  precedence  of  the  motions  to 
amend  or  indefinitely  postpone.  It  can  he  amended  by  altering  the 
committee  or  givingit  instructions.      It  is  debatable. 

28.  A  motion  to  amend  takes  precedence  of  no  other  question 
hut  that  which  it  is  proposed  to  amend,  and  yields  to  all  questions 
except  the  motion  to  postpone  indefinitely.  It  can  be  amended,  hut 
this  amendment  cannot  he  amended.  An  amendment  may  alter  en- 
tirely the  nature  of  the  original  motion  hut  it  cannot  pertain  to 
another  subject.  Amendments  may  be  of  the  following  kinds:  (i) 
to"  insert  "  certain  words  or  sentences;  (2)  to  "strike  out "  certain 
words  or  sentences;  (3)  to  strike  out  some  words  and  insert  others; 
(j.)  to  "substitute"  another  motion  on  the  same  subject;  (5  )  to  di- 
vide the  question  into  distinct  questions  so  as  to  vote  on  them  sepa- 
rately. The  amendment  to  the  amendment  should  be  put  first  and 
then  the  amendment  to  the  motion  and  then  the  motion  as  amended. 

29.  A  motion  to  postpone  indefinitely  yields  to  all  except  a 
motion  to  amend,  and  takes  precedence  to  no  other  except  the  Prin- 
cipal Question.  It  opens  the  question  which  it  is  proposed  to  post- 
pone to  debate  and  it  cannot  he  amended;  when  carried  it  removes 
the  question  from  before  the  assembly  for  that  session. 

30.  "  It  is  in  order  at  any  time,  even  when  another  member 
has  the  floor,  or  while  the  assembly  is  voting  on  the  motion  to  ad- 
journ, during  the  day  on  which  a  motion  has  been  acted  upon,  to 
move  to  reconsider  the  vote  and  have  such  motion  entered  on  the 
record,  hut  it  cannot  be  considered  while  another  question  is  be- 
fore the  assembly.  It  must  be  made  excepting  when  the  vote  is  by 
ballot,  by  a  member  who  voted  with  the  prevailing  side.  A  motion 
to  reconsider  the  vote  on  a  Subsidiary  Motion  takes  precedence  of 
the  main  question.  It  yields  to  Privileged  Question^  (except  for 
orders  of  the  day)  and  Incidental  Questions. 

"  This  motion  can  be  applied  to  the  vote  on  every  other  ques- 
tion, except  to  adjourn  and  to  suspend  the  rules,  and  an  affirmative 
vote  to  lie  on  the  table  or  to  take  from  the  table.  No  question  can 
be  twice  reconsidered.  This  motion  cannot  he  amended;  it  is  de- 
batable or  not,  just  as  the  question  to  be  reconsidered  is  debatable  or 
undebatable;  when  debatable,  it  opens  up  for  discussion  the  entire 
subject  to  be  reconsidered,  and  the  previous  ones/ion,  if  ordered 
while  it  is  pending,  affects  only  the  motion  to  reconsider.  It  can 
he  laid  on  the  table  and  in  such  cases  the  last  motion  cannot  be  re- 
considered.1'— Roberts'1  Rides  of  Order.  When  a  motion  to  recon- 
sider  is  carried  the  main  question  is  again  before  the  assembly  just 
as  it  stood  before  the  vote  was  taken  concerning  it. 

GENERAL    i:\lM.A  NATIONS. 

31.  In  every  organized  body  a  certain  number  of  members 
must  he  present  before  business  can  he   transacted.     Such    number 


4<X>  TEACHERS?  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

is  called  a  quorum.  Mosl  organizations  fix  by  special  rule  what 
this  number  shall  be.  When  there  is  no  rule  a  majority  should  he 
considered  a  quorum. 

32.  Though  not  essential  it  is  very  convenient,  and  often  facili- 
tates business  to  have  ;i  settled  order  of  business.  It  would  he  im- 
possible to  give  an  order  of  husincss  which  would  suit  any  particu- 
lar case,  hut  as  a  model  we  give  below  a  partial  list  of  points  and 
the  order  in  which  they  should  come: 

i.  Call  to  Order. 

2.  Calling  Roll. 

3.  Minutes  of  previous  meeting. 

4.  Unfinished  Business. 

5.  Miscellaneous  Business. 

6.  Reports  of  Committees. 

7.  Election  of  Officers. 

8.  Adjournment. 

In  the  case  of  a  literary  society  or  something  of  the  kind  where 
miscellaneous  exercises  are  given,  a  place  for  them  should  appear  on 
the  order  of  business. 

33.  The  following  form  for  minutes  will  he  suggestive:  [So- 
cietv,  or  whatever   the  name  of  the  organization]  met   pursuant   to 

adjournment   [or   call    of  president,  etc.,]   Mr. in  the   chair. 

The  roll  was  called,  etc.  Minutes  of  previous  meeting  read  and 
approved  [or   amended    as  the    ease    may    he].      On  motion  of  Mr. 

one  dollar  was  appropriated,  etc.,  [here  state  motion  in  full]. 

A  committee  consisting  of  [here  mention  names]  was  appointed, 
etc.,  etc.     Society  adjourned  to  meet . 

,  Pies. 

,  Sec. 

34.  It  is  not  necessary-  in  an  ordinary  literary  or  debating  society 
to  have  a  lengthy  constitution  and  by-laws  specifying  exactly  what 
the  officers  and  members  shall  do,  as  these  general  matters  are  un- 
derstood, hut  each  organization  must  make  for  itself  certain  regula- 
tions, such  as  time  and  place  of  meeting,  numbers  to  constitute  a 
quorum,  amount  of  initiation  fee,  if  any,  number  and  kind  of  officers 
and  time  of  service,  nature  of  the  exercises,  etc.,  and  such  points 
should  be  specified  in  a  constitution  and  by-laws.  If  members 
generally  have  not  access  to  some  work  on  parliamentary  practice, 
it  might  he  well  to  adopt  a  few  special  rules  of  order  based  upon 
the  general  parliamentary  law,  as  laid  down  by  authors.  The  prin- 
cipal points  of  parliamentary  law  we  have  endeavored  to  give  in 
the  preceding  pages. 

35.  Committees  arc  either:  (1)  select^  appointed  on  particular 
occasion^  to  attend  to  some  special  matter  assigned  to  them ;  (2) 
Standing,  appointed  for  a  term  to  take  charge  of  all  business  of  a 
certain  nature.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  whole  assembly 
wishes  to  act  as  a  committee,  and  this  is  done   by  some  one  moving 


PARLIAMENTARY    USAGES.  \>>\ 

that  the  house  resolve  itself  into  a  committee  of  the  -..hole,  which 
motion,  if  carried,  converts  the  assembly  into  a  committee,  which 
may  then  act  with  more  freedom  than  in  ordinary  session.  When 
they  have  finished  the  particular  business  which  called  them  into 
the  committee,  a  motion  that  "the  committee  rise"  is  in  order,  and 
if  carried,  the  assembly  resumes  its  former  condition. 

36.  It  is  the  duty  of  a  committee  to  attend  to  the  business  for  which 
it  was  appointed,  and  report  the  result  to  the  assembly.  When 
a  committee  holds  a  meeting  it  is  governed  by  the  same  laws 
that  govern  the  assembly.  Reports  are  generally  to  be  made  in 
writing  and  should  be  read  by  the  chairman  of  the  committee  or 
some  one  appointed  for  the  purpose.  Unless  objection  be  made  a 
motion  is  not  necessary  to  receive  the  report  of  a  committee.  When 
the  report  is  received  the  committee  is  discharged,  although  the  re- 
port may  be  again  committed  to  them.  The  question  next  occurs 
as  to  the  adoption  of  the  report,  which  is  done  by  a  motion. 

37.  The  presiding  officer  of  an  assembly  should  be  well  posted 
on  parliamentary  law  and  should  always  be  prompt  to  decide  all 
points  of  order  which  may  be  sprung.  If  he  is  not  positive  as  to 
what  course  to  pursue  when  a  decision  is  to  be  made,  he  may  ask 
for  advice  or  information  from  any  member.  It  is  gencrallv  best 
to  decide  quickly  one  way  or  the  other  and  let  any  member  of  the 
assembly  take  an  appeal,  which  is  always  his  privilege  if  he  thinks 
the  chair  is  unjust.  The  majority  then  decides  the  point,  and  the 
chair  cannot  be  held  responsible.  It  frequently  happens  that  no 
one  in  the  meeting  is  very  well  versed  in  parliamentary'  law  and  yet 
it  is  necessary  the  meeting  should  have  a  presiding  officer.  Let 
some  one  be  willing  to  show  his  ignorance  in  this  case  rather  than 
the  assembly  should  dissolve  for  want  of  a  presiding  officer.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  even  one  who  is  well  posted  will  be  at  a 
loss  what  to  do,  as  very  perplexing  questions  may  occur,  but  usually 
matters  will  proceed  harmoniously  if  the  chair  is  prompt  to  decide 
according  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge.  A  blunder  on  his  part 
should  stimulate  him  to  a  study  of  the  subject  before  he  is  again 
called  upon  to  fill  such  a  position. 


MYTHOLOGY. 


1.  Mythology  treats  of  myths,  or  the  popular  ideas  concerning 
supernatural  beings.  The  idea  of  superior  beings  originated  among 
primitive  men,  doubtless  in  the  attempt  to  understand  and  explain 
the  various  phenomena  of  nature.  The  savage  man  sees  the  effects 
of  a  storm  or  hears  the  thunder  and  he  imagines  it  to  be  produced 
by  some  superior  being  or  beings.  As  he  can  measure  the  unknown 
only  by  the  known,  he  naturally  conceives  those  beings  to  be  some- 
what like  himself  or  like  some  animal  with  which  he  is  acquainted. 
Sometimes  the  picture  in  his  imagination  takes  a  form  made  up  of 
a  combination  of  natural  forms  or  objects,  and  so  arise  beings  half 
man,  half  horse,  etc. 

2.  It  appears  that  the  youth  of  nations  as  of  individuals  is  a 
peri.nl  of  great  activity  of  the  imagination,  and  this  imagination  is 
greatest  in  proportion  as  their  knowledge  is  least.  Every  people 
have  had  their  age  of  fable  and  their  stories  of  gods  and  heroes. 
These  mythological  beings  have  become  the  material  of  poets,  ora- 
tors, essayists  and  novelists,  and  our  literature  is  full  of  allusions,  a 
knowledge  of  which  is  necessary  to  a  thorough  understanding  and 
appreciation  of  the  works  of  the  great  authors.  In  the  following 
pages  is  given  a  brief  account  of  the  most  important  names  in  the 
mythology  of  the  ancient  nations: 

GRECIAN    AND    ROMAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

3.  The  mythologies  of  Greece  and  Rome  are  the  most  interest- 
ing and  the  names  of  their  gods  and  heroes  are  the  most  frequently 
alluded  to  in  literature.  Grecian  and  Roman  mythologies  are  al- 
ways associated  because  the  Romans  received  their  religious  ideas 
from  the  Greeks,  and  the  deities  of  the  latter  were  accej)ted  by  the 
former.  In  many  instances  the  same  god  has  two  names,  one  being 
Grecian,  the  other  Latin.  In  the  following  sections  where  there  are 
two  names  the  Greek  name  will  be  given  followed  by  the  corres- 
ponding Latin  name  in  brackets. 

4.  According  to  the  Greek  poet,  Hesiod,  the  world  was  first  a 
shapeless  mass,  chaos,  out  of  which  first  came  the  spirit  of  love, 
Eros  [Cupid  |  and  the  earth  Gaea;  then  Erebos,  [Erebus]  darkness 
and  Nyx,  [><<•>:]  night,  and  from  the  union  of  the  two  latter  sprang 
JEther,  the  clear  sky,  and  Hemera,  day.  The  earth  produced 
Uranos,  the  firmament,  and  Pontos  the  sea.  Eros  then  began  to 
agitate  the  earth  and  make  pairs  of  things.  The  most  important 
pair  was  Uranos    and    Gaea,  or   heaven    and    earth,  and   from  them 


MYTHOLOGY.  193 

sprang  a  multitude  of  beings  superior  to  the  people  who  afterward 
inhabited  them. 

5.  Greek  writers  also  ascribe  the  origin  of  the  world  to 
Oceanos,  the  ocean.  They  thought  the  earth  to  be  circular  and 
flat  surrounded  by  the  ocean  which  flowed  as  a  river  around  it,  and 
that  here  were  the  "  islands  of  the  blest,"  "  the  gardens  of  the  gods  " 
and  the  sources  of  the  "  nectar  "  and  "  ambrosia,"  the  food  of  the 
gods.  The  region  above  the  air  and  clouds  was  occupied  by  pure 
ether  in  which  the  sun,  moon  and  stars  moved.  The  sun  was 
guided  by  a  god  who  drove  a  chariot  of  four  horses  through  the 
arch  of  the  heavens  and  at  night  sank  into  the  ocean,  and  it  was 
supposed  sailed  around  in  a  vessel  to  the  starting  point  to  be  ready 
to  commence  a  new  day.  The  higher  order  of  gods  dwelt  above 
the  clouds  and  when  they  wished  to  hold  council  or  intercom-, 
met  upon  the  top  of  some  mountain.  Mount  Olympus  was  the 
chief  place  of  these  meetings  of  the  gods.  It  is  a  mountain  in 
Greece  about  i  )/2  miles  in  height. 

6.  Uranos,  a  personification  of  the  sky,  was  the  first  of  the 
race  of  gods.  He  married  his  mother  Gasa,  the  earth,  as  we  have 
already  seen.  The  Titans,  among  whom  were  Chronos,  Time,  and 
Rhea,  were  results  of  this  union.  The  Titans  rebelled  against  their 
father  who  then  threw  them  into  Tartarus  and  kept  them  bound. 
Gaea,  his  wife,  grieving  for  her  offspring  gave  Chronos  a  sickle 
made  of  adamant  and  instructed  him  how  to  wound  his  father. 
This  he  did  and  set  free  the  Titans  who  married  their  sisters  and 
from  thence  sprang  a  numerous  family  of  gods.  Chronos  succeeded 
his  father  Uranos  on  the  throne  of  the  gods  and  married  his  sister 
Rhea.  The  result  of  this  union  were  Pluto,  Poseidon  [Neptune], 
Zeus  T  Jupiter  or  Jove],  Hestia  [Vesta],  Demeter  [Ceres]  and  Hera 
[Juno!] 

7.  The  parents  of  Chronos  had  prophesied  that  he  was  to  be 
dethroned  like  his  father  by  his  youngest  son.  To  prevent  this  he 
swallowed  his  children  a^  fast  as  they  were  born  until  he  had  thus 
disposed  of  five  of  them.  But  when  the  sixth,  which  was  Zeus 
was  born,  Rhea  his  wife  determined  that  he  should  be  saved  and 
gave  her  husband  a  stone  which  he  swallowed  thinking  it  was  the 
child.  Zeus  was  then  conveyed  to  the  island  of  Crete  and  con- 
cealed in  a  cave  on  Mount  Ida  where  he  was  nursed  by  nymphs, 
furnished  with  milk  by  a  goat  and  fed  with  honey.  When  he  grew 
up,  with  the  aid  of  his  mother  he  persuaded  Chronos  to  yield  up 
the  sons  and  the  stone  he  had  swallowed.  These  sons  joined  their 
brethren  and  drove  their  lather  from  the  throne,  and  placed  Zeus  in 
his  stead. 

8.  The  Titans,  however,  did  not  agree  to  this  arrangement  and 
made  war  upon  Zeus.  The  struggle  was  long  and  fierce  but  ended 
in  the  triumph  of  Zeus  who  became  from  that  time  the  supreme 
ruler  and  "  father  of  gods  and  men."     He  is  styled  Jupiter  or  Jove 


4'j4  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

by  the  Romans,  and  is  represented  as  being  "possessed  of  every 
form  of  power,  endowed  with  wisdom,  and  in  his  dominion  over 
the  human  race  partial  to  justice,  and  with  no  limit  to  his  goodness 
and  love." 

9.  Hera,  or  Juno,  was  the  wife  of  Zeus.  She  is  a  personifica- 
tion of  the  female  power  of  the  heavens,  "that  is  the  atmosphere 
with  its  fickle  and  yet  fertilizing  properties."  All  the  blessings  be- 
stowed on  mankind  are  to  be  traced  to  their  marriage.  An  annual 
festival  was  held  in  spring  in  honor  of  the  marriage.  She  is, how- 
ever, described  as  being  at  times  jealous  and  quarrelsome  and  her 
character  as  proud  and  disdainful.  In  peace  she  was  attended  by 
the  Charities  [Graces]  and  the  Mora;  [Seasons].  Iris,  the  goddess 
of  the  rainbow,  was  her  constant  attendant. 

10.  Poseidon  [Neptune]  was  the  god  of  the  sea,  fountains 
and  rivers.  He  is  represented  as  bearing  a  trident  and  driving  a 
chariot  with  horses  over  the  water.  The  horse  is  taken  as  a  symbol 
of  his  power  because  of  its  movements,  resembling  the  mounting 
waves  of  the  sea.  Amphitrite  was  his  wife  and  the  goddess  of  the 
sea.     She  was  the  daughter  of  Okeanos  [Oceanus]. 

11.  Pluto  was  the  god  of  the  lower  regions  (Hades)  the  en- 
trance to  which  was  guarded  by  a  dog  Cerberus,  "  with  three  heads 
and  a  serpent's  tail  fawning  upon  those  who  entered,  but  showing 
his  horrible  teeth  to  those  who  tried  to  pass  out."  Those  who  en- 
tered the  domains  of  Pluto  had  to  cross  the  river  Styx,  and  only 
those  whose  bodies  had  been  properly  buried  were  ferried  across  by 
C/iaron^the  ferryman.  He  charged  a  small  fee  for  this  .service  ami 
a  piece  of  money  was  always  put  in  the  mouth  of  the  dead  man  to 
assure  his  passage  across  this  river.  The  river  Lethe  was  also  said 
to  exist  here,  whose  waters  if  tasted  \>y  any  one  would  cause  utter 
forgetfulness  of  the  past. 

12.  Tartaros  [Tartarus]  was  a  place  as  far  below  Hades  as 
the  heavens  were  above  the  earth,  and  where  those  who  had  sinned 
against  the  gods  were  doomed  to  remain.  A  few  of  the  punish- 
ments here  inflicted  are  important  to  note  from  the  fact  of  the  fre- 
quent references  to  them  in  our  literature.  Tantalos  [Tantalus], 
king  of  Phrygia,  had  offended  the  gods  by  his  overbearing  and 
treacherous  conduct  and  the  cruelty  he  practiced  on  his  own  son 
and  was  doomed  in  Tartarus  to  stand  in  water  up  to  his  throat 
while  he  could  not  stoop  to  quench  his  burning  thirst,  and  to  have 
luscious  fruits  hang  over  his  head  which  he  could  not  reach  though 
suffering  with  constant  hunger.  The  real  significance  and  force  of  the 
word  tantalize  thus  appears. 

fxion,si  ruler  of  Tliessaly,  was  condemned  for  a  similar  crime,  to 
be  lashed  along  with  serpents  to  a  wheel  which  was  continually 
turning. 

Sisyphos  [Sisyphus'],  King  of  Corinth,  was  condemned  to  roll 
a  heavy  stone   up  a  hill    which   as   soon  as  it  reached  the  top  rolled 


MTTHOLOGr.  495 

-again    to    the    bottom    and    he    was    obliged    to    repeat    the   labor 

continually. 

13.  Demeter  [Ceres']  was  the  goddess  of  fruits,  grains  and 
vegetables,  and  is  said  to  have  first  introduced  the  art  of  agriculture. 
Hestia  [  Vesta]  was  her  sister  and  was  worshiped  as  the  goddess 
of  the  home  and  fireside.  In  Rome  there  was  a  temple  erected  to 
Vesta  which  contained  a  fire  that  was  never  allowed  to  go  out. 
This  temple  was  kept  open  by  day  hut  closed  at  night.  It  contained 
a  small  wooden  image  of  Pallas  \Minerva\  (17)  called  the  Palla- 
dium which  originally  fell  from  heaven  upon  the  citadel  of  Troy. 
Upon  the  capture  of  that  city  it  was  carried  to  Greece  and  from 
thence  to  Rome.  The  safety  and  existence  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
they  thought,  depended  upon  the  preservation  of  this  figure.  Hence 
the  saying  "  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  is  the  palladium  of  civil 
liberty." 

14.  Ares  [ Mars']  was  the  god  of  war  and  son  of  Zeus  and 
Hera.  [Jupiter  and  Juno].  He  is  more  noted  as  a  Roman  deity 
than  a  Greek,  hence  the  Latin  name  Mars  is  more  frequently  seen 
than  the  Greek  Ares.  From  the  latter  name  however,  came  the 
word  Areopagus  meaning  "Mars  Hill''''  on  which  was  erected  a 
court  of  justice  for  the  decision  of  capital  offences  in  Athens.  It 
was  here  where  Paul  stood  and  delivered  his  celebrated  speech  to 
the  "men  of  Athens."  (Acts  XVII,  22-31).  The  word  "  Martial" 
comes  from  "  Mars." 

15.  Hcphacstos  [Vulcan]  was  the  personification  of  fire.  He 
was  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Hera  and  was  the  cause  of  a  quarrel  between 
his  parents.  Once,  having  taken  his  mother's  part,  Zeus  seized  him 
by  the  heels  and  threw  him  out  of  Olympus.  He  was  one  whole 
day  falling  through  the  air  and  in  the  evening  reached  the  Island 
of  Lemnos,  near  where  the  volcano  of  Moschylos  stood.  The  word 
«  volcano"  is  from  "  Vulcan,"  also  the  term  "  vulcanized  rubber," 
India  rubber  hardened  by  heat.  'He  is  often  represented  as  a  black- 
smith working  at  his  forge. 

16.  Aphrodite  [Venus]  was  the  goddess  of  female  beauty  and 
love.  She  was  said  to  have  been  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Dione 
and  by  others  to  have  sprung  from  the  foam  of  the  sea.  It  is  said 
also  that  her  father  gave  her  to  Vulcan  out  of  gratitude  for  the  ser- 
vice the  latter  had  rendered  in  forging  thunderbolts,  and  thus  the 
most  beautiful  of  the  goddesses  became  the  wife  of  one  of  the  mosl 
ill-favored  of  the  gods.  Eros  [Cupid]  was  said  to  be  her  son  and 
constant  companion,  who,  armed  with  a  bow  and  arrows  shot  darts 
of  desire  into  the  hearts  of  gods  and  men. 

17.  Pallas  [Minerva]  the  goddess  of  wisdom,  sprang  forth 
ready  armed  from  the  head  of  Zeus.  Her  favorite  bird  was  the  owl. 
Apollo  or  Phoebus,  was  the  god  of  archery,  prophecy,  music,  and 
medicine.  He  was  also  the  god  of  the  sun  under  the  name  Helios 
[Sol]  as  was  his  sister  Diana  goddess  of  the  moon  under  the  name 


486  TEACHERS1     l.Y/>   STUDENTS'    LIBRARY. 

Selene  [Luna].     A  temple  was  erected  at  Ephesus,  in  Asia  Minor, 
to  the  worship  of  Diana.      (Acts  XIX,  34,  35). 

18.  Dionysos  Bacchus~\  was  the  god  of  wine  and  debauchery. 
Hermes  [  Mercury"  was  the  messenger  and  interpreter  of  the  gods 

and  presided  over  commerce  and  eloquence.     The  name  Mercury  is 

thought  to  lie  derived  from  n/crccs,  wares.      Our  word  mercenary  is 
from  tile  same  root. 

19.  The  deities  previously  described  are  among  the  principal, 
or  Olympian  gods.  A  few  of  the  inferior  deities  who  were  less  uni- 
versally worshiped,  yet  whose  names  have  peculiar  significance, 
we  shall  now  mention. 

20.  The  Horac  (Seasons)  and  charities  (Graces)  have  already 
been  mentioned.  Flora  was  the  goddess  of  flowers,  and  Pomona 
of  fruits.  Boreas  (the  north  wind)  and  Zephyrus  (the  west  wind) 
were  rival  lovers  of  Flora.  Janus  was  a  Roman  deity  and  is  repre- 
sented as  having  two  faces,  one  looking  forward  and  the  other 
backward  and  is  holding  a  key  in  his  hand.  He  opened  and  closed 
all  things,  sat  between  earth  and  heaven  and  held  the  air, sea  and 
land  in  the  hollow  of  his  hands,  and  the  world  moved  on  its  hinges 
at  his  command.  The  naming  of  the  month  January  after  him  is  of 
peculiar  significance,  looking  forward  to  a  new  year  and  backward 
to  the  old.  (p.  280). 

21.  Pan  was  the  god  who  watched  over  pastures  and  shep- 
herds, hunting  and  fishing.  He  is  represented  with  the  body  of  a 
man  and  the  legs  and  feet  of  a  goat  and  playing  upon  a  shepherd's 
pipe.  The  cause  of  sudden  fright  was  ascribed  to  him,  hence  our 
word  "panic," fear  without  cause.  Fawns  and  Satyrs  differed  but 
little  from  each  other.     They  inhabited  woods  and  fields. 

22.  Proteus  was  the  son  of  Oceanos  and  Tethyshis  wife.  He 
had  the  faculty  of  changing  himself  into  a  great  variety  of  forms, 
personifying  the  changeableness  of  the  ocean.  "  The  restless  and 
fertile  imagination  of  the  ancients' peopled  with  beings  of  a  higher 
order  than  themselves  every  mountain,  valley,  plain  and  forest. 
every  thicket,  hush,  and  tree, every  fountain,  stream  and  lake.  These 
beings  in  whom  both  Greeks  and  Romans  firmly  believed  were 
called  Nymphs,  and  resembled  in  many  respects  the  mermaids  and 
fairies  of  modern  superstition."  Dryads  were  nymphs  of  wood 
and  trees,  Oreads,  mountain  nvmphs,  Naiads,  water  nymphs, etc. 

23.  Echo  was  a  mountain  nymph  and  a  servant  of  Hera  (9  ) 
but  was  not  allowed  on  account  of  her  talkativeness  to  come  near 
the  goddess.  A  beautiful  story  goes  that  Echo  fell  in  love  with 
Narcissus,  a  river  god,  which  passion  Narcissus  did  not  return,  and 
the  nymph  pined  away  until  nothing  was  left  of  her  but  her  voice 
and  she  then  occupied  herself  in  mocking  everything  she  heard. 
Narcissus  from  seeing  his  image  reflected  in  a  brook  fell  in  love 
with  himself  and  was  punished  by  being  changed  into  the  tlower 
which  bears  his  name. 


MTTHOLOGT.  -i!)7 

24.  The  Muses  were  nymphs  who  presided  over  literature, 
art,  poetry  and  science.  They  were  nine  in  number  and  to  each 
was  assigned  a  special  department.  In  all  great  poems  of  ancient, 
and  even  of  more  modern  times  it  was  the  custom  "  to  invoke  the 
muses"  as  a  part  of  the  lirst  few  lines.  See  Mi  Moris  Paradise 
Lost,  Homer's  Iliad  and  VirgiPs  ^Eueid.  The  mother  of  the 
Muses  was  Mnemosyne  (Memory). 

25.  "  Eoliis  was  the  son  of  a  king  named  Hippotes,  and  lived 
on  one  of  the  abrupt  rocky  Lipari  islands  close  to  .Sicily, along  with 
his  offspring,  six  sons  and  six  daughters,  who  were  married  in  pair-, 
and  made  life  merry  with  their  music.  In  the  caves  of  the  island 
were  imprisoned  the  winds,  Eolus  letting  them  out  in  gales,  or  in 
a  soft  favoring  breeze,  at  the  will  of  the  higher  gods." 

26.  The  story  of  Psyche  and  Cupid  (16 )  is  a  beautiful  and  touch- 
ing one.  Psyche  was  the  daughter  of  a  king  and  very  beautiful. 
Her  beauty  aroused  the  jealousy  of  Venus  who  sent  her  son  Cupid 
charged  with  the  mission  of  inciting  her  to  love  some  common  man. 
Cupid  made  the  visit  but  was  himself  so  smitten  with  the  beauty  of 
Psyche  that  he  fell  in  love  with  her  and  carried  her  to  a  fairy  palace 
in  the  vale  of  Paradise  where  they  lived  happily  together  for  some 
time.  But  Psyche  was  not  allowed  to  behold  Cupid  with  her  eyes. 
She  would  have  endured  this  but  her  sisters  tempted  her  to  satisfy 
her  curiosity.  One  night  when  Cupid  was  asleep  she  took  a  lamp 
and  stole  to  his  bedside,  but  a  drop  of  hot  oil  falling  from  the  lamp 
wakened  the  god,  who  charged  her  with  disobedience  to  his  com- 
mands and  deserted  her.  Having  searched  for  him  long  she  at  last 
found  her  way  to  the  palace  of  Venus,  who  after  exacting  from  her 
various  kinds  of  menial  service  ordered  her  to  go  to  the  lower 
world  and  bring  a  box  of  beauty's  ointment  from  Persephone.  On 
returning  and  opening  the  box  she  sank  overpowered  by  the  odor. 
Cupid  unable  to  resist  longer  came  to  her  help  and  brought  her 
back  to  life.  The  wrath  of  Venus  was  appeased  and  Cupid  and 
Psyche  were  married,  Psyche  obtaining  immortality. 

Psyche  signified  originally  "the  soul"  but  came  afterward  to 
mean  "a  butterfly"  the  likeness  of  the  two  being  not  difficult  to 
see.  The  object  of  the  story  seems  to  be  to  illustrate  the  three 
stages  of  the  soul's  existence,  its  pre-existence  in  a  happy  state,  its 
abode  on  earth  with  trials  and  sorrow,  and  the  future  state  of  happy 
immortality. 

27.  The  Erinys,  or  Furies,  were  daughters  of  night,  and  lived 
at  the  entrance  to  the  lower  world.  Their  duty  was  to  punish 
those  who  had  been  guilty  of  some  crime  on  earth  and  had  come 
down  to  the  lower  world  without  receiving  pardon  from  the  gods. 
They  sometimes  pursued  criminals  on  earth  at  the  command  of  the 
higher  gods.  The  Harpies  were  also  creatures  employed  by  the 
gods  to  carry  out  the  punishment  of  crime.  The  Gorgons  were 
three  sisters,  two  of  whom  were  immortal  but  the  youngest,  Medusa 

32 


19S  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 

was  mortal,  and  the  most  beautiful  of  the  three.  She  loved  Posei- 
don I  Neptune  J,  and  havfng  met  him  once  in  the  temple  of  Athene, 
to  the  desecration  of  that  building,  was  punished  by  having  her 
beautiful  hair  turned  into  snakes,  thus  making  her  appearance  more 
ghastly  than  that  of  her  sisters.  All  who  beheld  her  were  turned 
immediately    into  stone. 

28.  Demons,  or  Genii  were  a  class  of  invisible  beings  who 
were  assigned  by  Zeus  one  to  each  man  to  attend  and  protect  him. 
They  were  nameless  and  innumerable.  Manes  were  the  souls  of 
the  departed  in  the  realm  of  shadows.  Lares  and  Penates  were 
household  gods  peculiar  to  the  Romans.  Each  household  was  sup- 
posed to  he  under  the  special  protection  of  one  Lar  and  several  Pen- 
ates. These  gods  were  represented  by  images  in  the  form  of  a 
youth  holding  a  horn  of  plenty  in  one  hand  and  a  dish  in  the 
other. 

29.  TJianatos  \Mors~\  was  the  god  of  d^ath.  He  was  the  son 
of  Night  and  the  twin-brother  of  Sleep  [Somnus].  Morpheus  was 
the  god  of  dreams.     Hygieia  was  the  goddess  of  health. 

30.  Heroes,  or  demigods,  were  represented  as  men  of  god-like 
forms,  strength,  and  courage,  who  lived  on  the  earth  in  remote  ages 
and  having  performed  meritorious  deeds  were  removed  and  placed 
among  the  gods  and  entitled  to  be  worshiped.  We  have  space  for 
only  a  few  names,     (p.  262). 

31.  The  Greeks  had  a  tradition,  or  story  of  a  great  Hood  which 
swept  away  the  whole  human  race  except  one  pair,  Deukalion  and 
Pyrrha  who  were  preserved  and  landed  on  Mt.  Parnassus  when 
the  flood  abated.  The  earth  was  again  peopled  by  these  persons 
picking  up  stones  and  casting  them  behind  them;  the  stones  which 
the  man  threw  springing  up  to  men  and  those  thrown  by  the  woman 
turning  to  women. 

32.  Prometheus  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  secure  the  use 
of  tire  for  mankind,  which  he  succeeded  in  doing  by  stealing  it  from 
heaven.  As  a  punishment  for  the  theft  he  was  condemned  to  be 
chained  alive  to  a  rock  in  the  Caucausus  Mts.  while  every  day  a 
vulture  came  and  ate  of  his  liver,  which  grew  again  as  fast  as  eaten. 
Hercules  (34)  was  finally  permitted  to  shoot  the  vulture  and  Pro- 
met  hens  was  released. 

33.  Prometheus  had  a  brother,  Epimetheus  and  he  warned 
him  to  accept  no  present  from  Zeus,  but  Epimetheus  yielded  to 
temptation  when  Hermes  conducted  to  him  a  beautiful  woman  as  a 
present  from  Zeus.  Her  name  was  Pandora,  and  she  brought  with 
her  a  vase  which  was  to  lie  kept  closed.  The  curiosity  of  the  hus- 
band prevailed,  and  the  vase  was  opened,  when  out  there  flew  all 
manner  of  evils.  Hope,  however,  remained  in  the  vase.  Thus 
was  mankind  punished  for  having  stolen  fire  from  heaven. 

34.  Herakles  [Hercules]  was  one  of  the  most  noted  heroes  of 
the  Greeks.      He   was   said   to    have   been  the  son   of  Zeus  and  the 


MYTHOLOGY.  490 

wife  of  Amphyctryon,  a  resident  of  Thebes.  He  was  a  being  with 
wonderful  development  of  physical  powers.  Many  wonderful 
stories  are  told  of  him.  While  yet  an  infant  he  strangled  the  ser- 
pent sent  by  Hera  to  kill  him. 

NORSE    MYTHOLOGY. 

35.  The  people  who  anciently  inhabited  Germany,  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Denmark,  were  of  one  common  race.  Unlike  the 
f  j reeks  they  were  not  a  literary  people.  Their  mythology  has  not 
therefore  been  preserved  in  books  but  handed  down  in  the  form  of 
tradition.  A  Christian  priest,  Sigmund  Sigfusson,  about  the  middle 
of  the  eleventh  century  compiled  a  collection  of  poems  describing 
the  mythology  of  these  people.  This  collection  was  called  the  elder 
Edda.  The  younger  Edda  is  a  prose  rendering  of  portions  of  the 
work  and  was  produced  in  the  succeeding  century. 

36.  The  account  of  creation  as  given  by  the  prose  Edda  was 
substantially  as  follows:  In  the  beginning  there  was  no  earth  but 
only  an  empty  space,  Ginnunga-gap,  north  of  which  lay  a  region 
of  mist,  ice  and  snow,  Niflheim,  and  on  the  south  a  region  of 
warmth  and  sunlight,  Muspelheim.  The  warm  breath  of  the  south 
caused  the  ice  to  melt  and  fall  over  into  Ginnunga-gap  and  from  this 
sprang  Ymir,  who  fed  on  the  milk  of  the  cow  Audhumbla.  The 
cow  lived  by  licking  the  ice  blocks.  As  she  licked  the  ice  away  a 
being  appeared  from  whom  came  Odin,  Vili,  and  Ve  who  slew  the 
giant  Ymir,  and  from  his  flesh  formed  the  earth,  from  his  bones  the 
mountains,  from  his  blood  the  sea,  from  his  hair  the  trees,  from  his 
teeth  the  cliffs  and  crags,  from  his  skull  the  heavens,  and  from  his 
brains  the  clouds.  This  new  world  they  called  Midgard,  and  to 
preserve  it  from  the  giants  who  dwelt  in  Jotunheim,  Odin  and  his 
brother  surrounded  it  with  a  fence  made  from  the  eyebrows  of 
Ymir.  The  inhabitants  were  made  from  two  pieces  of  wood  found 
floating  on  the  sea,  one  being  changed  into  a  man,  Ash,  the  other 
into  a  woman,  Embla. 

37.  From  this  Midgard  arose  Asgard,  or  the  place  of  the  gods. 
The  gods  met  in  daily  council  beneath  the  tree  Yggdrasil,  which  had 
three  roots,  one  in  Asgard,  one  in  Xiflhcim,  and  the  third  in  the 
realm  of  Hela,  or  Death.  The  way  thither  lay  over  the  bridge 
Bifrost,  or  the  Rainbow.  There  were  including  Odin,  the  "all- 
father,"  twelve  principal  gods,  of  whom  we  will  mention  Thor 
and    Balder. 

38.  Odin,  or  Wodin,  is  to  the  Norse  mythology  what  Zeus,  or 
Jupiter  is  to  the  mythology  of  Greece  and  Rome.  It  is  from  this 
name  we  get  our  word  Wednesday  Woden's  day.  Frigga  was  the 
wife  of  Odin,  and  from  this  name  is  derived  our  word  Friday. 

39.  Thor,  or  Donar,  "the  Thunderer,"1  the  eldesl  -on  of  \  )din, 
is  represented  as  driving  through  the  clouds  in  a  car  drawn  by 
two  goats  and  holding   a    hammer  in    his    hand.     The    hammer  of 


500  TEACHERS"   AND  STUDENTS1   LIBRARY. 

Thor  was  regarded  among  the  Norsemen  with  as  much   reverence 

as  the  Cross  of  Christ  was  among  Christians.     From  his  name  we 
get  our  word  Thursday. 

40.  Balder  was  called  the  shining  god.  "  The  joy  of  the  world 
in  the  presence  of  Balder  means  only  the  gladness  inspired  by  sun- 
light." All  living  beings  swore  a  solemn  oath  not  to  harm  Haider, 
and  were  speechless  in  dismay  when  he  died.  This  simply  means 
the  gloom  of  the  severe  winter  months  when  they  said  Balder,  or 
the  sun,  was  dead.  Loki  was  the  spirit  of  evil.  He  hy  stratagem 
slew  Balder.  The  gods  made  war  on  him.  lie  took  the  form  of 
a  salmon  and  was  caught  hy  Thor.  They  bound  him  where  poison 
would  continually  drip  in  his  face.  His  faithful  wife  Sigyn  catches 
the  poison  in  a  cup.  All  the  gods  are  eventually  to  be  destroyed, 
and  a  new  and  more  beautiful  world  is  to  spring  into  existence. 

41.  Valhalla  was  the  place  where  Odin  feasted  with  his  chosen 
heroes  and  all  who  died  in  battle  went  thither.  When  the  heroes 
are  not  feasting  they  fight  for  amusement.  Their  wounds,  how- 
ever, heal  when  the  time  for  feasting  comes.  Their  table  is  fur- 
nished with  meat  from  the  great  boar,  Saerimnir,  which  being 
cooked  every  morning,  becomes  whole  again  at  night.  Their  drink 
is  furnished  by  the  she-goat,  Heidrun. 

42.  The  Elves  were  beings  who  came  at  night  to  dance  in  the 
grass  in  troops,  and  left,  according  to  the  popular  notion,  their  traces 
in  the  form  of  "  fairy-rings."  These  so-called  fairy-rings  were  cir- 
cles of  grass  higher  than  the  surrounding  herbage,  a  frequent 
phenomenon  in  Great  Britain.  The  Dwarfs  {Ziverge)  were  be- 
ings like  little  men  who  dwelt  in  the  hills  and  mountains  and  were 
guardians  of  the  hidden  mineral  wealth.  The  Giants  were  beings 
who  stole  the  light  every  evening  and  the  summer  every  fall. 

EASTERN    AND    EGYPTIAN    MYTHOLOGY. 

43.  A  certain  resemblance  in  the  mythologies  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  the  Norsemen  and  old  Germans,  the  Persians  and  Hindoos, 
may  be  observed.  This  is  to  be  accounted  for  not  from  the  fact  that 
one  is  derived  from  another,  but  that  all  these  nations  had  a  com- 
mon origin,  being  but  branches  of  the  great  Aryan  family  (p.  254). 

44.  "  In  India  there  have  been  two  dynasties,  as  it  were,  of 
gods,  the  Vedic  and  Brahminic."  The  former  belonged  to  the 
very  earliest  times,  the  latter  being  a  development  of  the  former. 
(p.  260).  Of  the  Vedic  gods  was  Dyaus,  god  of  the  bright  sk\ , 
who  evidently  corresponded  to  Zeus  [Jupiter)  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans.  The  resemblance  in  names  is  indeed  striking.  Dyaus 
from  div  or  dyn  meaning  "  to  shine."  Zeus  originally  meant  "the 
glistening  ether."  The  Greek  theos  and  the  Latin  dens  meaning 
god,  are  from  the  same  root.  Varuna  was  also  a  sky-god  and 
probably  corresponded  with  the  Greek  Uranos.  A  similar  re- 
semblance  in   name    and   character   may   be  traced'  between    many 


m  rr//i>i. <»;>'.  501 

of    the    gods   of    the    Hindoo,    Norse    and     Greek     Mythologies. 

45.  Of  the  latter,  or  Brahminic  deities  were  Brahma,  Vishnu 
and  Siva,  composing  the  Hindoo  Trinity.  These  were  not  really 
independent  gods  but  three  separate  manifestations  of  the  spirit,  or 
energy  of  the  supreme  incomprehensible  being,  Brahm. 

46.  There  seems  to  be  a  greater  difference  between  the  Egyp- 
tian Mythology  and  that  of  other  nations,  than  between  those 
already  mentioned.  The  Egyptians  belonged  to  another  great 
family,  the  Semitic,  and  the  people  differed  materially  from  the  na- 
tions of  the  Aryan  family.  For  a  notice  of  a  few  of  the  gods  ot 
the  Egyptians,  see  General  History,  p.  257. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

47.  A  few  points  not  previously  mentioned  under  History  or 
Mythology  in  this  work  deserye  mention  as  being  frequently  re- 
ferred to  in  literature.  They  are  of  a  miscellaneous' character  and 
may  for  convenience  be  grouped  here. 

48.  The  Phcenix  so  often  referred  to,  is  described  by  the  poet 
Ovid  as  follows:  "Most  beings  spring  from  other  individuals;  but 
there  is  a  certain  kind  which  reproduces  itself.  The  Assyrians  call 
it  the  Phcenix.  It  does  not  live  on  fruits  or  dowers,  but  on  frankin- 
cense and  odoriferous  gums.  When  it  has  lived  500  years,  it  builds 
itself  a  nest  in  the  branches  of  an  oak,  or  on  the  top  of  a  palm  tree. 
In  this  it  collects  cinnamon,  and  spikenard,  and  myrrh,  and  of  these 
materials  builds  a  pile  on  which  it  deposits  itself,  and  dying,  breathes 
out  its  last  breath  amidst  odors.  From  the  body  of  the  parent  bird, 
a  young  Phoenix  issues  forth,  destined  to  live  as  long  a  life  as  its  pre- 
decessor. When  this  has  grown  up  and  gained  sufficient  strength, 
it  lifts  its  nest  from  the  tree  (its  own  cradle  and  its  parent's  sepulcher) 
and  carries  it  to  the  city  of  Heliopolis,  in  Egypt,  and  deposits  it  in 
the  temple  of  the  Sun." 

49.  The  Unicornis  described  by  Pliny,  a  Roman  naturalist,  as 
follows:  "A  very  ferocious  beast,  similar  in  the  rest  of  its  body  to  a 
horse,  with  the  head  of  a  deer,  the  feet  of  an  elephant,  the  tail  of  a 
boar,  a  deep,  bellowing  voice,  and  a  single  black  born  two  cubits  in 
length,  standing  out  in  the  middle  of  its  forehead.  It  cannot  be 
taken  alive." 

50.  The  Salamander  was  a  fabled  animal  which  could  not  only 
live  in  the  hie  but  could  extinguish  it.  It  is  described  by  Pliny 
and  Aristotle.  The  mineral  asbestos  (p.  22X)  which  ran  be  woven 
into  a  fireproof  cloth  has  been  called  M  Salamander's  wool."  The 
idea  of  this  animal  arose  doubtless  from  the  fact  that  a  species  of 
tailed  amphibian  (p.  404)  resembling  a  lizard,  exudes  a  sticky 
secretion  which  protects  it  momentarily  from  the  Inc.  Such  ani- 
mals are  often  disturbed  by  setting  fire  to  rubbish  and  escape  by 
running  swiftly  over  the  embers;  the  notion  would  arise  very  natu- 
rally that  they  could  endure  fire. 


502  TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS  LIBRARY. 

51.  Basilisk,  or  cockatrice,  was  called  the  king  of  serpents. 
It  was  supposed  to  be  produced  from  the  egg  of  a  cock  hatched  by 
toads  or  serpents.  Pliny  thus  describes  it:  "  He  does  not  impel  his 
body  like  other  serpents,  but  advances  lofty  and  upright.  He  kills 
the  shrubs,  not  only  in  contact  but  by  breathing  on  them,  and  splits 
the  rocks,  such  power  of  evil  is  there  in  him."  It  was  even  thought 
that  if  struck  with  a  spear  by  a  man  on  horseback  a  poison  was 
communicated  through  the  weapon,  killing  both  the  horse  and  the 
rider. 

52.  The  Druids  were  the  priests  of  religion  among  the  ancient 
Keltic  nations  in  Gaul,  Britain  and  Germany.  They  were  not  only 
priests  but  magistrates,  scholars  and  physicians.  They  taught  the 
existence  of  one  God  and  used  no  images  or  temples  in  their  wor- 
ship, but  assembled  in  places  enclosed  by  circles  of  large  stones. 
The  remains  of  these  stone  rings  still  exist,  the  most  celebrated  be- 
ing vStonehenge,  England. 

53.  Runic  letters,  or  characters,  were  a  kind  of  alphabet  used 
by  the  ancient  Norsemen.  In  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden 
stones  were  quite  frequently  found  bearing  these  Runic  inscriptions. 
The  Skalds  were  bards,  or  poets  of  the  Norsemen  who  rehearsed 
the  exploits  of  the  heroes  living  and  dead  at  the  feasts  for  the 
amusement  and  entertainment  of  the  warriors.  They  have  left 
compositions  called  Sagas  (sayings)  which  have  been  handed  down 
by  tradition  and  contain  valuable  materials  of  history. 


— ..- ■!inf^iii>»- 


ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY. 


[Including- the  chief  countries  mentioned  in  the  Bible.] 

1.  The  Geography  of  ancient  nations  and  more  especially  of 
those  countries  which  are  not  to  be  found  marked  out  upon  maps  of 
modern  Geography  are  here  briefly  outlined  in  the  hope  that  it  will 
aid   the   student  of  history  to  make  plainer  some  of  the  allusions  in 

our  literature. 

2.  Egypt  as  having  the  oldest  authentic  history,  deserves  first 
mention.  The  country  on  either  side  of  the  Nile  R.  is  the  most 
fertile  of  anv  in  the  world,  and  it  is  not  strange  that  with  its  natural 
resources  and  facilities  for  commerce  that  it  should  early  develop  in 
civilization.  Alexandria  was  once  a  great  city,  famed  not  only  lor 
its  commerce  but  as  the  seat  of  literature  and  science.  The  famous 
Alexandrian  Libraries  contained  700,000  volumes.  These  books 
were  mostl\  destroyed  by  Theodosius,  a  Roman  emperor.  The 
city  was  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great  13.  C.  332. 


ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY  *>03 

3.  Assyria  was  a  very  fruitful  country  lying  between  the  R. 
Tigris  and  the  Zagros  Mts.,  a  part  of  which  at  present  is  in- 
cluded in  Turkey  in  Asia  and  part  in  Persia.  Its  name  is  supposed 
to  be  derived  from  Ashur,  son  of  Shem.      Nineveh  was  the  capital. 

4.  Chaldea,  or  Babylonia  <.  mbraced  a  strip  of  country  lying  on 
both  sides  of  the  Euphrates  R.  and  at  present  included  in  Turkey 
in  Asia.       The  capital  was  Babylon  that  famous  city.  (p.  25S). 

5.  Phoenicia  was  a  narrow  tract  lying  on    the  eastern   shore  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and    is  now  included  in     Turkey.      It  was  a  pro- 
vince of  Syria    and    bounded    on  the  east    and    south   by    Palestine. 
Tyre  and   Sidon  were  great  commercial  cities,     (p.  259). 

6.  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ  included  the  country  lying 
between  the  R.  Jordan  and  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  then  sub- 
ject to  the  Roman  Empire  and  was  divided  into  three  parts,  Galilee 
in  the  northern,  Samaria  in  the  central,  and  Judca  in  the  southern 
part.  Caesarea,  on  the  Mediterranean,  was  the  Roman  capital  and 
a  leading  seaport.  Jerusalem,  still  retaining  some  of  its  former 
greatness,  was  the  principal  city  in  Judaea.  The  R.  Jordan  is  200 
miles  in  length  but  not  navigable.  It  forms  the  inlet  and  outlet  of 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  empties  into  the  Dead  Sea.  (p.  149).  The 
latter  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  cities,  Sodom  and  Gomorrah. 
The  waters  of  this  sea  are  so  intensely  impregnated  with  saline 
matter  that  no  living  thing  inhabits  it  and  the  water  is  so  dense  that 
a  man  can  float  easily  on  its  surface.  Jo-cphus  the  Jewish  historian, 
says  that  Vespasian,  a  Roman  emperor,  had  men  thrown  into  it 
with  their  hands  tied  behind  them  and  they  did  not  drown. 

7.  Canaan  was  the  former  name  of  the  country  called  Pales- 
tine in  the  time  of  Christ.  It  was  the  famous  ''promised  land"  of 
the  Hebrews,  where  they  settled  after  the  40  years1  wandering  in 
the  wilderness.  It  was  divided  among  the  \2  tribes  descendants  of 
the  12  sons  of  Jacob. 

8.  Elam  was  a  name  given  by  the  Hebrews  to  Persia.  The 
Elamites  do  not  receive  the  scathing  denunciations  visited  in  the 
Scriptures  upon  other  contemporary  nations.  Persiain  its  ancient 
state  extended  from  the  Hellespont  (now  the  Strait  of  Dardanelles) 
to  the  Indus  R.  over  2,Soo  miles.  Persepolis  was  the  capital.  It 
was  destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great.  India  was  the  name 
anciently  given  to  about  the  same  tract  of  territory  which  is  now 
known  as  Ilindostan.      It  was  once  the  wealthiest  of  all  the  nations 

of  Asia. 

9.  Carthage  was  an  ancient  city,  situated  on  the  north  coast  01 
Africa  not  far  from  the  island  of  Sicily.  It  figures  prominently  in 
Roman  history,      (p.  273). 


1  111.    ROMAN     EMPIRE. 


10.      Gaul  Was  the  ancient     name  of  the    country    now    included 
in  France,  Belgium,  part-   of  Holland.  Germany    and    Switzerland, 


501  TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 

or  all  that  country  west  of  the  Rhine  R.  to  the  Pyrenees  Mts. 
The  ancient  Roman  name  of  Spain  was  Hispania,  of  England 
Brittania  {Britain),  of  Ireland  Hibernia,  of  Scotland  Caledonia. 
England  was  also  called  Albion,  it  is  supposed  from  the  white  chalk 
cliffs  seen  from  the  sea.  Scotland  issometines  referred  to  as  Albin, 
the  word  supposed  to  he  a  corruption  of  Albion.  The  Romans  did 
not  apply  the  word  *  ifrica  to  the  entire  continent  of  that  name,  but 
only  to  the  single  province  Africa  including  what  is  now  Tunis  and 
Tripoli.  Morocco  and  a  part  of  Algiers  were  called  Mauritania. 
Numidia  is  now  a  part  of  Algiers.  Cyrenaica  was  west  <>f  Egypt. 
In  like  manner  Asia  meant  only  the  province  .  Isia,  including  1  ut  a 
small  part  of  what  is  now  Asia  Minor.  Italia  was  the  ancient  (as 
the  modern)  name  for  Italy.  Thrace  included  substantially  what  is 
now  Turkey  in  Europe.  Syria  was  a  large  province  extending 
along  the  entire  eastern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  and  south  on 
the  Red  Sea.  It  included  what  had  been  various  nations,  among 
others  the  Jews.  Pontus,  Cappadocia, Bythinia,  Phrygia,  Cilicia, 
Pamphylia,  and  Armenia  were  provinces  in  what  isnow  Turke)  in 
Asia. 

11.  Byzantium,  a  city  founded  65S  B.  C,  became  A.  D.  328 
the  capital  of  the  eastern  Roman  Empire  and  was  called  Constanti- 
nople, after  Constantino  the  Great,  who  endowed  it  with  all  the 
privileges  of  Rome,  whence  it  was  afterward  called  for  awhile 
Nova  Roma,  "  New  Rome."  The  city  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Turks  under  Mahomet,  A.  D.  1453. 

12.  Mesopotamia  (Greek  between  the  rivers)  was  a  country 
King  between  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  Its  inhabitants  never 
were  of  historical  importance.  They  were  successively  conquered 
by  the  Babylonians,  Assyrians,  Medes,  and  Persians,  and  afterward 
by  the  Romans  under  Pompcv.  It  is,  however,  important  in  a 
Scriptural  sense  as  being  the  country  to  which  Abraham  sent  his 
servant  to  fetch  a  wife  "  of  his  own  kindred  "  for  Isaac.  A  century 
later  Jacob  went  there  on  a  similar  errand. 

13.  The  ancient  city  of  Troy  was  situated  on  the  western  coast 
of  Asia  Minor  on  the  shores  of  the  yEgean  Sea  (now  the  Grecian 
Archipelago),  (p.  262).  Macedonia  was  the  country  lying  north 
of  G recce  and  now  included  in  Turkey,      (p.   267). 

14.  Ethiopia  was  the  name  applied  to  a  large  tract  of  country 
southwest  of  Egypt.  Its  boundaries  were  indefinite.  Scythia  was 
a  large  tract  of  country  of  indefinite  extent,  lying  north  of  the  Black 
and  Caspian  Seas  and  extending  castwardlv  toward  the  boundaries 
of  China.  It  is  supposed  that  this  latter  country  was  known  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  under  the  name  Serice.  It  was  known  to 
Marco  Polo  and  other  travelers  500  yearsago  as  Cathay.  Sarmatia 
included  a  large  tract  in  Central  Europe  covering  Poland  and  some 
adjacent  territory.  There  is  an  ancient  tradition  that  a  continent  or 
large    island    in  the  Western    Atlantic   disappeared    through  some 


HOW    TO  STUDT    AND    USE   BOOKS.  505 

great  convulsion  of  nature.  It  was  called  Atlantis.  Southern  and 
Western  Africa,  the  great  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  Japan,  Aus- 
tralia and  the  entire  Western  Hemisphere  were  unknown  to  the 
ancients,  /.  c.  to  the  civilized  world  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

***  For  additional  facts  in  the  history  of  Bible  lands  sec    pp.  255-259;  for 
Greece,  see  p.  262 ;  for  Rome,  see  p.  270. 


...ut^Hi.1 


HOW  TO  STUDY  AND  USE 

BOOKS. 


1.  There  is  an  art  in  studying,  as  in  everything  else.  Few 
persons,  comparatively,  know  how  to  use  a  book,  so  as  to  obtain 
from  it  the  salient  points  without  reading  it  word  for  word.  Indeed, 
there  are  many  who  get  but  little  from  a  hook  even  by  reading  it 
word  for  word.  It  is  also  true  that  many  books  contain  so  little  of 
value  that  reading  them  is  like  winnowing  ten  bushels  of  chaff  to 
obtain  a  handful  of  wheat.  Experience  is  the  great  teacher  of  this 
art,  and  he  who  has  read  the  most,  as  a  rule,  can  read  the  fastest, 
that  is,  can  glean  facts  the  most  readily.  A  few  hints,  however, 
may  be  given  which  will,  if  followed,  aid   the  young  reader. 

2.  No  book  should  be  published  without  an  index,  except  a 
dictionary  or  encyclopedia.  Even  the  primary  text-books  used  in 
schools  down  to  the  First  Reader  should  have  an  index,'  not  for 
reference  particularly,  but  that  children  may  learn  at  an  early  age 
how  to  use  an  index.  Teachers  then  might  show  pupils  how  to  use 
the  index  and  require  practice  in  using  it.  Few  of  our  scientific 
and  literary  works  are  sufficiently  indexed,  and  in  many  works  a 
glossary  would  he  a  valuable  addition. 

3.  The  reader  will  please  note  the  extensive  index  and  glossary 
at  the  end  of  this  book,  and  he  is  requested  to  make  frequent  use  of 
it.  In  studying  any  part  of  this  volume,  when  the  reader  comes  to 
a  technical  word,  or  a  proper  name,  even  if  it  occur  in  an  example 
for  illustration,  he  will  be  repaid  for  his  trouble  if  he  will  turn  to  the 
index,  for  there  he  will  find  the  etymology  and  definition  of  the 
technical  term  and  some  very  valuable  and  interesting  information 
concerning  the  proper  name--. 

4.  Always  make  use  of  the  index  of  a  book  when  you  wish 
to  find  information  on  any  point,  and  remember  that,  unless  it  be  a 
very  extensive  one,  it  may  be  necessary  to  look  for  several  different 
words   before    you  find    the    right    one    indicating  the  subject.      For 


606  TEACHERS1  AND  &  Tl  'DENTS'  L1BRAR  1 '. 

example,  suppose  you  wish  i<>  find  something  about  the  '-composi- 
tion of  the  blood,"  you  may  find  it  under  the  heading,  kk  composition 
of  blood,"  or  under  the  heading,  "  blood;"  neither  word  may  be  in 
the  index,  and  you  may  find  your  subject  under  the  heading,  "  cir- 
culation," or  "  vascular  system."  It  may  be  necessary  even  when  a 
book  is  tolerably  well  indexed  to  run  your  eye  along  each  page  for 
some  distance  to  find  the  point  you  wish,  and  here  a  peculiar  train- 
ing of  the  eye  is  needed. 

5.  The  experienced  and  thinking  reader  can  run  his  eye  along 
page  after  page  and  pick  out  the  points  he  wishes  without  reading 
a  sentence.  This  power  requires  practice,  but  the  great  majority 
of  persons  never  think  to  practice  it.  One  should  be  able  to  read 
and  look  ahead  at  the  same  time  so  that  he  can  take  in  a  whole- 
sentence  at  a  glance.  This  should  be  taught  in  schools.  The  teacher 
may  ask  a  pupil  to  find  just  where  on  a  certain  page  a  certain  fact 
is  stated.  Children  in  the  First  Reader,  even,  might  be  drilled  in 
such  work.  They  will  thus  gradually  accustom  themselves  to 
looking  for  points,  and  if  it  be  continued  all  the  way  through  the 
school  grades,  will  not  the  High  School  graduate  be  better  fitted 
for  acquiring  information  when  he  goes  out  into  the  great  school  of 
the  world  where  he  really  gets  the  greater  part  of  his  education? 
School  is  the  place  to  learn  how  to  learn.  In  the  world  we  put 
that  knowledge  into  practice  and   really  learn. 

6.  When  you  take  up  a  new  book  for  the  fust  time,  turn  to  the 
title  page  and  note  first  the  title  of  the  book,  next  the  author's 
name,  next  the  name  of  the  publishers  and  place  of  publication.  It  is 
well  to  become  familiar  with  the  principal  publishers'  names,  as  it 
may  often  help  you  in  buying  books,  [f  you  wish  to  know  the  real 
date  of  the  volume,  do  not  look  at  the  date  at  the  bottom  of  the 
title  page  as  that  will  only  show  when  that  particular  edition,  which 
may  not  be  a  revised  one,  was  printed,  but  look  at  the  date  of  the 
last  copyright.  Read  next  the  preface,  or  introduction.  You  owe 
it  to  the  author  to  do  this,  and  it  may  determine  the  question  as  to 
whether  the  book  is  worth  reading  at  all.  Next  look  over  the  table 
of  contents  and  see  if  any  part  of  it  is  suited  to  your  wants.  By 
giving  attention  to  the  foregoing  directions  you  will  know  by  this 
time  pretty  nearly  whether  you  want  to  read  the  book  or  not. 

7.  We  would  say  to  every  young  man  starting  out  in  life,  begin 
to  accumulate  a  library.  St  ail  with  one  book  it"  you  are  not  able 
to  purchase  more.  Take  good  care  of  your  books.  When  you  buy 
a  book,  be  sure  it  is  a  good  one.  Examine  it  carefully  as  directed 
in  last  section.  It  would  be  well,  in  many  cases,  to  ask  the  advice 
of  some  older  or  more  experienced  person  before  purchasing.  You 
cannot  go  amiss,  however,  in  buying  the  poetical  or  prose  works  of 
our  -real  American  writers,  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Bryant,  Whitticr, 
Holmes,  Bayard  Taylor  and  Emerson;  or  the  prose  of  Washington 
Irving,  Hawthorne,  Whipple,  and  many  others  we  might  mention, 


HOW   TO  HTUDT  AND   USE  BOOKS.  .",07 

but  these  are  authors  everybody  should  be  acquainted  with.  Most  of 
the  British  poets  as  Tennyson,  Byron,  Pope,  Burns,  Moore,  Words- 
woith,  Mrs.  Browning  and  above  all,  Shakespeare,  —  you  certainly 
ought  not  to  have  a  library  without  a  volume  of  Shakespeare. 

8.  If  your  inclinations  are  toward  history,  the  works  of  Ban- 
croft, Motley  and  Prescott  of  our  own  country,  and  Macaulay  of 
England  will  furnish  you  first  class  material.  If  toward  science 
and  philosophy,  the  works  of  Tyndall,  Herbert  Spencer,  Proctor, 
Darwin,  Agassiz  and  a  host  of  others.  In  your  choice  of  fiction  be 
careful  what  authors  you  read.  We  have  already  mentioned  Haw- 
thorne. You  will  not  go  far  amiss  by  reading  Dickens,  Thackeray, 
Walter  Scott,  Geo.  Eliot,  Mrs.  Stowe  and  many  others  we  might 
mention. 

9.  In  all  your  reading  it  is  well  to  keep  a  dictionary  by  your 
side  and  look  up  the  meaning  of  every  new  word  you  find.  An 
unabridged  dictionary  is  a  very  important  part  of  a  library,  although 
the  smaller  dictionaries  will  be  of  great  value.  Read  also  with  a 
pencil  and  note  book.  Form  a  habit  of  making  notes  of  what 
you  read.  Make  notes  also  of  lectures  and  sermons  you  may  hear. 
Your  practice  in  outlining  subjects  will  help  you  greatly  in  taking 
notes.  The  more  you  write  the  greater  readiness  you  will  acquire 
with  a  pen  or  pencil,  and  it  will  soon  become  as  easv  to  take  notes 
as  to  listen. 

10.  In  studying  a  lesson,  if  but  one  book  is  used,  and  the  points 
of  the  lesson  are  all  treated  within  a  few  pages,  read  the  lesson  over 
first  so  as  to  get  the  connection  and  some  general  ideas,  then  go 
over  it  again  carefully  and  make  notes  of  the  important  points  and 
then  by  studying  these  points  and  noting  their  relation  to  each  other, 
try  and  classify  them,  or  arrange  them  in  an  outline.  Studv  your 
outline  and  try  to  reproduce  it  from  memory,  or  as  much  of  it 
as  you  can. 

If  the  lesson  is  to  be  studied  from  several  books,  or  the  points  are 
to  be  found  scattered  through  different  parts  of  a  book, do  not  attempt 
to  read  several  volumes  through  and  then  say  the  lesson  was  too 
long  and  you  could  not  get  it,  but  by  use  of  an  index,  or  the  headings 
and  sections  in  the  book  try  to  pick  out  the  points  and  make  notes 
of  them.  Practice  running  your  eye  along  the  lines.  Notice  the 
nouns  and  verbs,  or  the  subjects  and  predicates  of  sentences,  and  by 
a  little  practice  you  will  be  able  to  select  the  parts  you  wish. 

11.  In  using  questions  as  in  studying  many  of  the  subjects  in 
this  book,  first  try  to  answer  as  many  questions  as  von  can  in  one 
paragraph  without  looking  at  the  text  for  answers,  then  consult  the 
text  and  correct  and  confirm  your  answers  and  read  the  answers 
to  those  questions  you  could  not  answer.  Studying  by  using 
questions  as  given  in  this  book,  is  only  one  way  of  studving,  and 
is  more  valuable  for  review  than  for  original  study.  We  would 
not  recommend  this  manner  of  studv  as  a   genera]  habit.      It  would 


TEACHERS    AND   STUDENTS'   L1BRART. 

be  well  to  write  out  the  answers  to  as    many   questions   as    you  can 
before  consulting  the  text. 

12.  It  is  not  best  to  confine  your  attention  too  Long  to  one  sub- 
ject. If  you  have  two  hours  a  day  to  devote  to  one  study,  it  is  best 
to  give  it  one  hour  and  then  change  to  something  else  for  a  while, 
and  then  put  in  the  other  hour.  Do  not  sit  too  long  at  the  desk  in  one 
position  if  you  would  avoid  fatigue  in  stud}-.  If  studying  in  school, 
or  pursuing  a  regular  course  in  private  study,  do  everything  by  a 
programme.  Mark  offthe  twenty-four  hours,  giving  first  so  many 
to  sleep,  next  the  proper  time  for  meals  and  other  necessary  daily 
duties,  and  then  divide  your  time  among  the  different  studies,  allow- 
ing also  time  for  recreation  and  miscellaneous  reading,  and  adhere 
to  your  programme  strictly;  you  will  gain  time  by  thus  working 
systematically. 

13.  Readers  might  be  arranged  in  three  classes:  ^ij  Those  who 
read  merely  to  kill  time  or  for  the  momentary  pleasure.  Such  per- 
sons will  generally  be  pleased  with  the  lightest  kind  of  fiction 
which  requires  no  effort  of  the  mind  to  follow.  (2)  Those  who 
read  that  they  may  be  able  to  show  off  their  knowledge,  to  converse 
well,  that  they  may  be  able,  to  say  they  have  read  certain  books. 
Such  persons  are  usually  able  to  quote  brilliant  passages,  and  can  tell 
you  a  little  about  a  great  many  books  and  authors,  but  they  have 
very  little  real  knowledge  or  judgment.  (3)  Those  who  read  that  they 
may  gain  the  highest  object  of  reading,  to  strengthen  the  judgment, 
to  embellish  the  mind  with  a  store  of  information  and  to  improve 
their  taste,  or  in  other  words,  who  read  for  culture.  Such  persons 
enjoy  reading  more  than  either  of  the  first  two  classes.  They  read 
fiction  of  the  highest  order;  they  read  not  merely  for  the  story,  but 
to  enjoy  the  style  of  the  writer,  the  descriptions  of  character  anil  to 
l^e  profited  by  whatever  of  information  it  may  contain.  They 
read  works  of  science,  literature,  poetry,  history,  and  study 
them,  criticise  them  and  re-read  them. 


iilllQlli"" 


SYSTEMS  OF  OUTLINING. 


1.  Pupils  should  be  taught  outlining,  and  every  student  should 
practice,  that  method  of  study.  Outlining  a  subject  may  be 
considered  as  merely  taking  notes  of  the  principal  points  of  the 
lesson  and  arranging  them  in  logical  order.  The  lawyer  in  pre- 
paring his  plea,  the  minister  in  writing  his  sermon,  the  physician  in 
reporting  a  case,  the  lecturer  in  presenting  his  thoughts,  the  archi- 


SrSTEMS    or   nil  LINING.  ">0<> 

tect  in  planning  a  house,  all  make  use  of  a  system  of  classifying  and 
arranging  their  subjects.  An  outline  of  a  subject  is  what  the 
skeleton  is  to  the  body,  what  the  framework  of  a  building  is  to  the 
finished  structure.  In  one  sense,  all  that  we  get  in  school  is  hut  an 
outline,  or  framework  to  which  we  may  build  in  after  life. 

2.  Children  should  be  taught  to  practice  this  outlining  at  the 
earliest  possible  date.  As  soon  as  a  child  is  able  to  write,  lie  diould 
be  taught  to  make  simple  classifications  of  points  in  his  lesson. 
The  work  must  be  approached  gradually,  of  course,  advancing 
from  the  simplest  enumeration  of  points  to  the  more  logical  arrange- 
ment of  co-ordination  and  subordination  of  parts. 

3.  It  is  not  claimed  that  the  outlines  given  in  this  book  are  the 
best  that  may  be  prepared.  The  teacher  is  expected  to  take  them 
as  mere  suggestions.  There  are  many  ways  of  outlining  the  same 
subject.  In  some  cases  we  have  carried  out  the  outline  into  con- 
siderable detail,  that  the  beginner  may  see  what  is  possible  to  be 
done  in  this  line.  In  most  cases,  however,  we  have  made  only 
general  outlines  presuming  that  the  teacher  and  pupils  will  further 
amplify  them. 

4.  This  matter  of  outlining  may  be  carried  to  extremes  and  the 
work  degenerate  into  mere  copying  points  of  the  text-book.  An 
outline  should  be  a  means  to  an  end,  and  not  the  end  itself.  It  is  a 
system  very  liable  to  abuse,  but  in  the  hands  of  a  careful  teacher  is 
the  most  potent  aid  to  study  that  has  ever  been  devised.  Outlines 
should  be  used  in  many  cases  as  topic  lists,  each  pupil  when  called 
upon  taking  a  part  of  the  outline  and  telling  all  he  can  about  it,  the 
others  criticising  and  enlarging  upon  the  same.  In  such  cases  the 
teacher  should  give  the  main  points  of  the  outline  as  a  preliminary 
drill  for  the  next  lesson.  He  should  draw  these  points  from  the 
class  if  possible  by  proper  questions. 

5.  A  proper  use  of  the  outline  system  will  prevent  the  ten- 
dency to  commit  the  text  to  memory.  It  will  in  many  cases  be  to 
the  advantage  of  the  class  if  they  have  not  all  the  same  kind  of 
text-book.  Pupils  will  thus  learn  much  from  each  other's  recitations, 
for  what  one  book  may  omit  another  may  have  and  thus  much 
broader  views  be  obtained  than  if  the  class  were  confined  to  the 
narrow  limits  of  some  little  text-book.  Pupils  will  also  learn  that 
it  is  not  the  object  to  study  the  book  but  the  subject. 

6.  There  are  many  systems  or  plans  of  outlining,  and  it  is  our 
purpose  to  present  a  few  of  the  most  important,  giving  examples  to 
illustrate  each.  Observe  that  the  examples  given  are  such  as  are  in 
themselves  of  value  and  may  he  used  as  skeletons  of  essays,  or  i  >r 
topic  lists  and  some  of  them  impart  information  also. 

7.  The  brace  system  is  one  of  the  most  common  in  use;  for 
short  outlines  it  is  very  convenient.  The  objection  to  it,  however, 
is  that  it  takes  up  too  much  space  and  it  might  be  objected  also  that 
few  persons  can  draw  the  brace  so  that  it  will  look  well.      The  fol- 


510 


TEACHERS'  AND   STUDENTS'    LIBRARY 


lowing  outline   will    illustrate   the  system   and    give   some   hints  in 
regard  to  performing  experiments  in  Philosophy  and  Chemistry: — 


ance. 


Preparation. 
1 


i  For  perform;! 
(  For  explanation. 


Experiments.     « 


f  Steps. 


Performance.    < 


Hints. 


State  the  subject. 

Explain  apparatus  and  material. 

Perform  the  experiment. 

Be  deliberate  but  not  slow. 

Be  cautious. 


8.  The  position  system  is  also  very  convenient  for  short  out- 
lines and  is  much  more  compact  than  the  brace  system.  It  will  be 
observed  that  it  co-ordinates  and  subordinates  by  position  alone,  the 
co-ordinates  being  placed  in  the  same  vertical  column  and  the  sub- 
ordinates a  little  to  the  right.  The  following  outline  on  the  repro- 
duction of  cells,  or  cell  growth,  will  illustrate  this  system: — 

Reproduction. 

Exogenous,  the  cell  wall  bursting  and  liberating  germs  which  grow  to  new 
cells. 

Endogenous,  the  nucleus  enlarging  and  dividing  into  two,  each  of  which 
again  divides  and  so  on. 

Pissiparous,  the  cells  dividing  into  two  or  more  by  a  splitting  of  the  entire 

cell. 

Gemmiparous,  by  buds  thrown  out  from  the  cell  which  grow  to  new  cells. 

9.  The  numeral  system  co-ordinates  and  subordinates  both  by 
position  and  numbers  as  will  readily  be  seen  in  the  following  out- 
line of  a  man's  life  which  may  be  made  the  basis  of  a  biographical 
essay  with  any  name  for  a  subject: — 

(The  name  to  be  written  here). 


life. 


3.     Boyhood. 

1.  Education. 

2.  Companions. 

3.  Proclivities. 

3.  Manhood. 

1.  School  or  College    education. 

2.  Profession  or  occupation. 

3.  Achievements. 
1.     Books  written,  or  inven- 
tions, discoveries,  etc. 

4.  Death. 

1.  Time. 

2.  Place. 

3.  Circumstances  attending. 

5.  Character. 

10.     The  tabular  system  can   best  be  shown   by   an  example. 
It  is  very  useful  where  statistical  information  is  to  be   given  (See 


Ancestry. 

1.  Parents. 

1.  Birth. 

1.  Time. 

2.  Place. 

2.  Occupation,  or  station  in 

2.  Grandparents. 
Earlv  Life. 

1.  Birth. 

1.  Time. 

2.  Place. 

2.  Early  childhood. 

1.     Surroundings  and   influ- 


ences. 


SrSTEMS   OF   OUTLINING. 


.-,11 


table  on  p.  351).  The  following  is  a  model  for  a  table  of  the  most 
familiar  animals  showing  their  respective  places  in  the  classification 
of  the  animal  kingdom.  It  will  be  found  useful  to  the  teacher  of 
Zoology : — 


Nanus  of  Ani- 
mals. 

Sub-king-. 

Class. 

Order. 

Family. 

*  icnus. 

Spe<  ii -.-. 

Variety. 

Vertebrate. 

CI 

Mammalia. 

11 

Aves. 

Carnivora. 
ii 

Raptores. 

Canidae. 

Felidae. 
Falconidac. 

Canis. 

Fclis. 

Haliaetus 

familiaris. 

domcslica. 

leucoce- 

phalus. 

Poodle. 
Maltese. 

Cat 

Eagle 

Etc 

Etc 

11.  The  composite  system  uses  position  to  show  subordina- 
tion and  co-ordination  and  indicates  the  points  by  Roman  numerals, 
Roman  or  Greek  letters,  figures,  etc.  As  an  example  see  Outli?ie 
of  General  History,  p.  252.  Sometimes  a  variety  of  type  is  used 
also,  as  in  the  following  outline:— 


FORMS  OF  CELLS. 


I.   CELL  SHORT. 

i.     Outline  smooth. 

a.  Spheroidal. 

b.  Polyhedral. 

c.  Cuboidal. 

d.  Tabular. 

2.      With  frenninences. 


2l.     Ramose, 
b.     Stellate. 

II.      CELL    ELONGATED. 

1 .  Cylindrical. 

2.  Prismatic. 

3.  Fusiform. 


12.  The  mode  of  representing  co-ordination  and  subordination 
in  the  following  outline  though  not  in  common  use  is  very  simple 
and  convenient: — 

The  Eye. 
Parts. 

Tunics. 

1st,  Sclerotic  coat  and  Cornea. 

2d,  Choroid  coat,  ciliary  processes  and  Iris. 

3d,  Retina. 

External,  or  columnar  layer. 
Middle,  or  granular  layer. 
Internal,  or  nervous  layer. 
Humors. 
Aqueous. 
Vitreous. 

Crystalline  Lens  and  Capsule. 
Appendages. 
Eyelids. 
Eyebrows. 
Conjunctiva. 
Lachrymal  apparatus. 
Lachrymal  gland. 
Excretory  ducts. 
Lachrymal  canals. 
Lachrymal  sac. 
Nasal  duct. 


512 


TEACHERS'   AND   STUDENTS'    LIBRARY 


An  outline  similar  in  form  to  the  above,  except  that  instead  of 
straight  lines,  braces  are  used  and  the  points  are  numbered,  is  given 
in  Blackstone^S  Commentaries  on  the  Lazes  of  England. 

13.  In  this  volume  we  have  used  several  systems,  but  have 
given  prominence  to  the  exponential  numeral  system  as  being,  in 
our  judgment,  the  best  for  long  outlines.  At  first  glance  it  seems 
complicated,  but  on  closer  examination  it  will  appear  very  simple. 
The  i  A.RGE  figures  indicate  the  number  of  the  subjects  under  a 
given  head  and  nothing  more.  The  small  superior  FIGURES  by 
being  the  same  before  all  terms  in  the  same  vertical  column  indicate 
co-ordination\  by  increasing  from  left  to  right  they  indicate  the 
degree  of  subordination.  In  the  following  outline  of  languages 
notice  that  Keltic,  Italic,  etc.,  are  numbered  i,  2,  etc.,  because  they 
are  the  1st,  2d,  etc.,  terms  under  the  general  heading  European 
Groups.  They  receive  the  exponent,  or  small  figure  1,  because 
they  are  co-ordinate  and  the  first  degree  of  subordination  from  the 
general  head.  In  like  manner,  Italian,  French,  etc.,  receive  the 
index  number  1,  2,  etc.,  because  they  are  the  1st,  2d,  etc.,  terms 
under  Dialects.  They  have  the  exponent  4,  because  they  are 
co-ordinate  and  are  the  fourth  degree  of  subordination  from  the 
general  head,  Italic.  It  must  be  held  in  mind  however,  that  the 
small  figures  under  one  general  head  have  nothing  to  do  with  the 
same  small  figures  under  another  general  head,  as  the  4's  undei 
Dialects  have  no  relation  to  the  4's  under  First,  Second,  etc., 
further  down : — 


j1     Keltic. 


1- 


5J 


Welsh. 

Irish. 

Gaelic. 

Manx. 

Armorican. 


j1     Italic. 
Is     Latin 


European  Groups  of  Languages. 

41     Slavonic. 

1-     Russian. 

22     Polish. 

32     Bohemian. 
51     Teutonic. 

i2     Groups. 
13     First. 


i3     Dialects. 
14     Italian. 
2*     French. 
3*     Spanish. 
I*     Portuguese,  etc. 
Grecian. 
12     Ancient. 
2a     Modern. 


1*     English. 

2<     Dutch. 

3*     Flemish. 
23     Second. 

1*     Icelandic. 

2*     Swedish. 

3*     Danish. 
33     Third. 

1*     Modern  German. 


GENERAL  LITERATURE. 


1.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  short  sketch  simply  to  give  a  very 
brief  notice  of  the  literature  of  the  world,  both  past  and  present,  and  a 
mere  mention  of  the  great  works  of  literature,  along  with  a  few  of 
the  prominent  names  in  the  history  of  literature.  (For  complete 
definitions  of  the  word  Literature,  see  Webster's  Unabridged 
Dictionary.) 

2.  Law,  politics,  medicine,  arts,  sciences,  and  in  fact  all  that  per- 
tains to  learning,  or  what  constitutes  literature  in  its  broadest  sense, 
were  in  the  most  ancient  times  associated  with  religion,  and  in  this 
sense,  the  priests  were  the  first  literary  men.  The  most  ancient  of 
historic  nations,  Egypt,  had  her  literature  in  the  form  of  hiero- 
glyphics, the  meaning  of  the  word  being  priestly  writings.  These 
hieroglyphics,  or  picture  writings,  were  the  germ  of  an  alphabet. 
The  characters  used  were  in  part  phonetic,  as  also  were  the  cunei- 
form characters  of  the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians.  To  the  Phoeni- 
cians we  are  indebted  for  the  first  perfect  alphabet,  or  one  consisting 
of  characters  representing  elementary  sounds. 

3.  The  Greeks  received  their  alphabet  from  the  Phoenicians,  it 
is  thought.  The  Roman  alphabet  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  and 
is  essentially  the  same  as  that  used  by  the  English,  French,  Italians, 
Spanish  and  other  nations.  The  German  alphabet  differs  but  little 
from  the  Roman. 

4.  The  Hindoos  had  a  voluminous  literature,  consisting  of  the 
Vedas  (p.  260)  and  other  writings.  The  Persians  had  a  consid- 
erable literature,  among  which  was  the  Zend  A  vesta  (p.  260),  com- 
piled by  Zoroaster.  About  the  10th  century  arose  a  Persian  poet, 
Firdousi,  who  wrote  an  epic  called  the  Shah  Nemah. 

5.  The  literature  of  the  Hebrews  needs  no  mention  here.  We 
have  examples  of  it  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  most  valuable,  it 
we  except  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  by  far  the  most  original  of 
all  the  literature  of  the  ancients,  is  that  of  the  Greeks.  "  With  the 
Greeks,  for  the  first  time,  came  noble  intellectual  conceptions  em- 
bodied in  forms  of  literary  art." 

6.  Poetry  preceded  prose  in  the  Greek  literature.  The  oldest 
and  the  greatest  poems  are  the  immortal  epics,  the  Iliad  and  the 
Odyssey  of  Homer.  An  epic  poem  is  a  narrative  or  history  in 
verse.  The  Iliad  is  a  history  of  the  Trojan  war,  and  particularly 
of  the  anger  of  Achilles,  the  hero  of  the  Greeks  (p.  262).  This 
poem  has  been  translated  into  English  by  distinguished  poets.  The 
translation  by  Alexander  Pope  is  one   of  the  most    celebrated,   but 

33 


514  TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRART. 

not  the  most  accurate.  The  Odyssey  describes  the  adventures  of 
Ulysses,    King   of  Ithaca,   after  the    fall    of  Troy.      Very    little    is 

known  of  Homer,  and  it  lias  even  been  douhted  whether  such  a 
person  ever  lived,  yet  all  agree  that  these  works  were  the  product 
of  a  Grecian  mind  ahoutSoo  years  before  Christ. 

7.  About  a  century  after  Homer's  lime  arose  Hesiod,  who  wrote 
"  Works  and  Days"  and  "  Theogony,"  poems  which  depicted  home 
life  ami  described  the  origin  of  the  world.  The  works  of  Homer 
and  Hesiod  constituted  the  "Bible  of  the  Greeks,"  for  they  put  in 
writing  the  beliefs  concerning  <^ods. 

8.  The  Elegy  (in  its  widest  meaning,  emotional  poetry)  was  of 
later  origin.  Tyrtaus,  a  lame  schoolmaster  at  Athens,  wrote  ele- 
gies which  stirred  up  the  people  in  war  times.  Lyric  poetry,  the 
chief  feature  of  which  was  its  connection  with  music,  was  made 
prominent  by  such  names  as  Sappho,  Anacreon  and  Pindar.  The 
Drama  arose  during  the  age  of  Pericles.  Eschylus,  Sophocles 
and  Euripides  were  writers  of  tragedy,  and  Aristophanes  t he- 
master  of  comedy. 

9.  Prose  literature  followed,  and  among  the  great  names  were 
Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Xenophon  and  Plutarch,  all  great  histo- 
rians (the  latter  a  writer  of  biography).  The  great  philosophers 
of  Greece,  among  whom  were  Thales,  Pythagoras,  Socrates,  Plato 
and  Aristotle,  can  merely  be  mentioned  here  (p.  262).  Demos- 
thenes was  perhaps  the  greatest  orator  of  ancient  time-. 

10.  The  literature  of  Rome  was  at  its  highest  during  the  Au- 
gustan age.  Virgil  was  the  author  of  the  udSneid,  an  epic  poem 
which  relates  the  story  of  yEneas,  a  Trojan  hero,  who  flees  from 
burning  Troy,  and  after  years  of  wandering,  lands  in  Italy  and 
founds  a  city.  The  ./Eneid  is  a  school  text-book  to-day.  Horace 
wrote  short  poems,  odes  and  satires.  He  was  a  witty  and  vivacious 
writer.  Sallust  was  a  noted  historian.  Lucretius  and  Catullus 
were  poets.  Later  came  Livy,  the  historian,  Ovid,  the  poet,  and 
Pliny,  a  writer  on  natural  history,  Juvenal,  the  satirist,  and  Tacitus, 
"the  philosophic  historian  of  the  declining  glories  of  Rome." 

11.  The  Dark  Ages  (p.  296)  following  the  decline  of  Rome, 
were  of  course  unproductive  of  real  literature.  The  few  books 
written  were  chiefly  on  religious  subjects,  and  in  Latin.  With  the 
"Revival  of  Learning"  (pp.  297,  298,)  a  new  literature  sprang  up. 
The  first  language  to  develop  a  new  literature  was  the  Romance  of 
Southern  France.  The  first  productions  were  chiefly  extravagant 
fictions.  Hence  our  word  romances.  Literature  began  to  spring 
up  in  the  Italian,  French  and  Spanish  about  the  time  of  the  cru- 
sades, and  a  little  later  in  English  and  German. 

12.  Of  the  great  names  in  literature  diuing  the  14th,  15th  and 
[6th  centuries, there  stand  out  prominently  Dante,  J ''et ra  rc/i ,  Boccaccio 
and  Tasso,  poets  of  Italy.  Dante  was  author  of  the  "  Divina  Com- 
media,"  visions  of  Heaven,    Hell    and    Purgatory.       These   poems 


GENERAL    LITERATURE.  515 

display  a  boundless  wealth  of  imagination,  and  should  be  read  by 
every  one.  Longfellow's  translation  is  perhaps  the  best  for  English 
readers.  Rabelais  and  Montaigne  were  philosophical  writers  of 
France;  Geoflrey  Chaucer,  the  first  great  English  poet,  author  of 
"Canterbury  Tales."  More  than  a  century  later,  in  England,  came 
Edmund  Spenser,  author  of  the  Fairie  Queene,  the  second  great 
poet  of  England.  Thirty-five  years  before  Spenser's  death  was 
horn  the  "myriad-minded"  Shakespeare,  the  greatest  poet  the 
world  has  ever  produced.  His  plays  are  familiar  to  every  school 
boy. 

13.  Cervantes  was  a  celebrated  Spanish  writer  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  16th  century.  He  wrote  Don  Quixote,  a  burlesque  on 
chivalry,  and  a  work  which  will  ever  remain  a  monument  in  litera- 
ture. Coming  down  later,  the  great  name  of  the  17th  century  is 
John  Milton.  His  immortal  poem,  Paradise  Lost,  will  never  lose 
its  high  place  among  the  great  epic  poems.  The  names  and  works 
of  the  18th  century  are  so  numerous  and  important  that  it  is  difficult 
to  select.  We  can  only  mention  a  few  representative  names.  Dr. 
Samuel  Johnson,  a  poet,  prose  writer  and  author  of  an  English 
dictionary  which  was  long  the  standard ;  Joseph  Addison, famous  for 
his  prose  papers  in  the  Spectator  ;  Jonathan  Swift,  a  political 
writer  and  satirist,  author  of  the  famous  Gulliver's  Travels,  Field- 
ing, the  great  novelist;  Hume  and  Gibbon,  great  historians.  The 
former  wrote  a  history  of  England,  the  latter  the  "Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire,"  a  standard  and  exhaustive  work.  Pope, 
Burns  and  Goldsmith  were  the  chief  poets.  These  are  the  names 
of  English  writers.  Of  the  French  we  have  Voltaire,  the  greatest 
of  wits  and  satirists,  a  historian,  and  Rousseau,  a  brilliant  writer 
and  educational  reformer.  The  first  great  literary  name  among  the 
Germans  is  Schiller,  poet  and  dramatist.  He  is  to  the  Germans 
what  Shakespeare  is  to  the  English.  His  most  noted  dramas  (poet- 
ical) are  "  William  Tell  "  and  «  Mary  Stuart." 

14.  Of  the  great  names  of  the  19th  century  we  scarcely  know 
what  ones  to  omit.  In  Germany  we  have  Goethe,  the  poet,  au- 
thor of  Faust,  Wilhelm  Meister  and  Werthcr;  Richter,  a  prose 
writer,  humorist  and  educator.  In  France  we  have  Guizot,  the 
historian;  Victor  Hugo,  the  poet,  dramatist,  novelist  and  politician. 
I  Ii--  greatest  work  is  "  Les  Miserables."  Alexander  Dumas,  Senior, 
is  the  greatest  novelist  of  his  day.  Beranger  has  been  called  "  the 
Burns  of  France."  Among  the  British  writers  we  have  Byron, 
Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Campbell,  Shelley,  Keats  and  Tennyson, 
poets;  Walter  Scott,  Charles  Dickens  and  Wm.  Thackeray, novel- 
ists/ Macaulav  and  Carlvle,  essayists  and  historians.  In  America 
we  have  Hawthorne,  Washington  Irving,  E.  P.  Whipple,  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson,  prose  writers;  Lowell,  Longfellow,  Bryant, 
Whittier  and  Holmes,  poets.  Bancroft,  author  of  the  most  exten- 
sive and  best  history  of  the  United  States;  Prescott,  author  of  the 


51G  TEACHERS1  AND  STUDENTS'   LI  BR  ART. 

Conquest  of  Mexico  and  Peru;  and  Motley,  author  of  the  Rise 
of  the  Dutch  Republic.  America  has  as  yet  produced  no  great 
dramatist,  novelist,  or  epic  poet,  though  many  famous  American 
books,  as  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  Cooper's  novels,  and  some  of  our 
poets,  have  been  read  all  over  the  civilized  world. 

15.      Course  of  Reading. — A  brief  list  of  such  works  as  every 
one  may  read  with    profit   may  properly  he  given   here.      Xo  work 
is  mentioned  which  is  not  of  the  highest  order  o(  merit.     In  these 
days  w  hen  a  large   volume   is   reprinted    for   ten    cents,  no   one   can 
plead    inability    to    purchase    hooks.      Great    Poems. —  The    Iliad, 
Homer  (7th    to   8th   cent.  B.  C),  several   ;j,ood  translations.      The 
yEneid,  Virgil   (  1st  cent.   15.  C),  several  good   translations.     The 
"Divine  Comedy,"  Dante  (13th  cent.  A.  D.),  Carey's  and  Long- 
fellow's   translations.      Paradise    Lost,   John    Milton    (17th  cent.), 
.nily  great  English  Epic.       The  Drama.  —  Hamlet,  Merchant  of 
Venice,  Julius  Caesar,  by   William  Shakespeare,  1564-1616.     All 
his   plays   richly    merit    study.      Athalie,  a   tragedy,   Racine    (17th 
cent.);      The   Misanthrope,    a     comedy,     Moliere     (17th     cent.) 
Lady    of    Lyons,  Bulwer    (19th   cent.).     Miscellaneous  Poems. — 
Hudibras,    Butler,  humorous  satire   (17th  cent.)      Essay  on    Man, 
Pope    (iSth     cent.)       The     Deserted    Village,    Goldsmith     (iSth 
cent.)      Lady  of  the  Lake,  Scott  (19th  cent.)      Pleasures  of  Hope, 
Campbell    (19th  cent.)      Childe   Harold,  Byron   (19th   cent.)      All 
of    Burns'    poems    (iSth    cent.)       Shelley's    poems    (19th    cent.), 
(exquisite,   hut     the     author    atheistic.)       Haunted     House,     Miss 
Kilmansegg     and    her    Golden     Leg,    Hood     (19th    cent.)       The 
following   American  poems  (19th  cent.):     Evangeline,  Hiawatha, 
Longfellow;  Bigelow  Papers,  Lowell;    The  Closing  Scene,  T.  B. 
Read;  The  One  Hoss  Shay,  Holmes;  Thanatopsis,  Bryant;  All  of 
Whittier's  poems.     Works  of  Fiction. — Arabian  Nights  (Scene  at 
Bagdad,  8th   cent.)      Don   Quixote,  Cervantes  (  17th  cent.)      {The 
following  all   igth    cent.)'.     Ivanhoe,  Guy    Mannering,  Anne  of 
Geierstein,  Scott;   Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  Eugene  Aram,  Bulwer; 
Vanity  Fair,  Thackeray;    David    Copperfield,  Domhey    and    Son, 
Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Little   Dorrit,  Dickens  (begin  with  the  first); 
Middlemarch,   Felix   Holt,  George  Eliot;     Last  of  the  Mohicans, 
The    Spy,   Cooper;    Scarlet    Letter,    Hawthorne;     Pes    Miscrahlcs, 
Victor    Hugo;    Count  of  Monte   Cristo,  Dumas;   Lothair,  Disraeli. 
History.  —  Hume's  and  Macaulay's  histories  of  England  (are  to- 
gether'complete);   Greene's  short  History  of  the  English  People 
(best,  short);  Momsen's  Rome  and  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  are  together  complete  and  monuments  ol  re- 
search  (very   best);    Grote's  Greece  (very  full.)     The  Student's 
Series  are  short  and  good.     Macaulay's  Historical    Essays;  Con- 
quest   of    Mexico  and   Peru,  Prescott   (full);    History  of  France, 
Guizot  (  full). 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY. 


EXPLANATIONS. 

The  dates  following-  names  of  persons  indicate  the  years  of  birth  and  death.  An  interro- 
gation point  indicates  doubt  as  to  date  or  derivation. 

A  number  following  the  name  of  a  city  indicates  the  population  according  to  the  latest  cen- 
sus reports.  Numbers  following  names  of  mountains  indicate  their  height  in  feet;  following 
the  names  of  rivers,  their  length  in  miles.  Numbers  following  a.  indicate  area  in  square  miles; 
following  p.,  population.  The  last  numbers  in  the  line  always  refer  to  the  pages  of  the  text, 
where  the  subject  is  discussed  or  mentioned,  and  when  occurring  next  to  another  number  are 
separated  by  a  semicolon.  Exception,  in  the  case  of  elementary  substances  the  last  number 
usually  refers  to  atomic  weight. 

Where  no  statistical  or  other  information  is  given  in  regard  to  a  term  it  is  because  already 
given  in  the  text,  or  because  not  known  or  of  little  importance. 

The  following  abbreviations  are  used:  Gr.,  Greek;  Lat.,  Latin;  Fr.,  French;  Ger.,  Ger- 
man; Ind.,  Indian;  Sans.,  Sanskrit;  Sp.,  Spanish;  It.,  Italian;  Por.,  Portuguese;  I..,  Lake; 
R.,  River;  C.,Cape;  Pen.,  Peninsula;  Dim.,  Diminutive;  Vol.,  Volcano. 

Prosody,  Mythology,  and  a  few  other  subjects  are  not  minutely  indexed,  but  the  points  will 
be  readily  found  by  turning  to  the  general  heads. 


A. 

Ab-do'-men,  Lat.  abdere,  to  hide,  and  omen- 
tum, entrails;  in  the  higher  animals  all  that 
part  of  the  cavity  of  the  trunk  below  the  dia- 

Chragm,  in  insects  the  third  segment  of  the 
ody,  19S. 

Abercrombie,  John.  17S1 — 1S44.  Scottish  phy- 
sician, 1S5. 

Aberdeen',  90,000.     "The  Granite  City,"  59. 

Absorption,  Lat.  ab,  from,  and  sorbere,  to 
draw,  24!$. 

Abyssin'ia,  Arab,  a  mixed  race;  a.  158,000,  p. 
4,000,000;  69. 

Accent,    Lat.  ad,  to,  and  canerc,  to  sing,  11;   17. 

Accrescent,  Lat.  accrescere,  to  increase,  239 

Acetabulum,  Lat  a  vinegar  vessel,  i(io. 

Achenium,  Gr.  achen,  poor,  defective,  241. 

Achlamvdeous,  Gr.  a,  without,  and  chlamys, 
garment,  237. 

Acid,  Latacidus,  sour,  394. 

Acoustics,  Gr.  akouein,  to  hear,  216. 

Aconcagua,  vol.,  22,(22;  55. 

Adams,  Samuel,    1722 — 1803;  3-5. 

Addison,  Joseph,  English  pOet  and  essayist. 
1672      17 

Adhesion.  Lat  ad,  to,  and  hxrere,  to  stick,  213. 

Adipose,  Lat  adeps,  fit,  108. 

Adjective,  Lat.  ad,  to,  and  i  icere,  to  throw  . 

Adolphu   .   '  is.      i;i.)  -imi;  304.     • 

Adriatic  Sea,  (S(  1  of    Adrian,   or   Hadrian,   a 

Roman  emperor  ,  62. 
.{Estivation,  Lat.  xstas,  summer,  213. 

.1   thi  ;-,    I 

Afghanistan,  (country  of  the  Afghans),  .1.  »78,- 

700,  p.  4,000,000;  <<■. 


Africa,  a.  10,941,000,  n.  205,000,001  ;  &]\  504 
c),  Ixiuisjohn  Rudolph,  S 


\  Brassiz(Ag'-a-see) 
naturalist   and   teacher,  in  America. 
's7*:  5°7- 

Agate,  227. 
Air-pump,  215. 


Swiss 

1  -   7- 


Alabama,    p.    1,262,344,     Ind.     Here    tue    Rest. 

"The  Lizard  State,"  38;  351. 
Alaska,  49. 
Alabaster,  228. 
Albert  L.,  [after  Prince  Albert,  of  England],  a. 

26,000,  alt.  2,700  ft.,  6S. 
Albemarle  Sound,  46. 
Albany,  [Albyn,the  Celtic  name  of  Scotland^)], 

Albumen,  Lat.  albus,  white,  170;  241. 
Albite,  Lat.  albus,  white,  jjs. 
Albino,  Lat.  albus,  white,  19}. 
Alburnum,  Lat.  albus,  white,  247. 
Alchemy,  (See  Chemistry),  29S. 
Alexandria,  [from   Alexander  the  Great,   found- 
er], 212,034:  69. 
Alexander.      P>.  C.  350— 523;  y  ,7;  502. 
Alfred.     892(F)— 901;   JOB, 
Algebraic  Problems,  Arab,  gabara,  to  be  strong, 

Algeria,  a.   IS3,9I4,  p.  8,8( 

AJIotropy,  Gr.  alios,  other,  and  tropos,  direction, 

jaS- 
Allegheny  R.,  [Ind.  River  of  the  Alligewi],   17. 

Alphabet,  [from   alpha   and    beta,    the   first    two 

letters  ol  the  Greek  alphabet], 
Altai  Mts., 

Alumina,  22^. 

Aluminium,  A    ..;.;,  Sp.  gr.  . 

on  R.,  [Ind. "boat  destroyer,"]  3,750;  51. 

Anient,  Lat  amentum,  a  strap, 
Amethyst    i>r.   amethystos,    without  drunken- 
Amnesty,  Gr.  amneStOS,  forgotten. 
Amorphous,  1  Jr.  a,  without,  and  morphos,  form, 

Amoor,  R.,  2/15    :  • 

Amsterdam,  jo*, 

Amygdaloid,  Gr.  amygdalon,  an  almond,  and 

eidi  s,  )■  »rm,  j-' 1. 
Amylaceous,  Gr.  amylon,  starch, 

imy,  <  hr.  in  1,  apart,  an  1  temnein,  to<.ut,  15^. 


518 


TEACHERS'  AX  J)  SJ  EDEX  J  S'  J. 1  BRAKE. 


Anastomoses,  Gr.  anastomoun,  to   furnish    with 

B  mouth,  173. 

aphy,  502. 
Andes  Mts.,    Peruvian,    anti,   copper    or    any 

metal,  [mam  pu,  the  highest  peak,  34,812  ft]  51. 
Andorra, 
Androscoggin  R.,  chanced  from   Intl.   amasko 

Ir.;. in.  '•  nsh-spearing, '  m  honor  of  Gov.  An- 

■  1-- 
Androecium,  Gr.  tuidros,  man,  and  oikos,  house, 

-  i''- 
Anhydride,  Gr.  ana,  without,  ami   hudor,  water, 

39* 

Antimony, (.Stibium  >  I-'r.  anti. against,  and  moinc, 

a  monk,  because  monks  were   poisoned    by   it, 
.  At.  Wt.,  122. 
Antelope,  order  Ungulata,  68. 
Antepenult,   Lat.  ante,    before,    paene,    almost, 

and  ultimus,  last,  17. 

Anther,  Gr.  anthos,  llower,  236. 

Anthropology,  Gr.  anthropos,  man,  and  logos,  a 

discourse,  254. 
Antietam,  3  |  (., 

Antwerp, '•  added,"  because  built  upon  succes- 
sive d  epositS  ot   the  waters  of  the   Scheldt,   62. 
Aorta,  (ir.  aeirein,  to  lift,  171. 

1  tines  Mts.,  [Mt.  c  orno,  the  highest  peak, 
.9.546  ft],  CT. 
Apctalous,  Gr.   a,    without,  and    petalon,  petal, 

-37. 

A]>o!lo,  ."        : 

Apostrophe,  Gr.   apo,    from,  and    strephein,   to 

turn,  1  ii. 
Apophysis,  (Jr.   apo;   from  and   phein,   to  grow, 

Application  for  school,  1  id. 

Apteryx,  (Jr.  a,  without,  and  pteron,  wing,  order 

Brevipennes,  70. 

Aqueous  humor,  Lat  aqua,  water,  193. 
Aqueduct,  Lat.  aqua,  water,  and  ducere,  to  lead, 

-'?'■ 
Arabia,  a.  o6S,ioo,  p.  3,700,000;  65. 
Arabi   n  .Nights,  256,  516. 

Aral  Sea,  a.  20,400,  alt.  36  ft.,  depth  200  ft.,  64. 
Archime'-des,  Greek  philosopher. 
Archaeology,  Gr.  archa,  beginning,  and   logos, 

discourse,  254. 
Arch. can,  Gr.  archa,  beginning,  231. 
Ar-e'-o-lar,  Lat.  areola,  dim.  Of  area,  19S. 
Argentine  Republic,  a. 803,316,  p.  2,500,000;  55. 
Arithmetic,  Gr.  arilhmos,  number,  414. 
Aristotle,  Greek  philosopher.  3S4B.C. — 322  B.C. 
Aril,  I^at.  arilla,  dry  grapes,  241. 
Arizona,  49. 
Arkansas,  (Arkansaw),  p.  802,564,  Kansas,  <). v. 

with  the  French   prefix,  arc,  a  bow.     ''The 

BearState."     Motto,  Regnant  populi,  "The 

people  rule,"  3^;  351. 

Armada,  302, 

Arnold,  Benedict.     174 1 — 1S01 ;  330. 

Arsenic,  As5,  At.  Wt.,  75. 

Artesian  Well,  2 1  4. 

Arthrodia.  (',  .  arthron,  joint,  161. 

Articulation,  S;  17. 

Artery,  l.at.  arleria,  wind-pipe,  173. 

A'rvan,  2s|. 

Arytenoid,  Gr.  arytainai,  a  ladle,  180. 

Asbestos.  <  rr.  a,  without,  and   sbennunai,  to  c.\- 

tinguisn,  i2s. 
Ascidia,  Gr.  askos,  a  bottle.  215. 
Asia,  a.  16,521,400,  p.  707,000,000;  64,504. 

V    1.      '    .  1    it.  ail,  to.  and  s  pi  rare,  to  breathe,  iS. 

tii,  -'5s;  : 
Astrology,  Gr.,  astron,  star,  and  logos,  a  die- 

-  50. 

\    incii  m,  20,000;  56. 

Athens,  50,000.  "  The  Citv  of  the  Violet  Crown," 
-"  I- 


.  [The  god  who  was  supposed   to  support 
the  world],  100;  mts.,  67. 
Atlanta,   "The   Queen   City  of  the  South,"  34,- 
S"-;  <o;  347. 

Atlantis,  505. 

Atom,  Gr.,  atomos,  indivisible,  203. 

Atomic  Weight,  394. 

Atomicity,  3115. 

Attila,  2S|.' 

Auditory  nerve,  l.at.  audire,  to  hear,  1^7. 

Augusta,  S,68a ;  42. 

Auricle,  Lat.  au:  us,  ear,  195. 

Australia,  l.at.  australis,  southern,  a.  2,972,350. 

p.  2,100,000;  70. 
Australasia,  ••Southern  Asia,"  70. 
Austro-Hungary,  a.  241,034,  p.  37,7'-2>7!G  °°- 

Austin,  lOwpjOOj    tv- 

Axillary,  Lat.  axilla,  the  armpit,  239. 

Azoic,  Gr.  a.  without,  and  zoe,  life,  231. 

B. 

Babl  l-.Mandcb,  65. 

Babylonia,  j.^;  503. 

Bacchus,  |/'. 

Balearic  Isles,  61. 

15a lu more,  after    Lord   Baltimore,  cp  v.,  322,190, 

"I  he  Monumental  City,"  $6. 
Baltimore,   Lord,  (George  Calvert)    1SS2    (?)— 

1632;  320. 
Balize,  a  corruption  of  Waliz,  Sp.  for  Wallace 

an  Eng.  pirate,  a.  13,5°°>  P-  24>7'°;  S3- 
Baltic  Sea,  57. 
Mall's  Bluft",  342. 
Bancroft,  George,  American  historian,  1S00 , 

5°7- 
B  mnockburn,  2SS. 

Bangor,  16.S57;  42. 

Barbary  States,  357;  58. 

Barcelona,  215,965. 

Barometer,  Gr.  baros,  weight  and  metros,  mea- 
sure, 215. 

Barbarians,  32. 

Bartholine,  Thomas, Danish  medical  writer,  1616 
— 1680;   1 68. 

Barium,  Gr.  barns,  heavy,  Ba^,  At.  Wt.  137. 

Basilisk,  502. 

Basalt,  229. 

Bastile  (bas-teel  >  1*>.  fortress,  309. 

Basement  membrane,  19S. 

Beauregard,   Peter  Gustavus,  (bo'-re-gard)  >si7 

— ,  34-'- 
Bedouins,  Arab,  rural,  65. 
Behring     (beer'-ing)     Sea    and     Strait,      from 

Behring  the   discoverer,  a    Danish    navigator, 

i68o(?)— 1741;  3S- 

Belgium,  lrom    \  Olga  Or  Bolga  On  whose    banks 

the  people  originally  dwelt, a.  11 ,373,  p.  5i476»" 

66S. 
Bcloochistan,  country  of  the  Beloochees,  a.  106,- 

Soo,  p.  350,000: 
Bell,  John,  1707  -  1869;  341. 
Bennington,  3-s. 

Berne,  tier.   B  bear,  ('12. 

Merlin,   Slavonic,   uncultivated     land,    l,Ol\ 

60. 
Berlin  Decree.   334, 

Beryllium,  Me-,  At.  Wt.  9.5  (SeeGlucinum). 
Biceps.  I-at.  two-headed,  164. 
Bicuspid.  l.at.  bis,  twice,  and   CUSpiS,  point,  107. 

Mills  of  Credit,  132. 

Bile,  170. 

Binary  compounds,  393. 

Mimana,  l.at.   bis,  twice,  and    m.inus,  hand,  400. 

Bipennitbrm,  Lat.  bis,  twice  and  penna,  feather, 

163. 
Birmingham,  388,884;  5S. 
Biscay,  Bay  of,  bascoa,  a  forest,  59. 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSART 


519 


Bismuth,  Ger.  Wismuth,  "a  beautiful  meadow 

from  its  appearance,  Bi8.  At.  Wt  210. 
Blackstone,  William,  Eng.   jurist,   17*3—17*  . 

Black  Hawk  War,  33S. 

Blaine,  James  G.,   American  Statesman.  i\?o— . 

Blenheim,  305. 
Blood,  177. 

Blue  Ridge,  46.  . 

Blumenbachjohann  briedrich,  German  natural- 
ist and  physiologist,  1752— 1S40;  31. 
Boers,  69. 
Bogota,  50,000;  56.  .... 

Bolivia  (from  Gen.  Simon  Bolivar,  its  liberator, 

1783— 1830.) a  500,900,11.  2,325,000-  s.v 
Boleyn,  Anne,  1507— 1  S36;  302.     . 
Bonds,  455.  „         „ 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  1767-1S21,  310. 

Bones,  158.  „,         o 

Booth,  John  Wilkes,  1S39— 'S65;  34s. 

Book-keeping,  361. 

Books,  how  to  read,  505. 

Boron,  Arab,  borax,  B=>,  At.  Wt.,  1 1. 

Borneo, Sans,  land,  70. 

Boston,  "The   Hub,"  "  City  of  Notions,    362,- 

Botam/Gr.  botane,  an  herb,  235. 
Bothrenchym,  Gr.  pitted  tissue,  from  bothros,  a 

Bowe^'bn-d,  (so  called  from  its  habit  of  building 
bowers  and  ornamenting  them  with  shells, 
feathers,  etc.),  70. 

Brain,  1S5. 

Brahminism,  33;  260. 

Brachipoda,  Gr.  brachion,  arm,  and  podos,  foot, 

407. 
Brahmapootra  R.  2,300;  64. 
Brazil  [from  the  Sp.  name  of  the  dye  wood  ,  a. 

3,210,130,  p.  11,108,291;  55- 
Braddock's  Defeat,  (B.,  Edward,  1715  (?)— '755) ! 

323- 


Bragg,  Braxton,  1S15— 1S76;  344. 
Breckenridgejohn  C,  1S21— 1S75;  34'- 
Breslau,  239,050;  60. 
Breccia,    (bref-cha)     Lat.     breach,    something 

broken,  229. 
Brcvipennes,   Lat.  brtvis,  short,  penna,  wing, 

4°^.  £Y 

British  Burmah,  a.  190,500,  p.  4,000,000,  ofi 
British  Columbia,  a.  356,000,  p.  33,5s6!  5'- 
British  Guiana,  a.  70,000,  p.  193,49'  '-  5°- 
Britannia,  5(14.  .     . 

Bronchitis,    (bron-ki-tis)    Gr.   bronchos,    wind- 
pipe, and  itis,  inflammation, applied  to  the  bron- 
chi, or  subdivisions  of  the  windpipe,  184. 
Brooklyn.  '    Hie  City  of  Churches,    46. 

Brown,  John,   1800- 1S59;  340. 
Bromine,  Gr.  bromos.   a  stink,  Brl,  At.  \\  t.  80. 
Browning,    Elizabeth    Barrett,    Eng    poetess, 

1809—  1S61  ;   507. 
Browning,  Robert,  husband  of  Mrs.  Browning, 

Eng.  poet,  1S12 — . 
Brush  Light,  223;  352. 
Brunner's   Glands,  107. 
Bruce,   Robert,  1271      1329;  aSS. 
Brussels.  [67,603;  I  -.  . 

Bryant,  Wo,  Cullen,  American  poet  and  jour- 
nalist, I'm— 1878.  0^0 
Buchanan,  James,  1791— 1S6S;  340. 
Buddhism,  33;  260. 
Buda-Peath     (bo.,  -da-pest)   (two   cities    were 

united),  309,208;  61. 
Buenos  Avres,  "good  air,"  200,000;  55 

Buffalo,   155,13":  ■!''•  L    „.  ,       fQ      .1 

Buffalo,  [BOS.  htbalHS.  the  true  buffalo  of  South- 
ern Africa,  differing  from  the  Bison  (bos 
Americans)  of  our  Western  plains  which  is 
f.i-t  becoming  extinct],  70. 


Buhrstone,  often  written  burr-stone,  O.  Eng.,  a 

whetstone,  a»S. 
Bulgaria,  Lat.  country  of  the    \olganans,    or 

Huns,  a.  H,°59i  !'•  "-s5J.ooo;  64. 
Bull  Bun,  ;,!-•. 
Bunker  Hill.  $»6. 

Burns,  Ro  icrt,  Scottish  poet,  1759—17°";  S°7- 
Burlington,  Iowa,  19,45°;  4'- 
Burlington,  Vt,  1 1,364  ;  48. 
Burnside,  Ambrose  B.,  1S24— 1SS1;  345. 

.yne,John,(bur-goin,)I  1730—1793;  327. 
Bursae,  Lat.,  bursa,  a  purse,  16a. 
Burr,  Aaron.  1750  —  1836;  33 1- 
Butternuts,  ;i".  co 

Byron,  Lord  George  Gordon,  Eng.  poet,  I7b!>— 

1S24;  507. 
Byzantium,  501. 

c. 

Cabot,  John  and  Sebastian,  316. 

Cadmium,  Gr.   for  carbonate   of  zinc,  Cd*,  At. 

Wt.  112. 
Caesar, Julius,  B.  C.  100—44;  277. 

•11,  Lat.  blind,  166. 
i  .isium,  Csl,  At.  Wt.  133. 
Cairo,  *■  City  oi  Victory,"  349.SS3;  °9- 
Calhoun,  John  C,  17S2— 1S50;  33S. 
California,  a.   158,360.    From  a  name   in  an  old 
Spanish    romance,     ["The     Golden     State. 
Motto,  Eureka,  "I  have  found  it,"  39;  351. 
California,  Gulf  and  Pen.  35. 
Calcia,  calcium  and  oxvgen  combined,  22S. 
Calcutta,  cutta,  a  temple,  dedicated  to  Caly,  the 

goddess  of  time,  Hindoo    794,645;  66. 
Caivv,  Gr.  kalvx,  a  cup,  236. 
Calbrifacient,  Lat.  calor,  heat    and    facere,    to 
make,  170.  „ 

Calcium,  Lat.  calx,  lime,  Ca->,  At.  W  t.  40;  2*8. 
Caledonia,  50). 
Campeachv  Bay,  52. 
Cambridge,  (Mass),  52,740;  43;  5s- 
Campanulate,  bell-shaped,  236. 
Cancer,  Lat.  crab,  from  a  constellation,  29. 
Canvon,  Sp.  a  tube,  or  hollow,  30. 
Canine,  Lat.  canis,  a  dog,  167. 
Canaliculi,  Lat.  little  canals,  162. 
Canada,  50. 
Candia,  57. 
Canute,  2S7. 
C.inna:,  274. 

Canaan,  503.  

Capricorn,  Lat  caper,  a  goat,  andcornu,  a  horn, 
from  a  constellation  oC  stars  of  that  name,  29. 
Capital  letters,  19. 
Cape,  29. 

Cap.   Colony,  a.  199,95°.  P-720,9»4- 
Capsule,  I. at.    capsa,  .best,  241. 
Capillaries,  Lat.  capillus,  a  hair,  i75« 
Cape  Breton  Island,  50. 
Cappadocia,  501. 

Carbon,  Lat  car  ■<-,  coal,  C*,  At.  Wt    12;  226. 
Carotid,  Gr.  karos,  heavy   sleep.     The  ancients 

thought   that  the  flow   of  blood  to  the   heart 

caused  sleep,  174. 
Carapax,  or  carapace,  Fr.  404. 
Cardinal  points,  1; . 

Caraccas,  >"• 

Carpathian  MtS,  57. 

Cartier,  James,  310. 


Carpel,  Gr.  karpos,  fruit,  237;  240^ 
Carboniferous,  Lat 


carbon,  and  ferre,  to  bear, 

karvon,  a  nut,  and   opsis,  to  see, 


»3" 
Caryopsis,  <  Sr 

Carnivora.  Lat  carnis,  tlesh,  and    vorare.tode 

vour,  401. 
Carpus,  Gr.  karpos,  wrist,  160. 


520 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIB  HART 


Carbo-hydrates,  170. 
Cardiac,  Gr.  cardia,  heart,  105. 

in  City,  !,,ooi  ■ ;  4  j. 
Caribbean  Sea,  35. 
Camelian,  Lat.   cameos,  Hesh,   from  its  color, 

-'-7- 
C  arthage,  503. 
Carlyle,  Thomas, British   Essayist  and    Ilisto- 

nan,  1795 — 1SS1. 
Case,  01. 
Caste,   261. 

Casein,  Tat  caseus,  cheese,  170. 
Caslimcre  goat, 
Caspian  Sea,  a.   132,000,  S3  ft.  below  sea  level, 

depth  2,700  ft.,  57. 
Catalysis,  (Jr.  katalucin,  to  loosen,  395. 
Calkin,  Lat.  dun.  of  cat,  239. 
Cataract,  Gr.  kataraktas,  a  falling  down,   191. 
Cathay,  504. 

Caucasian  race,  from  Mt.  Caucasus,  32. 
Caucasus  MtS.,  (White  mountains),  64. 
Caulis,  Lat.  stalk,  244. 
Cavaliers,  303. 
Cawnporc,  312. 
Cell,  245;  510;  51 1. 

Cellulose,  Lat.  cellula,  a  little  cell,  170. 
Cenozoic,  Gr.  kainos,   recent,  and  zoe,  life,    233. 
Centi  r  of  population,  36. 
Centripetal,  Lat  centrum,  center,  and  petere,  to 

move  toward,  21 1. 
Centrifugal,  Lat.  centrum,  center,  and   fugerc, 

to  fly,  21 1. 
Centigrade,  Lat.  centum,  hundred,  and  gradus, 
gree,  214. 

Censors,  273. 

Cervical,  Lat.  cervix,  neck,  160. 
Cerebrum,  I. at.  lirain,  185. 
Cerro  Gordo,  339. 

,  j68;  495. 
Cerebro-spinal  .cuter,  185. 
(  !i  luminous,  l.at.  cera,  wax,  195. 
Cerebellum,  l.at.  dim.  of  cerebrum,  l8j, 
Ci  rium,  after  the  planet  Ceres,  both  having-  been 

discovered  near  the  same  date,  Ce4,   At.   Wt, 

03. 
Cervantes,  Spanish  novelist,  and  author  of  Don 

Quixote,  1547 — 1616;  510. 

Cetacea,  l.at.  cetus,  a  whale,  401. 
Cevlon,  (the  island  of  lions),  66. 
Charles  II.   1030 — 16S5;  303. 

Charles  XII.  10S2—  171S;  306. 

Chad's  Ford,  $2$. 
Charleston,  50,000,  47:326. 
Champlain,  (after  Sam.  Champlain,  French  ex- 
plorer, 1507— 163s),  45 ;  48;  3#- 

Chapultepec,  330. 

Chalcedony,  from  Chalcedon,  a  town  in  Asia 

Minor,  227. 
(  h.irlatan,I'r.  one  who  prates  in  his  own  favor, 7. 
Charlemagne,  Fr.  for  Charles  the  Great,  742— 

Si*;  --;• 
<  halk,  228. 
Chaldea,  258;  503. 
Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  "  Father  of  English  Poetry," 

i3_-S(?) — 1400. 
(  heiroptera,  Gr.  cheir,  hand,  and  pteron,   wing, 

402. 
Chesapeake,  Ind.  "Cm. it    Waters,"  42;  334. 
Chemistry,  Arab,  alkimia,  " the  secret,'"  jot. 

Chi  it,  228. 

yenne,  (she-en'),  4,015;  50. 
Chii  amauga,  346. 

Chimpanzee,  (Troglrnlytss  ttiger,  black  cave 
dweller"),  order  Quadrum.m.i . 

Chicago,  Ind.  skunk,  or  wild  union.  "The  Gar- 
den City,"  "The  Metropolis  of  the  Prairies," 
-03,304. ;  p.. 

Chili,  "land  ol  snow,*'  a.  132,600,  p.  2,1  ;   .7 


Chinese  Empire,  a.  1,510,000,  p.  434,500,000,    •. 
China,    "the    middle    nation,"  a.  1,554,000,    p. 

4o5,ooo,coo;  66;  311. 
(  hivalry,  Fr.  chevalier,  knighc,  291. 
Chimborazo,  '"a  chimney,"  21,12) ;  55. 
Chlorine,  Gr.  chloros,  green,  CI',  At.  Wt.,  35.5. 
Chromium,  Gr.  chroma,    color,   Cre,    At.    Wt., 

_5».5- 

Churubusco,  339. 

Chyme,  Gr.  chymos,  juice,  169. 

Chyle,  Gr.  chyfos,  juice,  169. 

Cicero,  279. 

Cincinnati,  255,708,   -'The  Queen  City,"    "The 

Paris  0!  America,"  46. 
Ciliated,  ciliary,  Lat.  cilia,  hair,  198;  102. 
1    ■  in,  Lat  sectio,  a  cutting,  245. 
Circulation  of  blood,  176. 

Circinate,  Lat,  circinare,  to  make  round,  213. 
Circumflex,  Lat,  circum,  around,  and  tlectere,  to 

bend,  12. 
Circles  of  Situation,  2<\ 
Civil  Government,  122. 

Clay,  224. 

Clavicle.  l.at.  cla vis,  a  key,    159. 

Cleopatra,  69  I'..  c  .    30  B.  C;  278. 

Cleveland,  160,142,  ''The  Forest  City,"  46. 

Climate,  Gr.  klima,  slope,  30. 
1  k  ks,  207. 

Clovis,  2^5. 

Coal,  3S]  232. 

Cobalt,  from  Kobold,  the  name  of  a  demon  sup- 
posed to  inhabit  the  mines  in  Germany.  Co4, 
At.  Wt.  58. 

Coccyx,  Gr.  kokkux,  cuckoo,  from  its  resem- 
blance to  the  bill  of  that  bird,  160. 

Cocoon,  Fr.  dim.  of  coque,  shell,  405. 

Cochlea,  Tat.  a  snail,  195. 

Cockatrice,  502. 

1  'celiac  axis,  Gr.  koilia,  belly,  174. 

Ccelenterata,  Gr.  koilos,  hoilow,  and  enteron, 
intestines,   |c  7. 

Cohesion,  Lat.  con.,  together,  and  hacrere,  to 
stick,  123. 

Colorado.  194,649,  Sp.  colored(f),  "The  Centen- 
nial State,  motto,  Nil  sine  memine,  "  Nothing 
without  God,"  39;  351 

Colorado  It.,  1,000;  39. 

Columbia  R.,  1020;  46. 

Colon,  Gr.  kolon,  a  limb,  166. 

Coliseum,  279. 

Collum,  l.at.  neck,  245. 

Coligny,  151 1  — 1572;  301. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  1435 — 'S00'  3'5» 

Commission,  447. 

Commerce,  3  l 

Compromise  ''ill, 339. 

i  'ompass,  27;  298. 

1  oinma,  Gr.  a  segment,  109. 

(  .imposition,  108. 

ipte,  (kont),    French  philosopher,    (Positiv- 
ism), 170-     1857. 

Concretion,  l.at.  con,  together,  and  crescere,  to 
grow,  230. 

Concord,   13, 838;    |X. 

Conjunction,  l.at.  con,  together,  and  junction,  a 
joining,  102;  So. 

Constitution.  122. 

Constantine,  272 ;  357;  281. 

Condor,  order  Raptorcs,  51. 

'  in  itantinople,  000,000,  City  of  Constantine, 
founded  by  Con  tan  tine  the  Great,  63. 

Consonant-,  Lat  con,   together,  and   sonare,   to 

sound,  Is. 
Conglobate  glands,  Lat  conglobare,  to  collect, 

"7». 

Conjugation,  l.at.  con,    together,   and    jugare,  to 

i,^5- 
1    hi  inental  monci .  ',21. 


INDEX  AND   GLOSS  ART 


521 


Convolutions,  I  .at.  con,  together,  and  volvere,  to 
roll,  185. 

Conkling,  Roscoe,  1^20 ;  3  (o. 

Continental  Congress,  325. 

Connecticut,  p.  623,683,  •'  Kami  of  Steady  Hab- 
its," "The  Nutmeg  State,'  "Freestone 
State,*'  "  Blue  Law  State,"  Ind.  name,  mean- 
ing "  long  river.'1  Motto,  £ic*  transtuiit  sus- 
tiiul,  "  I  le  who  brought  us  over  sustains  us." 
3o;35'.3'S- 

Convolute,  see  convolutions,  2  1 3. 

Conglomerate,  Lat.  con,  together,  and  glomerer, 
to  roll,  229. 

Coper  'nicus,  Prussian  astronomer,  1473 — i;t,;. 

Copper, (Lat.  cuprum),  Cu2,  At.  Wt.,  '>•-,.•,.,  Sp. 
Gr.,  s.o. 

Copperheads,  346. 

Corium.  Lit.  leather,  18a. 

Cornwallis,  Charles,  173s — [S05;  331. 

Corolla,  Lai.  a  crown,  230. 

Conn,  2  1 1. 

Corinthian,  269. 

Coriaceous,  Lat.  corium,  leather,  240. 

Coralline,  resembling  coral,  24;. 

Cortical,  Lat.  cortex,  bark,  217. 

Corundum,  22^. 

Cornea,  Lat.  cornu,  horn,    192. 

Corymb,  z\o. 

Corsica,  the  birthplace  of  N'apolcon,  57. 

Costa  Rica,  a.  21,495,  p.  iS5,ooo;  55. 

Cosmetics,  Gr.  kostnos,  ornament,  184a 

Cotyledons,  Gr.  kotula,  a  cup,  241 ;  243;  2  p. 

Cotopaxi,  vol.,  18,875;  55. 

Covington,  29,720;  41. 

Cranium,   159. 

Cranial  nerves,  1S6. 

Crassus,  277. 

Credit  Mobilier,349. 

Creoles,  52. 

Cretaceous,  Lat.  crcta,  chalk,  233. 

Cricoid,  Gr.  krikos,  a  ring,  and  cidos,  form,  t^o. 

Crimean  War,  312. 

Crocodile,  6S;  404. 

Cross-eves,  194. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  1599—165$;  303. 

Cruciform,  Lat.   crux,   cross,  and  forma,   form, 

»33. 

Crusades,  Lat.  crux,  cross,  294. 

Crystalline  lens,  193. 

Cuba.  ;;. 

Cuboid,  Gr.  kubas,  cube,  and  eidos.lorm,  161. 

Culloden,  307. 

Culm,  Lat.  culmus,  stalk,  24^. 

Cuneiform,   Lat.    cuneus,  a  wedge,  and   forma, 

form,  160. 
Cupid,    i";. 

Curfew,  Fr.  COUVTir,  to  cover,  and    leu,  tire,  2s-. 
Cuticle,  Lat.  cutis,  skin;   cutis   vera,  true   skin, 

182. 
Cuvier,  French  naturalist,  1700—  1S32. 
Cycloidal    Pendulum,    Gr.    kuklos,   circle,    and 

eidos,  form,  210. 
Cyme,  Gr.  kyma,  a  wave,  240. 
Cyprus.  57. 
Cyrus,  2'o. 
Cyrenatca,  501. 
Cytoblast,   Gr.    kystos,  cell,  and   blastcnein,   to 

sprout.  246. 

D. 

Dakota,  49. 
Data 

Dana,  fan  I      D.,  American  geologist,  1S1  ; . 

Danton,  1759-  1794"  30°. 

Danube  It  ,  "  low  plain  or  meadow,"  iSoo;  57. 

Darius,  a 

Dark  Ages,  . 


Darwin,  Charles,  English  naturalist,  1  Develop- 
ment thei  ;  507. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  1S06 ;.;i-;  348. 

Davenport,  21,833 ;  ♦'■ 

D. is-  ami   \  ight,    .7. 
Dayton,    3V77  ;    y,. 

Deadwi  1  id,   1,258;  49. 

Declaration  ni  Independence,  327. 

luous,  Lat.  de, off,  and  cadere,  to  fall,  2;-.. 
Decimals,  Lat.  decern,  ten,  130. 

tes,  28. 

Deglutition,  Lat.  de,  down,  and  glutere,  toswal- 

low,   1  ••). 
Dehiscence,   Lat.  dehiscere,  to  open,  240. 
Delaware,  after  Thomas  West,  Lord  d,-  la  Ware, 

"  Phe     Diamond    State,"     -The     Blue     Hen's 

Chickens."   Motto,  Libert  van  J  Independence, 

p.  140,650;  39;  351. 
Delta,  1 1& 

Deltoid,  Gr    delta,  and   eidos,  form,  164. 
Demons,   ; 
Democrats,  ^\. 

Dentine,  Lat.  dens,  a  tooth,  167. 
Denmark,  a.  1  (.7^0.  p.  1,940,000;   "■',. 
Denver,  35,630;  39. 
Derma,  Gr.  skin,  182. 
De  Soto,  Ferdinand,  1496 — 1542;   ;i S 
D'Estaing,  1729—  1794;  329. 
Des  Moines,  22,408;  41. 
Desert,  30. 

Detroit,  116,342,  "City  of  the   Straits,'1  (j;  335. 
Devonian,  from  Devonshire,   Eng.,  where  first 

studied,  232. 
Dey,  337. 
Diastase,  Gr.  dia,  through,  and  istanai,  to  stand, 

"■48. 
Diastole,  Gr.  dia,  asunder,  and  stellein,  to  place, 

176. 
Diaphragm,  Gr.  dia,  through,  and  phrassein,  to 

fence,  i^). 
Diacritical  spelling,  i*\ 
Diarthrosis,  Gr.   dia,   through,   and  arthron,    a 

joint,  161. 
Diatoms,  Gr.  dia,  through,  and  tetnnein,  to  cut, 

246. 
Diadelphous,   Gr.     dis,    twice,     and    adelphos, 

brother,  237. 
Diana,  26S. 
Diaphysis,  Gr.  dia,  through,  and  phein,  to  grow, 

■5s-" 
Diagramming,  Gr.  dia,  through,  and   graphein, 

to  write.  89. 
Dickens,  Charles,  English  novelist.    1S12 — 1-70. 
Didvmium,  Gr.  didymos,   double,   D-,  At.   Wt. 

/>. 
Didactic  poems,   p:. 
Diet  of  Spires,  299. 
Diet  of  Worms,  299. 

Digastric,  Gr.  di,  double,  and  gaster,  belly,  >6j. 
Digraph,  (Jr.  di,  double,  and  graphein.  to  wiite, 

Dimorphous,  Cr.  di,  double,  and  morphos,  form, 
398. 

.  Gr.  di,  double,  and   oikos,  house,   .'|\ 
Diocletian.  180. 

Dipping  needle,  ---. 

Diphthong, Gr.  di,  double,  and  pthongos,  \ 
18. 

:  '  int.    152. 

: '        table,  17. 

1 1    r  acli  (di/.-ra  -lei  1.  Benjamin,  Karl  of  Beacons* 
field,    English    Prime    Minister,    and   author, 

180;  :i6. 

Divisi 

Dnieper  U.  (nee  -pari,  i.oSo;  57. 
Dodo, 
Doge,  1S9. 
ite,  --■ . 


TEACHERS'  AXD  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY. 


Dolomite,  2:7. 

D..:i  K.,  ••  deep,"  960;  57. 

Dorr  Rebellion,  338. 

Doric,  -'•'• 

Dorsal,  Eat.  dorsum,  back,  160. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold,  1S13 — 1S61 ;  340. 

Dover,  7,504;  39. 

Draco,  ."■(. 

Drift,  233. 

Drupe,  241. 

Druids,  502. 

Dryads  496. 

Dubuque,  from  Julian  Dubuque,  a  French  ex- 
plorer, 22,254;  ■('•        ,  ,      , 

Ductility,  Lat  ductilis,  from  ducere,  to  lead,  205. 

Ductus  communis  choledochus,  "common  duct 
oi  the  chyle,"  169. 

Duodenum,  Lat  twelve,  because  13  finger- 
breadths  in  length,  166. 

Duramen,  Lat  durare,  to  harden,  247. 

Dwina  R.,  864;  57- 

E. 

Earth,  25;  27. 
Bar,  195. 

Early, Juba]  A.,  iSis(?) ;  347. 

Echinodermata,  Gr.  echinos,  spine,  and  derma, 

skin. 
Echo,  496:  »l6. 
Ecuador,  "equator,"  a.  243,390,  p.   1,500,000,  55. 

Edda,  499. 

Edentata,  402. 
Eden,  Hebrew,  delight. 
Edict  of  Nantes,  301. 
Edmbnrgfcdinburro),  200,000;  59. 
Edison,   Thomas  Alva,  American  electrician  and 
inventor,  1847 ;  352. 

Education,  I. at.  e,  out,  and  ducere,  to  lead,  37. 
Edward  the  Confessor,  2S7. 
Egypt.a.  1,051,162,  p,  17,386,280;  68;  255;  502. 
Eider  duck,  51. 
Elam,  503. 
ticity,  205. 

Elbe  Jt.,57- 

Electors,  132. 

Electric  light,  225. 

Electricity,   Gr.   clektron,  amber,   because  first 

produced  by  rubbing  amber,  219. 
Electrolysis.  222. 

Electroplating  and  Elcctrotvping,  223. 
Elephant,  68;  401. 
Element. 1.  J91, 
Elizabeth,  1533 — 1603;  301. 
Eliot,    George,   the   assumed   name   of    Marian 

Evans,  an  English  novelist,  married  Geo.  II, 

Lewes,  1820  (?)— 1881;  5°7- 
Eli     ution,  Lat  e,  out,  and  loqni,  to  speak 
Elves,  500. 
Emanuel,  Victor,  294. 
!.     bryo,  Gr.  em,  in,  and  bryein,  to  produce,  2  (S. 

wg-0,334. 
Embalming,  257. 

Emerald,  35. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  American  essayist  and 

philosopher,  1803 — ;  51 
Emery,  228. 
Emphasis,  11. 
Kn arthrosis,  (Jr.  en,  in,  and  arthron,  joint,  l6l. 

Enamel,  i(  7. 

Bncepalon.  Gr.  en,  in,  and  kephale,  head,  i\v 

Encysted,  Gr.  en,  in,  and  cystes,  a  sac,  \  ■ 

I    111,  1589—1655;  318. 
i    idoi  urdium,  Gr.eodon,  within,  and   kardia, 

"'■  '7i'  , 

Endoc  irp,  Gr.  1  ndon,  and  karpos,  Iruit,  240. 

I ,■ .   endon,  and  gi  nesthai,  to  be 
produced,  24S. 


Energy,  20S. 

England,  "Angle  land,"  a.  50,922,  p.  23,590,116; 

58  and  2S6. 
Entomology,  Gr.  entomos,  an  insect,  399- 
Bolus,  497- 

Eozoon  Canadensc,  231, 
Eozoic,  Gr.  eos,  dawns,  and  zoe,  life,  231 . 
Bpaminondas,  267. 
Epiglottis,  Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  glolta,  a  tongue. 

Epidermis,  Gr.  epi,  and  derma,  skin,  182. 

Epiphysis,  Gr.  epi,  and  phein,  to  grow,  15S. 

Epicarp,  Gr.  epi. 

Equator,  2S. 

Bquitant,  Lat.  equitare,  to  ride,  213. 

Equilibrium,  Lat  equal  weight,  209. 

Erbium,  from    Yttcrbv,  Sweden,    where   found. 

Eb'-\  At.  Wt,  1 12.6.' 
Erebus,  492. 
Erie,  L.,  Ind.  "  a  wild  cat,"  a.  10,000,  alt.  565  ft. 

depth,  So  ft. 
Estuary,  30. 
Ethmoid,  Gr.  cthmos,  a  sieve,  and  eidos,  form, 

'59- 
Ethiopian  Race,  Gr.  aithein,  to  burn,  31. 

Ether,  21S. 

Etna,   vol.  10,874;  61. 

Etruscan,  270. 

Etymology,  Gr.  etymos,  real,  and  logos,  dis- 
course, 79. 

Ethiopia,  504. 

Euphrates'  K.  1750. 

Eustachian  valve  and  tube,  from  Eustachi,  an 
Italian  physician,  172;  195- 

Eutaw  Springs,  330. 

Evansvillc,  29,280;  41. 

Exchange,  4.56. 

Ex  post  facto  law,  after  the  fact  or  deed,  131. 
Excretion,  Eat.  ex,  out,  and  crescerc,  to  grow, 

iS*. 
Executive  Department,  132. 
Expansibility,  205. 
Expiration,  Eat.  ex,  out,  and  spirare,  to  breathe, 

l8l. 
Eye.  192;  511. 

F. 

Factoring,  429. 

Fahrenheit,  Gabriel  Daniel,  Ger.   physicist,  tOSo 

— 1730;   219. 
Falx  cerebri,  and  cerebelli,  Eat.  falx,  a  scythe, 

186. 
Faraday,  Michael,  Eng.  chemist  and  naturalist, 

1791 — 1869 . 
Parragut,  David  Glascoe,  1S01— 1S70;  315. 
Faroe  Isles,  58, 

Fascicle,  Lat.  dim.  of  fascis,  a  bundle,  2  p.. 
Faults,  230. 
Faun,  490. 
Federalist,  337. 
Feeji  e  Isles,  70. 
Feldspar,   Ger.    feld,  field,  and  spath,  spar   or 

splinter,   22S. 

Femur,  100. 

Ferdinand,  1452—1516;  315. 

Fetichism,  Lat  tacticius,  artificial,  33;  OS. 

Fibula,  Eat.  ngere,  to  fasten,  161. 

Fibrine,  170. 

Fii  F,  201. 

Figures  of  Bpeech, 476. 

1        worship,  260. 

Fiord,  Danish,  "  an  inlet,"  30. 

Flamingo,  Lat  flamma,  flame.    Order  Lamelh- 

rostres,  si. 
Flexibility,  205. 
Flint, 
Florence,  2^0. 


INDEX  AX  J)   GLOSSAJRT. 


523 


Florida,  from  Easter  Sunday,   Pascu  i    Florida, 

"The  Peninsula  State."   Motto,  "  In  God  we 

trust."  p.  266,566;  40;  351, 
Fluorine,   Lat.   tluo,  to   How,    because   used   in 

compounds   as  a  (lux  in  melting  metals.     Fl1, 

At.  Wt.  19. 
Follicle,  Lat.  folliculus,  a  small  bag,  241 . 
Food,  170. 

Foramen,  Lat.  forare,  to  pierce,  159. 
Force,  206. 
Fort  Du  Quesne,  322. 
Fort  Necessity,  322. 
P'ort  MeigS,  336. 
Fort  Mc Henry,  336. 
Forum,  2S0. 

Fossil,  Lat.  fossum,  to  dig,  226. 
Fossil  Ivory,  65. 
Fractions,  433. 
Franco-Prussian  War,  313. 
Franks,  2S4. 
Frankfort,  7,000;  41. 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  95,000;  60. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  1706 — 1790;  325. 
France,  a.  204,092,  p.  36,9os,7SS;  59;  311 
Fredericton,  6,006;  51. 
Frederick  the  Great,  1712 — 17SS;  300. 
Fredericksburg,  345. 

Fremont,  John  Charles,  1S13 ;  339 

French  Revolution,  307. 
Friction,  Lat.  fricare,  to  rub,  211. 
Feudal  System,  290. 
Funiculi,  Lat.  funis,  a  cord,  1S9. 
Furies,  497. 

Fusiform,  Lat.  fusus,  a  spindle,  and  forma,  form, 
246. 


Galerius,  2S1. 

Galeate,  Lat.  galea,  a  helmet,  23S. 

(Jail  bladder,  169. 

Gallina?,  Lat.  gallina,  a  hen,  gallus  a  cock,  403. 

Galileo,  (gal-i-lee-o,)  Italian  astronomer,  1564— 
1642. 

Galvanic,  222. 

Galveston.  22,253;  4s- 

Gamopetalous,  Gr.  gamos,  wedding,  petalon, 
petal,  23S. 

Ganglion,  Gr.  a  swelling-,  1S7. 

Ganges  R.  "  great  river,"  1600;  64. 

Garfield,  James  Abram,  1831 — 1SS1;  349. 

Gastric  follicles,  166. 

Gasteropoda,  Gr.  gaster,  belly  and  podos,  foot, 
407. 

Gastrocnemius,  Gr.  gaster,  belly  and  kneme,  leg, 
164. 

Gaudaloupe  Hidalgo,  339. 

Gauls,  270;  503. 

Gelatine,  Lat.  gelare,  to  congeal,  162. 

Gender,  Lat.  genus,  birth,  So. 

Genii,  singular,  genius,  49S. 

Georgia,  from  George  II  of  Eng.  "  The  Buz- 
zard Slate.''  Motto,  "Wisdom,  Justice  and 
Moderation."  p.    1, 538,983;  40;  351. 

Geography,  Gr.  ge,  earth  andgraphein,  to  write, 
26. 

Geode,  Gr.  ge,  earth,  and  oidos,  form,  230. 

Geology,  Gr.  ge,  earth,  and  logos,  a  discourse, 
231 

Germany,  a.  208,431,  p.  42,727,360;  60;  2S9. 

Germ,  Lit.  gfermere,  to  produce,  24 1 . 

Geysers,  Icelandic,  geysa,  to  be  impelled,  140. 

Ghent,  Treaty  of,  337. 

Ghibbellincs,.2S9. 

Ginglymous.  Gr.  a  hinge,  161. 

( rirondists,  310. 

tone,  Win.  Eng.  statesman,  1S00 . 

iiolns,  Lat.  dim.    of  gladius,  a   sword,  159. 

Glass,  21,17. 


Glaus,  Lat.  an  acorn,  241. 
Glasgow,  578,150;  59. 

Glosso-pharyngeal,    nerve    "  tongue  and  phar- 
ynx, iSS. 
Glomerule,  Lat.  glomus,  a  ball,  2.10 
Glucinum,  see  Beryllium. 
Glumes,  Lat.  glumii,  husk,  239. 
Gluten,  Lat.  giuerc,  to  draw  together 

Gneiss,  230. 

Godfrey,  295 

( Solden  Age,  379. 

Gold,  (Lit.  Aurum),  Au».  At.  Wt.  197,  Sp.  Gr. 

^  1931,  melting  point,  1250,  c. 
Gomphosis,  Gr.  a  bolt,  161. 

I  Hope,  C,  '  7 . 
Goodyear,  Charles,   American  inventor,   1S00 — 

1S60;  352. 
Government,  in  School,  471. 
Gorilla,  (Troglodytes  gorilla).  See  Chimpanzee, 

68. 
Gorgons,  497. 
Government,  33  ;  122. 
Granite,  Lat.  granire,  to  make  grains,  229. 

Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson,  1S22 ;  349. 

Graphite,  Gr.  graphien,  to  write. 

Grand  Banks,  52. 

Grammar,  70. 

Granular  lids,  194. 

Gracchi,  276. 

Gravitation.  Lat.  gravis,  heavy,  208. 

Great  Bear  L.  a.  9,300,  alt.  230  ft ;  36. 

Great  Lakes,  36. 

Great  Salt  Like  L.  a.  3,200,  alt.  4,2-0  ft. 

Great  Britain,  58. 

Great  Meadows,  322. 

Greece,  a.  19,353,  p.  1,679,775;  <M'<  261;  3'2. 

Gregory,  293. 

Greek  Lire,  2S5. 

Guelphs,  289. 

Guiteau,  Charles  J.,  (sentenced  to  be  hung  June 

30,  1S82,  for  murder  of  President  Garfield),  350. 
Gum,  170. 

Gustatory  nerve,  Lat.  gustare,  to  taste,  1S7. 
Guyot,  Arnold,  Swiss  naturalist  and  geographer, 

in  America,  1S07 ;  131. 

Gynecium,  Gr.  gvna,  women,  and  oikos,  house, 

236. 

H. 

Habeas  corpus,  Lat.  habere,  to  have,  and  cor- 
pus, bodv,  31. 

Hague,  railed  "  The  Hague,"  from  Gravenhaag, 
"The  Count's  I  ledge,"  61. 

Hair,  1^.;. 

Halifax,  29,582;  50. 

Hallcck    Henry  W.,  1815—1873;  344. 

Hall,  ck,  Fit/  Green,  American  poet,  1790— 1S67. 

I  [amilcar,  271. 

Hamilton,  Alex.,  1757— 1S04;  333- 

Hannibal,  217—  183  B.  C.  ;   .'71. 

Hancock,  Winfield  Scott,  1^21 ;  349. 

Hancock, J. .hn,  1737—1793!  325- 

HanSeatlC  League,  . 

Harpies,  41)7. 

Harvard  College,  321. 

Hardm 

I  larrisburg,  30,76a;  47. 

Hartford,   ;  .•  553;  to. 

I  [aroun  al  Itasi  hid,  2S6. 
Hasdrubal,  *7j. 
Hasting-,  Battle  Of,  . 

Haversian  Canals,  from  Havers,  discoverer,  163. 

Havana,  330,000:   ;-,. 

H  N  ithaniel,  American  author,  1S04— 

1864. 
Hayes,  Rutherford  B.,  1^22 ;  310. 

II  1,318. 
Heart,  172. 


524 


TEACHERS'  -LVD  STUDENTS'.  LIBRART. 


Hebn 

Hebrides,  58 
II 
Heidelberg,  1  o. 

II  I     ,    I  I  iM      ,    J'.l. 

II.  .Tit. 

Hemorrhage,  Gr.  tiaima,  blood,  aud  rhe^nunai, 

to  t'.. 
Henry  1  f  Navarre,  301. 
Henry  VIII,  1491 — 1547.  300- 
Henry,  Patrick,  17.50— 1799;  324. 
Hepatic,  Gr.  hapar,  liver,   175. 
Hercules 
Hen 

Hero     Ag    .  162, 

Herodiones,  herodios,  a  heron,  403. 
Herpetology,  Gr.  herpeton,  a  reptile,  and  lopos, 

discourse,  399. 
Herculaneum,  141. 

I  lesperidiurh,Hesperides,  goddess  of  fruit(?),  141. 

1  nia,  504. 
Hieroglyphics,  Gr.  hieros,  sacred,  andglyphcin, 

i.i  carve,  255. 
Hil.li  tiran  ' 

Hiluan,  Lat  "  :i  little  thin^,"  241. 
Himalaya,  highest  peak   Mt.  Everest,  29,002  ft., 

"\- 
Hippopotamus,  (Jr.  hippos,  horse,  and  potainos, 
river:  order  ungulata,  6S. 

II  p  inia,  51  4. 

11  ry,  Gr    histos,  tissue,  and  logos,  a  dis- 

course, 197, 

History.  252. 

Hoang  I  lo  K.,  "  yellow  river,"  2,700;  64. 

Hohenlinden,  .510. 

Ho  .nes,  Oliver  Wendell,  American  poet,  1S09 — 
;  506 

1 1  imer,  J'.-'. 

Honduras  a.  1-7,092,  p.  351,700;  53. 

Hood,  «  "  neral,  347. 

Hood,  Thomas,  English  poet,  wit  and  miscel- 
laneous  writer,  17.^ — 1845. 

Hooker,  Joseph,  1814  —  1879,  ("Fighting  Joe ") ; 

34^- 
Horace,  Latin  poet,  65  1?.  C— S  B.  C;   \Sa. 
Horizon,  Gr.  horos,  houndarv,  J7. 
Horace.  65—8  B.  C.J  379. 
Hornstone,  22^. 
1 1  n  nblende,  22s. 
Hot  Springs,  39. 
1 1    ve,  Sir  William,  172.1—  I'm  | ;  326. 

Howe.  Julia  Ward,  American  poetess,  1S19 . 

Ho    .  lis,  W.  D.,  American  writer,  1S37 . 

Hudson,  Henry.  161 1;  316. 

Huguenots,  326;  301. 

Humerus,  Lat.  "shoulder,"   160. 

11      iboldt,   Mex.,  German  naturalist,  1769— 1859; 

Huns,  j-  1      i-,-. 

Huron  L., a.  23,800,  alt.,  571  ft.,  depth  1,000  ft.; 

43- 
Hun  nian,  after  1..  Huron,  231. 

Huxley,  Thomas H.,  English  naturalist,  1S25 . 

Hybrid, 

Hydraulics,  Gr.  hudor,  water,  and  aulos,  a  pipe, 

214. 
Hydrostatics,  Gr.    hudor,  water,  and    istanai,  to 
ud,  21  |. 

Hydrogen,  Gr.  hudor,  water,  and  genesis,  pen 
eration;  HI,  At.  Wt.  1,  Sp.  Gr.  with  air,  .0692; 
light  vn. 

Hygiene,  Lat  Hygeia,  goddess  of  health,  15S. 

Hyphen,  1 1 1. 

Hypoglossal,     (ir.     hypo,    under,      and    ^lossa, 

tongue,  isv>. 

»■ 

Icthvology,  Gr.   ichthys,   fish,   and    logos,   dis- 


Idaho,  49. 

Igneous,  Lat.  i^nis,  hre,  22  >. 

Ileo  oecal  valve,  H»>. 

Ileum,  Lat.  ilia,  groin,  166. 

Ilium,  Lit.  ilia,  groin,  160. 

Iliad,  263. 

Illinois,  Ind.  and    Fr.    "Tribe  of  men,"   "The 
Sucker  Mate,"  "The    Prairie    State.'      Motto, 
"State    Sovereignty,     National    Union,"    p. 
3.078.636;  4";  35'- 
1,405. 

Impeachment,  12S. 

Impenetrability,  204. 
Incus,  Lat,  an  anvil,  195. 
Incisors,  Lat.  incidere  to  cut,  167. 

Inclined  plant ,  123. 

Indian  Territory,  49. 

Indium,  In4,  At.  Wt  76. 

Indians,  314. 

In.li is  tructibility,  205. 

India, a.  1,576,650,  p.  245,750,000;  06. 

Induction,  Lat.  in,  and  ducere,  to  had,  222. 

Indo-China,  a.  780,560,  p.  35,757,000;  1  6. 

Indus  H.,  1S50;  64. 

Indiana,  from  the  Indian.  "The  Hoosier State," 

p.  1,978,36a j  10;  35  '■ 

Inertia,  Lat.  in,  not,  and  ars,  art,  204. 
Inflection,  Lat.  in,  and  llectere,  to  bend,  12. 
Infinitives,  Lat.  infinitivus,  not  bounded,  87;  101. 
Inflorescence,  Lat.  in,  and  florescere,  to  begin  to 

blossom,  239. 
Inkennan,  312. 
Innominata,  Lat.  in,  not,  andnominare,  to  name, 

100. 
Inquisition,  300. 

Inspiration,  Lat.  in,  and  spirare,  to  breathe,  l8l. 
Interjection,    Lat.  inter,  between,  and   jacere,  to 

throw,  S7. 
Internodes,    Lat.    inter,    between,    and    nodus, 

knot,  2  1 1. 
Intestine,  Lat.  intus,  within,  166. 
Interest,  4  io. 

Involucre, Lat.  " to  wrap."  239. 
Iodine,  Gr.  ion,  violet,  and  eidos,  likeness,   from 

the  color  of  its  vapor,  II,  At.  Wt,  127,  Sp.  (ir. 

4«95- 

Ionic,  2"<). 

Iowa,  Ind.  "drowsy  ones,"  "The'Hawkeye 
State."  Motto,  Our  liberties  we  prize  and 
our  rights  we  will  maintain ;  p.    1,624,46;;  41 ; 

35'- 
Irawaddy  R.,  1,200,  Southern  Asia. 
Ireland,  "  The  Emerala  Isle,"  a.  32,531,  p.  5. 

324;  59- 
Iridium,  Lat.  iris,  the  rainbow,  Ir*,  At.  ^  t.  197, 

Sp.  Gr.  21.1. 
Iris,  "  the  rainbow,  "  192. 
Irish  Land  League,   51 5. 

Iron,  (Lat.  FerruniJ,  Fe«,  AtWt 56, Sp. Gr. 7.84. 
Irving,    Washington,   American  author,   17S3— 

1859;  50  i. 

'  'i.  '151  --1504;  3'5- 

Ischium,  Gr.  ischion,  the  hip,  160. 

Israelites.  2  v. 

[slam,  33. 

Isthmus,  Gr.  a  neck,  29. 

Italy,  a.  114,415,  p.  2S, 209,620;  6t 

Italics,  1 12. 


Jackson,  ("Miss.),  1,750;   (4. 
Jackson,  Andrew,  1707-    s,-;    .- 
]a.  kson,  "Stonewall,"  1S24— iS<5: 
Jacksonville, (l-'la.),  14,500;  40 
jacquerit  . 
Jaguar,  order  carnivora,  51. 

ii  a,  ;',. 
Jamestown.  317. 


3;  345- 


INDEX   AX  J)    GLOSSART 


525 


Janus,  2S0;  .\qi\ 

Japan,  a.  146,613;  p.  33,623,373;  317. 

[asp<  1 .  22s. 

Java,  70. 

Jay  Hawkers,  340. 

Jefferson, Thomas,  1743— 1S25,  "The  Father  of 

Democracy,"  33]. 
Jefferson  City,  71-3;  44. 
Jejunum, Lai.   'empty,''  166. 
Jena(ya'-na),.6b. 
Jerusalem,  50S. 
Jewish  Religion,  33. 
Johns  in,  Albert  Sidney,  1S03 — 1S62;  344. 

Johnson,  Joseph  E.  iSo~ ;  347. 

Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel,  1709—17^4,   English  lexi- 

1  .!|ih<-r  and  writer. 
Johnson,  Andrew,  1S0S— 1S75;  3+S. 
Jones,  John  Paul,  1747— '792;  329. 
Josephus,  503. 

Juno,  26S;  494. 
Jupiter,  or  Jove,  493. 
Jurassic,  from  Jura  Mts.,  236 
Jutes,  286. 

K. 

Kalahari  Desert,  6S. 

Kamtschatka,  64. 

Kansas  City,  55.^13:  42. 

Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  340. 

Kansas.  Ind.  "  smoky  water,"  "The  Garden  of 
the  V  'est."  Motto,  Adastra ptr  aspera,  "  To 
the  stirs  through  difficulties,"  p.  995,966;  41; 

3SJ- 

Kangaroo,  order  marsupialia,  70. 

Katahdin  Mts.,  5,385  ft.;  42. 

Keats, John,  English  poet,  1796 — 1S21. 

Keewatin,  50. 

Kentucky,  Ind.  "at  the  head  of  a  river,"  "  The 
Blue  Grass  Slate,"  "  The  Corn  Cracker  State." 
Motto,  "  United  we  stand,   divided   we  fall." 

p.  i/'i-^.w;  4>;  3S1- 

Khedive,  6<. 

Kilimandjai  o  Mt.,  67. 

Kinetic,  Gr.  kinein,  to  move,  207. 

Kingston,  53. 

Kings  Mt.,  330. 

Knights-errant,  292. 

Koran,  same  as  Alcoran,  Arab.,  "the  hook,"  2S5. 

Kossuth,  1802 ;  312. 

Kosciusko,  Thaddeus,  1746 — 1S17;  329. 
Krause,  German  philosopher,  17S1 — 1S32. 
Kuklux,  349. 

L. 

Labrador,  Sp.  "cultivatable  land,"  to  distinguish 

it  from  Greenland,  52. 
Labradorite,  228. 
Lacuna,  (>r.  lakos, a  pic,  162. 
Lacteal,  Lat.  lac,  milk,  17S. 
Lacertilia,  Lat.  lacerta,  a  lizard,  404. 

irymal  glan  I,  Lat.  1  icryma,  a  tear,  193. 
Lafayette,  Marie  Jean  Paul  Roch  Yyes   Gilbert 

Motier,  1757—  1S34;  309. 
Lamella,  Lilt.  1  imina,  a   plate,  162. 
Lamellirostres,  Lat.  lamina,  a  plate,  and  rostrum, 

a  beak,  40?. 
language,  Lat,  Lingua,  a  tongue,  7";  512. 
Lanthanum,  Gr.  lanthanein,  tobe  c  .La-, 

At.  W't  .  .,.'. 
La  Pa  ,  75.000;  55. 

nt,  Lat.  latere.  t<>  lie  concealed,  219. 

Latitude,  Lat,  latus,  broad,  wide,    55. 
Laurentian,  from  St.  Lawrence  K.,  231. 
Lava,  I.nt.  lavare,  to  wash,   220. 

Law, 

Lead,  (Lat.  plumbum),  I'i<,  At.  W't.,  207,  Sp. 
gr.    11.21;  35. 

I.-. .  Robert  I-.,  1S07— 1S70;  344;  348. 


Lee,  Charles,  1731  —  1782;  327. 

Legume,  Lat  legere,  to  gather,  241. 

Letp  1 11. 

Lena  R.,  2,700;  04. 

Lens,  Lat.  lentil,  a  kind   of  seed,  21S. 

Leopold,  313. 

Leopard,-  Felis  leopardus,  order  carnivora,  6S. 

Leonidas,  265. 

Lepidus,  27S. 

Letter  writing,  22. 

Letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  132. 

Lewis  and  Clarke,  334. 

Liberia,  Lat.  free,  free  State,  69. 

Lieberkuhn,  German  physiologist,  167. 

Ligament,  Lat.  ligare,  to  bind,  161. 

Light,  217. 

Lightning,  221. 

Linn  (lee  -ma),  100,073,  S'J- 

Limbosa,  Lat.  limbus,  border,  161. 

Limestone,  35;  229. 

Lincoln,  Neb.,  13,004;  44. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  1809 — 1S65;  340;  34S. 

Linnams,  Swedish  botanist,  "  Father  of  Botanv," 

1707-177S. 
Lion,  (Fc-/is  l,-o),  order  carnivora,  6S. 
Lisbon,  a  corruption  of  Ulyssipo,   and  said  to 

have  been  founded  bv  LTlvsses,  q.   v.,   265,032; 

61;  143- 
Little  Hock,  from  a  rock  in  the  river,  visible  at 

low  water,   13,185;  39. 
Liver,  16B. 

Livingstone,  1S13 — 1873;  69. 
Livy,  59  B.  C— 17  2V.  D. ;  279. 
Llanos,  30. 
Llama,  {anchenia  llama),  allied   to  the  camel, 

order  nngulata,  54. 
Lobules,  "little  lobes,"  16S. 
Loculicidal,  Lat.  loculus,  a  cell,    and  ccedere,  to 

Cut,  240. 
Lombardy,  2S5. 

I-ondon,  3,620,86s,  "  City  of  Masts,"  58. 
Longfellow,  Henry  W.,  American  poet,    1807 — 

Long  Parliament,  303. 

Long  Island,  327;  45. 

Longitude,  Lat.  longus,  long,  28;  440. 

Loricata,  Lat.  ioricare,  to  clothe  in  mail,  404. 

Louisiana,  alter  Louis  XIV,  of  France,  "The 
Creole  State,"  "  The  Pelican  State.  '  Motto, 
"Justice,  Union  and  Confidence,"  p.  940,213; 

4-;  351. 

Louis  XIV,  "The  Great,"   1638— 1715;  305. 

Louisburg,  323. 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  American  poet  and  es- 
sayist, 1S19 . 

Lowell,  59,435,  ••  City  of  Spindles," 43. 
lands,  29. 

Lucknow,  312. 

Lumbar,  Lat.  Iambus,  loin,  160. 

Lungs,  17'/. 

Luther,  Martin,  14S3 — 1546;  2  ;  1. 

Lutzen,  304. 

Lymphatics,  allied  to  Nymphe,  goddess  of 
moisture,  17s. 

T.vnn,  3?,a04J    13. 

Lyre  bird  (menura  superb. 1).  or  ler  pa*seres,  70. 

M. 

Macaulay,  Thomas  B.,  English  historian,  es- 
sayist and  statesman,  1S00 — 1859;  507,516. 
Machines,  (Jr.  machos,  means, 211. 

Mackenzie  R.,  2,300;  3d. 

Ion,  2'4. 
:  ima,  504. 
Magnesium.  Magnesia,  a  town  in  Asia  Minor, 

M  g»,  At.  \\  •  .    . .-  ;. 

1  Charts  (magna-kar-ta),  .  - 


TEACHERS'  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 


Magi  nta,  31s. 

Mahomet,  js> 

M  ine,  "  main  land,"  "The  Pine  Tree  State,1 
"The  Border  State."  Motto,  Dingo,  "I  di- 
rect,"p.  648,945;  t-=;  35'- 

Malaysia,  7". 

Malay  Rao  .  31. 

Malleability,  Lat  malleus,  a  hammer,  205. 

Malleus,  I -it.  a  hammer,  195. 

Mammoth  Cave,  41. 

Mammoth,  Tartar,  mamma,  the  earth,  because 
believed  that  this  animal  worked  in  the  earth 
like  a  mole.  (Elefkas  primogemis),  fossil, 
anything-  large,  2;;. 

Mammalia,  Lat.  mamma,  the  breast,  402 

Management  of  School,  464. 

Manchester,  Eng.,  361,819;  58. 

Manhattan  island,  45. 

Man-i-to-ba',  51. 

Manganese,  probably  a  modified  form  of  mag- 
nesia, as  their  compounds  were  confounded, 
Mn«,  At.  Wt.  55,  Sp.  gr,  8. 

Manubrium,  Lat  manus,  a  hand  ("  a  handle  ") 
159. 

Map  Drawmg,  7a. 

Marco  Polo,  i»S4(?]— i3*4<?)i  5°4 

Marrow,  11  .2, 

Martha's  Vineyard,  43. 

Marion,  Francis,  173-— '7955  33°- 

Mars,  26S;  405. 

Marv,  Queen  of  Scots,  1542— 15S7;  302. 

Marie  Antoinette,  1755—1793;  310- 

Marat,  1744— 17935  3<*?. 

Marlborough,  1630 — 1722;  305. 

Mark.  Antony,  310. 

Marius,  m6. 

Marsupiaiia,  Lat.  marsupium,  a  pouch,  402. 

Maryland,  after  Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of 
Charles!  "Old  Line  State,"  "The  Oyster 
State."  Motto,  Crescite  et  multiplicamini, 
"  Increase  and  multiply."  p.  934,632;    42;  351. 

Massachusetts,  Ind.  "about  the  great  hills," 
" The  Bay  State."  Motto,  Ense  petit  placi- 
dam  sub  libertate  quietam,  "  Hy  the  sword 
she  seeks  placid  rest  in  liberty,"  p.    1,783,086; 

Mason  and  Slidell,  343. 

Masseter,  Gr.  "  to  chew,"  164. 

Massacre,  Boston,  (  Kr.  "  to  kill  cattle  ")  324. 

Massacre  of  St  Bartholomew,  301. 

Mastication,  Lat.  masticare,  to  urind,  169. 

Mi  itoid,  Gr.  mastos,  a  nipple,  and  eidos,  form, 

"59- 
Matrix,  Lat.  mater,  mother,   162. 

Matter,  201. 
Mauritania,  ?0|. 

Maxillary,  Lat.  maxilla,  jaw,  iS9- 
Meade,  George  Gordon,  1S15— 1S72;  345. 

Mecca,  65. 

Medici,  Catherine,  301. 

Mediastinum,  Lat  medius,  middle,  179. 

Mi  lull  a  oblongata,  Lat  medius,  middle,i6a;i3s. 

Mediterranean,  Lat.  medius,  between,  and  terra, 
land,  57. 

Mi  ilusa,  407. 

Mi  mphi  ,  33,593 !   1 '■ 
Mi  ntal  Arithmetic,  IM. 

Mercury,  the  metal,  from  the  god  Mercury,  be- 
cause' so  susceptible  of  motion,  (Hydrargy- 
rum, Gr.    hudor,   water,    and    aigurOS,   silver. 

i.  e.  water  or  liquid  silver),  llg-.  At.  Wt  200; 

Sp.  gr.  1  1.6;  a68. 
Mi  1  cury,  the  god,  496. 
Mi  1  idian,  La  ,  mid. He,  and  dies,  day,  18. 

M phale,  Gr.  mesos,  middle,  and  cephale, 

'.  '8?. 
M  I  imia,  504. 

M  .  Gr.  mesos,  middle,  and  zoe,  life,  233. 


middle,   and    enteron, 
(See    following    each 


Mestizos,  52. 
Mesenteries,    Gr.    mesos, 

intestine,  17S. 
Methods    of    Teaching. 

iject) 

Metatarsus,  Gr.  nieta,  beyond,  and   tarsus,  q,  v., 

[6l. 
Metals,  35 ;  395. 
Metamorphosis,     Gr.    meta,   beyond,   morphos, 

form,  243. 
Metacarpus,  Gr.  meta,  bevond,  and  carpus,  im. 
Mexico,  a.  741,860.  p.  9,389,461;  5-;  3'3- 

Mexican  War,  338, 

Mica,  2js. 

Microphone,  Gr  mUuros,  little,  and  jihonos, 
round,  217. 

Michigan,  Ind.  a  weir  for  fish,  ''The  Wolverine 
State,"  "The  Lake  State."  Motto,  Tuebor, 
"  I  will  defend,"  and  Si  quaeris  peninsulam 
amaenam,  circumspice,  "  If  you  seek  a  pleas- 
ant peninsula,  look  around,"  p.  1,636,335;  43; 
351. 

Michigan  L.,  a.  25,600,  alt.   574   ft,   depth    1,000 

ft.;  43;  36- 

Midgard,  499. 

Mikado,  07. 

Milan  Decree,  334. 

Milton,  John,  English  poet,   160S  — 1674;  51". 

Milwaukee,  115,57s,  '-The  Cream  Cit","  49. 

Minerva,  495. 

Minneapolis,  46,SS7;  43. 

Minnesota,  Ind.  "  cloudy  water,"  "  The  Gopher 

State."        Motto,     L'Etoile     du   Xord,    "The 

Star  of  the  Xorth,"  p.  780,^07;  43;  351. 
Missouri,    Ind.   "muddy,''     "The   Iron   State." 

Motto,  Salus  populi  suprema  lex   esto,    "  Let 

the  welfare    of   the    people    be   the  supreme 

law,"  p.  2,168,804;  44;  351. 
Missouri  Compromise,  337. 
.Mississippi,  Ind.  "great  river,"  "  Bayou  State," 

p.  1,1 51,592;  4i;  357. 
Mississippi  K..  4,200,  "The  Father  of  Waters." 
Mithridate 
Mitral  valve,  from  its  resemblance  to   the  miter 

or  cap  of  a  bishop. 
Mocha,  65. 
Mobile,  31,205;   38. 
Molybdenum,  Mo",  At.  Wt  96. 
Molecule,  Lat  dim.  of  moles,  amass,  201 
Molar,  Lat.  molare,  to  grind,  167. 
Momentum,  Lat.  niovere,  to  move,  210. 
Monotone,  Gr.  inonos,  one,  and  tonos,  tone,    12. 
Mongolian  Race,  31. 
Monotheistic,  Gr.  monos,   one,   and   theos,  god, 

33<  .        ,    . 

Monarchy,    Gr.    monos,    one,    and    archein,   to 

rale,  33". 

Montreal,  50. 

Montpelier,  4S. 

Montenegro,  t  "  black  mountain  "),  64. 

Montevi  leo,  56. 

Monochlamydeous,  Gr.  monos, one,  and  chlamys, 

a  cloak,  237. 
Monosepalous,  Gr.  monos,  one,  and   sepal,   237. 
Monopetalous,  "one  petal,"  237. 
Monadelphous,    Gr.     monos,     and     adel 

brother,  237. 
Moniliform,  Lat.  monile,  a  necklace,  215. 
M ecious,  Gr.  inonos,  one,  and  oikos,  house, 

»*8. 

Montcalm,  1712  — 1757;  323. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  337. 

Montana,  49. 

Moore,  Thomas,  Irish  poet,   1779—1852;  507. 

Morristown,  527. 

Morris,  Robert,    1731— ivy'.;  331. 

Mormons,  50. 
Mors,  195. 


INDEX    AND   GLOSSARY 


527 


Morton,    Oliver    Perrv,    American    statesman, 

Moscow,  601,869;  03;  311.  . 

Motley,  John  Lothrop,  American  historian,  i^i( 

-1877. 

Mound  Buililers,  315. 

Mummies,,  275;  257. 

Munich,  IX). 

.Music,  21". 

Musts,  497. 

Muscles,  163. 

Mycale,  -  , 

Myriapoda,  Gr.  royrioi,  ten  thousand,  and  pous, 

podos,  foot,  405. 

Mythology,  Gr.  mythos,  fable,  and  logos,  dis- 
course, 402.  _ 

Myopia,  Gr.  myia,  a  fly,  and  opsis,  sight,  194. 

N. 

Naiads  (na'-yad),  19  . 
Nails,  183. 

Napiform,  Lat  napus,  turnip,  245. 
Napoleon,  Louis,  1S0S — 1873;  312. 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,   1769—1881;  310. 
Nashville,  45, ('"•  "City  of  Rocks,"  4S. 
National  Hanks,  130. 
National  Park,  JI. 

Natchez,  8.500;  44-  ,  ,.  , 

Natal,  a.  187750,  p.  3^5.512.  because  discovered 

on  Christmas  day,  69. 

Navigation,  Lat.   naVis,  a  ship,  and  agere,  to 

Nebraska,  Ind.  "  water  valley,"  "Black  Water 
Mate."  "The  Bug-eating  State."  Motto, 
Equality  before  the  law;"  p.  452>443;  44;    35"-  1 

Nebular  Hypothesis,  231 ;  139 

Nebuchadnezzar,  259. 

Neptune,  49}. 

Nervous  System,  i^t-  , 

Netherlands.  ("  low  lands  ").     See  Holland,  300. 

Neurilemma,  Gr.  neuron,  nerve,   and   lemma,  a 

Nevada1,'-'  I  'he  Mining  State."     Motto,  "Will- 
ing and  able,"  44;  3s  ■• 
New  Orleans,  Battle  of,  3?7- 

Newfoundland,   52. 

New  England,  $8. 

New  Brunswick,  a.  27,322,  p.  2S.;,S9t;  5°;  5'- 
Newport,  Ky.,  20,4,33;  \t. 

New  Haven,  Ct,  62,882,  "  C  ity  ot   Elms,*    39- 
New  Orleans.  La.,  210,140,  "  Crescent C ity,    *i. 
New  Zealand,  a.  105,3421  P-  4M>o«>:  7?- 
New  York  City,  1,206,590,  "  Empire  City,     1 t 
New  York,  "  The  Empire  State."   Motto,  •■  E  • 
celsior,"  p.  5,083,173;  45!  35?"  .  , 

Ni       Hampshire,  "  I  he  Granite  State,     p.  340, 

New  jersey,  "The  Clam  State,"   "The  Garden 
State."     Motto,  "  Liberty  and  Independence, 
p.  1,130,  IS'- 

Newark,  N.J.,   I3",4<*>'.    IS- 

New  Guinea,  70. 

New  Mexico,  50. 
Niagara  Falls,  46;   14S. 

Nice,  2Q5.  ,     , 

Nickel,  from  nil,    worthless,   as   was  first  sup- 
posed, Ni«,  At  Wt  S9fSP>  >-rr-  ^J- 
Nicar.iug.i,  a.  ,\ooo,  p.  300,000;  53. 

nee,   English  philanthropist, 


. 

Nile  II.,  4,000; 
Nineveh,   503. 

N    .  ium,  S  ■■'.  At.  Wt  ot- 

Nitrogen,  Gr.  nitron,  niter,  and  genere,  to  gener- 

ate,  N»,  At.  Wt  it,  Sp.gr.  0.969. 
Nodes,  I- it.  nodus,  knob;  244. 
Nodulous,  »45 


Northmen,  315;    J99. 

Norman  Conquest,  2S7. 

Norfolk.  \'a.,  21,966;    ?J". 

North  Pole,  -   .  ,  _      , 

North  Carolina,  from   Charles   II,   of  England, 

"The   Old    North   State,"    "The   Turpentine 

Slate,"  p.  1, 100,000;  46;  351. 

Nottingham,  58. 
Noun,  Lat.  nomen,  name,  7;. 
Nouns  parsed,  99. 

Nova  Scotia,  a. 21,731,  p.  3*7.Soo;   "  New  Scot- 
land,'' 35. 
Numidia,  504. 
Nymphs,  196. 

o. 

Oases,  30. 

Obsidian,  229. 

Obturator  foramen,  160. 

I  I      olute,  Lftt  ob,  and  volvere,  to  roll,  243. 

Occipito  trontalis,  164. 

Ocean,  30. 

i  >,  eanica,  a.  4,2  m,  p.  ,iNHt.«»;  °9- 

Octavius,  27s. 

Odin,  499.  ... 

Oesophagus,  Gr.  oiso,  future  of  pherein,  to  bear, 
ana  phagein,  to  eat,  165. 

Oglethorpe,  limes,  1696— 17S5;  320. 

Ohio,  Ind.  •'beautiful  river,"  "The  Buckeye 
State."  Motto,  Imperium  in  imperio,  "  An 
empire  within  an  empire, "p.  3. '97.794;  40",  3S1- 

Okhotsk  Sea,  65. 

Olecranon  process,  160. 

<  >leaginous,  Lat  olea,  olive,  17c. 

Olfactory,  Lat.  olere,  to  smell,  facere,  to  make, 

187. 

Olfactory  cells,   192. 

Olymnus,  493. 

Olympiad,  263. 

Olvmpia.  \Y.  T.,   1,250;  50. 

Omaha,  $0,518;  44. 

OOlite,  Gr.  oOn,  egg,  lithos,  stone,  22^. 

Opaque,  217. 

Opal,   22^. 

Opacity,  Lit.  opacere,  to  shake,  104. 

Oph'uli'a,  40). 

Oplics,  Or.  ops,  sight,   217. 

Ophthalmic,  Gr.  ophthalmos,  eyes,  1S7. 

Oracles,  _■ 

Orbiculo  palpebrarum,  v  , 

Oregon,   Sp.    oregano,  wild  mar]orum,        I  he, 

Beaver   State."     Motto,    Alis    volat    proprus; 

"  She  rlies  with  her  own  wings,"  p.  174,767;  |6 

Ornithologist,  Gr.  ornis,   ornithos,   bird,   logos, 

discourse,  3g9- 
Ornithorhynchus,  Gr.  ornithos,  turd,  and  rhyn- 

Orthography,    Gr.    orthos,  right,  graphem,  to 

write,  7  1.  .      , 

Os  cal  me,  and  calx,  heel,  101. 

Os  hyoids,  161. 

Osiris,  257. 

Osmium,  Os«,  At  Wt  109. 

Osn:  «is,  impulse,  123. 

■  I      1  triquetra,  161.  . 

Ossification,  Lat.  os,  bone,  and  tacere,  to  make, 

163. 
0     -i   h,  order  brevipennes,  68. 
Ottomans, 
Outlining. 

ne  m  tps  73- 

,,  icid,  and  genesis,  generation, 

At  Wt  16,  Sp.  gr.    1. 105". 


Packcnham,  Edward,  317. 
Pales,  :  |  •■ 


TEACHERS*  AND  STUDENTS'  LIBRARY 


P         -inc,  503. 

Palo  Alio,  339. 

Paleozoic,  Or.   palaios,   ancient,   and   zoe,    lite, 

1  ,  (Jr.  palaios,  ancient,    onta,  being, 

and  logos,"  discourse,  232. 
Palladium,  Pd«,  Ai.  Wi.  106. 
Pallas  and  Palladium,  495. 
Pampas,  Peruvian  lor  plain,  30. 
Pan,  -.  -  1. 
Pandora,  49S. 
Panicle,  i\0. 

Pancreas,  Gr,  pan,  all,  and  kreas,  flesh,  169. 
Papyrus,  29S. 

is,  Gr.  pappos,  an  old  man,  238.  • 

Papilii  Lat.  papilio,  a  butterfly,  2ss 

Papua,  70. 
Papillae,  182. 

Paraguay,  a.  02,000,  p.  293,844;  56. 
Parenchyma,  Gr.  para,  beside-,  and  enchein,   to 

pour,  243, 
Parotid,  Gr.  para,  beside,  and  ous,  Otos,  cir,  16S. 
Participle,  Lat  particeps,  sharing,  101;  B7. 
Parliament.  Ital.  parlare,  to  speak,  58. 
Parliamentary  Hub-,  is,;. 

Parchment,  from  PergamOS,  where  invented,  :,-. 
Paragraph,  Gr.  para,   beside,   and  graphein,   to 

write,  112. 
Parenthesis,  Gr.  para,  beside,  and  entithenai,  to 

put  in,  1 1 1. 
Pari-,  1 .  ,  l'he  City  of  Fashions,"'  262. 

Par  vagum,  188. 
Parthenon,  209. 

Parieials,  150. 

Partial  Payments,  45-- 

Pascal,  1623     ifiba,  French  philosopher,  314. 

Paterson,  SO.SS;;  44. 

Pathetic,  Gr.  pathos,  suffering,  1S7. 

Patricians,  271. 

Pearls,  30. 

I',  duni   ■  .  1  at.  pes,  pedis,  foot,  239. 

Pekin,  1,500,000;  67. 

Pelvis,  160. 

Peloponnesus,  262;  166. 

Pennsylvania,  from  Wm.  Penn,  and  sylvan, 
woods,  "  The  Keystone  State,"  Motto,  Virtue, 
liberty  and  independence,"  p.  4,282,786;    47; 

$51. 

Pendulum,  Lat.  pendere,  to  hang,  210. 

Penates,  a8i. 

Penniform,  Lat.  penna,  feather,  163. 

Penmanship,  382. 

I'.  nult,    17. 

Peoria,  JU.3'5',  4°- 

Pepin,  714    7,lS;  ^SS- 

Pepo,  Lat.  pepo,  a  melon,  241. 

Peptic  glands,  160. 

Percentage,  Lat.  per, by,  and  centum,    hundred, 

Periosteum,  (Jr.  peri,  around,  and  osteon,  a  bone, 
162. 

loth,   <>r.    peri,  around,  and  anthos,  a  flow- 
's6,       ~  ■  j  r        1 
I'erigvnous,  Gr.  pen,  around,  and  gyna,  female 

Peritoneum,   Or.     pen,    around,   and  tenein,    to 

stretch,  19S. 
Pericardium,  Gr.  around  the  heart,  198. 

Pericarp,  Gr.  around  the  fruit,  240. 

;•,  ,,,  1.    ,1  >j  B.  1  .  -420  15.  C;  200. 

Period,  Gr.  peri,  around,  and  odos,  way,  109. 

Persia,  a.  '  36,000,  p.  6fi&  .■     o;  66, 
Perineurium,    Or.    perl,    around,    and    neuron, 
n.  rve,  i"*q. 

Peru.  a.  (03,380,  p.    ».'  sO.oOO;  50;   315. 

Petals,  Gr.  petalon,  a  1 « -  -  •  * .  236. 

Petioll  ,  Lat.  "  a  little  foot,"  242. 
P.  tili,.n  of  Right,  303. 


Petroleum,  Lat.   petra,   a   rock,   and    oleum,   oil 

23  * 

Peter  the  Oreat,  1672—1725;  306. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  io;o — 1115.  294. 

Petrous,  LaL  petra,  stones,    159. 

Pej  ei's  glands,    107. 

I'll  irsaiia,  .'77. 

Pharynx,  (Jr.    165. 

Phalanges,  161 ;  160. 

Philology,   Or.   philos,  loving,  and   logos,  dis- 
course. 


Phillippi,  27S. 
Philadeli  " 


Iphia,  846,984,  "City  of  Brotherly  Love,*' 

47-  . 
Phcnix,  501. 

Phoebus,  495. 

Phoenicians,  259. 

Phonic  spelling,  17. 

Phonograph,  Or.  phone,  sound,   and   graphein, 

to  write,  2  17. 
Phosphorus,    Gr,   phos,   light,    and    pherein,    tc 

bear,  P»,  At.  Wt.  31. 

Photophone,  Or.  phos,  light,  and  phone,  sound, 
217. 

Phrygia,  504. 

Physics,  203. 

Physiology,  Or.  physis,  nature,  and  logos,  dis- 
course, 157. 

Physical  Geography,  26. 

Phvliotaxv,  Gr.  Phyllon,  leal,  and   taxis,  order, 

l'ia  Mater,  La;,  "a  tender  mother,"  1S6. 

Picarae,  403. 

Pickering,  American  philologist,  1777 — 1846531. 

Pigmentary,  19S. 

Pinna,  Lat.  "  feather,"  195. 

Pistil,  Lat.  pinserc,  to  crush,  236. 

Pisiform,  Lat.  pisum    pea,   forma,  form,  160. 

Pitt,  William,  1708— 1778. 

Platinum,  Sp.  platina,  dim.  of  plata,  silver,  Pt*, 

At.  W't.  107,  Sp.  gr.  21.5. 
Plataea,  265. 

Plant,  236;  139. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  22s. 

Plateau,  Gr.  platus,  flat,  30. 

Plantagenets,  287. 

Plasma,  177. 

Plebeians,  271 

Pleurenchyme,  246. 

Plumbago,  Lat   plumbum,  lead,  35. 

Pluto,  494. 

Pneumogastric,     Gr.    pneumon,    lung,      gaster, 

stomach,  iSS. 
Pneumatics,  Oi.   pnevina,  wind,  pnein,  to  blow, 

Pocahontas,  is.95— 1617;  317. 

Poetic  Feet,  15;  480. 

Poetry,  4  So. 

Poland,  307. 

Politics,  Gr.  politicos,  from  polis,  city,  34. 

Polynesia,  70. 

Poles,  27. 

Political  geography,  26. 

Polytheistic,  (ir.  polvs,  many,  theos,  god,  33. 

Polysyllabic,  Gr.  polys,  ancfsyll  ibe,  a   syllable, 

'7- 
PolypetalOUS,  Gr.  polys  and  petalon,  a  leaf,  -\>s. 
I1,,  ydelphous, Gr,  "  many  brotherhoods,"  237. 
Pollen,  Lat.  "fine  dust,  '248 

Pompev,  .177. 

Ponce  de  Leon,   14OO— 1521;  316. 

Pontiac'a  War,  333. 

Ponl  variolii,  185. 
Pontus,  492. 
Popi  rv,  Rise  of,  292. 
Popliteal  arteries,    174. 

Popocatepetl  Mt.,  17,720;  52. 

Pope,  Alexander,  English  poet,  1688—1744;  507. 


INDEX  AXD   GLOSSARY. 


529 


Porcius  Gato,  274. 

Portsmouth,  N.  H.,9,7.13;  45. 

Portland,  Me.,  33,^10;  42. 

Porto  Rico,  53. 

Portio  dura,  187. 

Porta]  circulation,  17;. 

Portsmouth,  Va.,  11, 3&;  \S. 

Portland,  Ore.,  20,549;  47. 

Porphv  rv,  139. 

Portugal,  a.  34,606,  p.  4,745,124;  61. 

Potassium,  from  potash,  because  Ive  from  wood 

ashes  was  evaporated  in  pots,  (Ralium,  Arab. 

kali,  ashes).  K',  At.  \Vt.  39. 
Present  Worth.  452. 
President's  inability.  134. 
Predicate,  Lat.  pre," before,  and  dicere,  to  speak, 

■79. 
Preposition,  parsed,  102. 
Pres  rvation  of  teeth,   16S. 

Presbyopia,  Gr.  presbys,  old,  and  ops,  sight, 194. 
Prescolt,  Ariz.,  49. 
Prescott,  Gen.,  1726 — 1795;  326. 
Prescott,  Win,  H.,   American  historian,   1796 — 

■SS9;  5°7- 
Prism,  21S. 
Prometheus,  49S. 
Proteus,  496. 
Proportion,  412. 
Protoplasm,  Gr.  protos,  first,  plasein,  to  mold, 

-im- 
providence, R.  I.,  104, S50;  47. 
Pronators,  Lat.  pronare,  to  bend  forward,  163. 
Process  of  digestion,  169. 
Pronoun,  82. 
Prosody,  79. 
Proctor,  R.  A.,   English  astronomer,    1S37 ; 

5°7- 
Prosody,  476. 
Pronouns  parsed,  100. 
Protective  tariff,  337. 
Protestants,  299. 
Prussia,  Co;  306. 
Psyche,  497. 
Pudding  stone,  229. 
Pulse,  174. 
Pulley,  212. 

Pulaski,  1747—1779;  329. 
Pulmonary  circulation,  176. 
Punic  War.  273. 

Punctuation,  Lat  punctum,  a  point,  10S. 
Punishments,  474. 
Puritans,  303;  321. 
Pygopodes,  Gr.  pyge,  rump,   pous,  podos,   foot, 

403. 
Pyramids,  256. 
Pyrenees,  57. 


Qualifications  of  Teachers,  464, 

Q11  ility  of  Voice,  13. 

Quartz,  227. 

Quadrumana,  Lat.   quatuor,   four,   and   m;: 

hand,  400. 
Qui  bee,  59.600;  5»;  .V5- 
Queenstown  Heights,  335. 
Quito,  vo,ooo,  "  City  above  the  Clouds, 
(Quotation  marks,  ill. 

R. 

Races,  30. 

Rachis,  Gr.  "a  sharp  ridge,''  239. 
Radiated  muscles,   163. 
Radiation,   219. 

Rainy  Lake,  4^. 

Railroads  in  United  States,  37, 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  1552— 101S;  31*. 


Raleigh,  N,  C,  14,110;  46. 

Ramous,  Lat.  "  a  branch,"'  24;. 

Randolph,  Edmund,  1753 — 1S13;  333. 

Ravine,  Lat.  raperc,  to  wear  away,  30. 

Rawdon,  Lord,   1754— 1820;  330. 

Reaumer,  French  philosopher,   16S3— 1757:  - 

Reading,  7. 

Rectum,  Lat.  rectus,  straight,  166. 

Recitation,  4'-^. 

Receptaculum  chyle,  17S. 

Reflex  action,  igo. 

Reference  marks,  112. 

Reformation,  The,  299. 

Regulus,  273. 

Reichstag,  60. 

Reign  of  Terror,  310. 

Remus.  271. 

Representatives,  127. 

Reptilia,  4C4. 

Repellant  force,  207. 

Resaca  de  la  Palma,  339. 

Respiratory  system,  179. 

Resonance,  Lat.  resonare,  to  resound,  216. 

Resultant  force,  211. 

Respiration  in  plants,  249. 

Res'oration,  The,  304. 

Revolution,  American,  324. 

Revolute,  Lat.  re,  again,  and  volver  ■,  to  roll, 

243. 
Richard  II,  2SS. 

Richelieu,  Cardinal    15S5 — 1642;  3S5. 
Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,  1 157 —  1 19,),  2S7. 
Rickets,  163. 

Richmond,  Va.,  63,803 ;  4S. 
Rio  Grande  R.,  i,Soo;  4S. 
Rio  Janeiro,  274,972;  55. 

Ringent,  "  Lat.  •■  to  open  wide  the  mouth,"  23S. 
Rivers,  30. 

Rhetoric,  Figures  of,  47S. 
Rhizopods,  Gr.  ridza,  root,  and  pous,  podos,  foot, 

164. 
Rhizome,  244. 

Rhinoceros,  order  ungulata,  68. 
Rhine  R.,  S53;  57- 

Rhomboideus,   Gr.   rombos,   and   eidos,   shape. 
Rhodium,  Ro4,  At.  Wt.  104. 
Rhode  Island,"  Little  Rhody."    Motto,  Hope,  p. 

2/6,53°;  47!  35'- 
Robespierre,  175S — 1794;  309. 
Rocky  Mts.  36. 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  80,3^3;  46. 
Rome,  233,63^,  '-The  Eternal  City,"  62. 
Roman  characters,  etc.,  281. 
Romulus,  271. 

Rosecrans,  Gen.,  1S19 ;  344. 

Rosctta  stone,  255. 

Roundheads,  303. 

Roumelia,  313. 

Houmania,  a.  4'i,2''>2,  p.  5,376,000;  64. 

Rubidium,  Rbi,  At.  WL  85. 

Ruby,  35. 

Rules  for  Spelling,  20. 

Rules  for  Capitals,  19. 

Rules  for  Punctuation,  109. 

Rules  for  Grammar,  98. 

Runic,  runes,  secrets,  : 02, 

Ruthenium,  Ru*,  At  wt  io«. 

R        1  1.   (in  Europe),  a.   2,177.990,   p.  7'.,}2r,ooo; 

' ;  i  306. 

Russian  Turkestan, 


Sacramento  City,  21,420;  39. 

Saccharine,  170. 

Sacrum,  Lat.  "  the  sacred  bone,"  irio, 

- 

Sahara  Desert,  68. 


34 


530 


TEACHERS'   AND  STUDENTS'    LIBRARY 


Salem,  Ore.,  >,ooo;  47. 
.  l6S$. 
..  M.i-s.,  >7,S9S;  (j. 

Sal  .1:        .  . 

Sallilio,  339. 

Saliva,  1 

oak  Lake  Citv,  20  76S;  50. 

.  J94- 

mander,  501. 
San  Fwu  -956;  39- 

Sandwii  .70. 

Santa  Anna,  170S— iS7<  ;  539. 
Santa  l'c   X.  Mux.,  6000;  50. 
.367;  55- 

San  Salvador,  53,315. 

'  '  -    •  53- 

San  Marino,  64. 
Sanscrit,'    . 
Sarmatia,  <  ■(. 

.  is,  Lat  sarcire,  to  ->atch,   164. 
-  ns.  2^5. 

Sardinia,  57. 

Sa         irp,  Gr.  sarx,  flesh,  and karpos,  fruit,  24  . 
Sarc  lemma,  Gr.  sarx,  tiesii,  anu  lemma,  skin, 
164. 

Satire,  4^2. 
ns,  aS  . 

Scapula,  IC  :. 

Scaphoid,  Gr.  scaphos,  boat,  and   eidos,  shape, 
161. 
e  of  criticism,  121. 

Schindylesis, 

Schliemann,  1^22 ,  German  traveler,  -   -. 

Scipio,  271. 

Sclerous, 

Scotland,  a.  30.,  -;..:.;  SS. 

Scott,  Walter,  Scotch  novelist  a.id  poet,   1771  — 

[a;  S07. 
Scott,  SVinlicl  —1866;  339. 

Screw,  123. 

30. 
Sebaceous,  Lat.  sebum,  tallow,  1S3. 
Sebastopol,  312. 
Secondary  races,  32. 
Secession,  512. 

Secretion,  Lat.  secernerc,  to  separate,  1S1. 
Seine  K..  5 

Selenium,  Se6,  At.  Wt.  79.5. 
Selvas,  30. 
Seljuk  Turks,  290. 
Semilunar  valve,  173. 
Semitic,  254. 

Semicircular  canals,  195. 
Seminole  War,  ,i.;N. 
Senate,  127. 
Senegambia,  09. 
Septicidal,    Lat.    septum,   a   partition,    and   ca.-- 

dcre,  to  cut,  2(i>. 
Stptifragal,  Lat.  septum,  and  fragere,  to   break, 

2)0. 

Sepal-,  233. 
Sepoy,  ',1-'. 

.>  membranes,   198. 
im,  177. 
1.  .1.  18,787,  p.  1. ?7-  ,'--•:  64;  313- 
Lat.  serra,  a  saw,  161. 
amoid  bones,  161. 
Seth,  2:7. 

Shakespeare,  i5''t — t6i6:  ;o-. 
Shelley, Percy  Bysshe,  English  poet,  1792—1832; 

.Ian,  Irish  dramatist,  1751  —  1 
sh.  rman's  March,  U7- 
Shiloh,  J43. 
Sibei 

•  57. 

Nevad 
Silicon,  Si*,  At.  Wi.  2-;  227. 


Silique,  Lat.  siliqua,  a  pod,  241. 

tan,  252. 
Silver,  Ag1  (Argcntum),  At,  Wt.  10S. 
Siphon,  2 .   . 
Sisyphus,  494. 

i  '■ 
Skalds,  502. 
Skager  Rack,  63. 
skeleton,  15s. 

Slate,  34. 

Sloth,  order  eilentata,   54. 
Smith  1. man  Institution,  51. 
Soda,   i' 2. 

Sodium  (Natrium),  At.  Wt.  23, 
Sodium  chloride,  162. 
Sodom,  503. 
Solar  System,  130. 
Solferino,  312. 
Solon,  B.  C.  63S— 55S;  2''$. 
Sonnet,  4S1. 

South   C.rolina  1  See    North   Carolina).     "The 
Palmetto  State."      Motto,    An;::u-    OpibusqilC 

parati,  "  Ready  in  will  and  deed,"  p.  9^5,7  1   , 

47;  35'- 
Sparta,  263. 

Spain,  a.  196,0^7,  p.  16,623,384; 
-     the,  239. 

Sp.ulix,  239. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  English  philosopher,   i>2n — ; 

5°7- 
Spenser,  Edmond,  English  poet,    i553(?) — '599J 

(Si. 
Spelling,  17. 
Specific  Gravity,  20?. 
Sphenoid,  Gr.  sphen,  a  wedge,  and  eidos,  shape, 

icy. 
Sphinx,  2;  . 
Spine,  15s. 
Spinal  cord,  1S6. 
Spinal  nerves.  iSS. 
Splenic  arteries,  175. 
Spleen,  169. 
Spongioles,  24;. 
Spottsylvania,  (4  . 
Springfield,  O.,  20,729;  46. 
Squamose,  Ear.  squama,  a  scale,  161. 
Stamp  Act,  324. 

Stamens,  Lat.  "a  thread,"  233. 
States  of  matter,  206. 
Stapes,  Lat.  "a  stirrup,"  195. 

smites,  22S. 
Stalactites.  22S. 
Stanley,  69. 

Sterno-cleido-mastoid,  i 
Slenos  duct,  16S. 
Steuben.  Baron,  1730—1794:   % 
Stereopticon,  Gr.  stereos,  solid,  opsomai,  to  see, 

3?-- 
Sternum,  Lat.  sternon,  the  breast,  159. 
St.  Augustine,  321. 
St.  <  roi\  K.,  49. 

St.  Louis,  };o,^22,  "The  Mound  Citv,'   44. 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  68. 

St.  Peter'>  Church,  62. 

St.  Petersburg.  667,063;  63. 
Stipules,  I. at.  "  a  stem."  2\2. 
Stigma,  Gr.  stidzein,  to  brand,  233. 

.holm.  169,429,  "  The  Northern  Venice,"  63. 
i'li.  165. 
stov.i  .  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher,  author  of  "  Uncle 
I  om's  Cab  n,"  IM2 ;   507. 

Strontium,  sr-.  At.  Wt.  87.5. 

smus,  Gr.  strephein,  to  twist,  194. 
Stra-burg,  60. 
Strait,  30. 

Structure  of  bones,  ]■■:. 
Structure  of  muscles,  164. 
Ited  muscles,  i"4- 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY 


5:31 


Stripeil  muscles,  r  »• 

Stuart,  James,  303. 

Study,  How  to,  505. 

Style,  »33.  . 

Subcutaneous,  L:it.  sub,  under,  and  cutis,  skin, 

1S3. 
Submaxillary  duct, 
Subvoc&ls,  ix. 

Sucre,  23.979;  55- 

Sudoriferous  glands,  Lat.  sudor.sweat,  ana  lerrc, 

to  bear,  1S3. 
Suffix,  I. at.  sub,  under,  and  figere,  to  fij 
Sultan,  63. 

Sulphur,  S«,  At.  Wt  y.. 
Sumatra,  70. 

Sumter,  Fort,  342. 
Sumter,  330. 

rior  L.,  a.  31,400,  alt  600,  depth,  1,200. 
Supinators,   103. 
Sutural,240. 

Sutura  notha,  1  ■■  . 

Sutura  vera,  161. 

Switzerland,  a.  15,981,  p.  2,702,264,  62;   2S9. 

Sympathetic  nerve,  18S. 

Symbols  392. 

Syngenecious,  237. 

Synovial  membrane,  198;  161. 

Synarthrosis,  Gr.  syn,  with,  arthron,  joint,    161. 

Syracuse,  51,791  '■ 

-      :  lie,  Gr.  syn,  and  stettein,  to  place,  17-'. 

Systemic  circulation,  17  . 

Syria,  504. 

T. 

Table  lands,  30. 
Tactile  corpuscles,  191. 
Talc.  228. 
Tanganyika,  6S. 

Tantalus,  494. 

Tantalum,  Ta«,  At.  Wt.  1-2. 

Tapir,  order  ungulata, 

Tarsals,  159. 

Tarquin  the  Proud,  1$.  C.  495 " 

Tarsus,   l6t. 

Taranto,  G.,  61. 

Tartarus,  494. 

Tasmania,  a.  20,215,  p.  p.  107,000;  70. 

Taste  buds,  192. 

Taylor,  Zachary,  17^1 —  1   - 

Taylor,  Bavard,  American  author  and  traveler, 

1825—  1S78;  5°"- 
Teeth,  \(n. 

Tegumen,  Lat.  tegere,  to  cover,  2:1. 
Telegraph,  Gr.  tele,  tar  orT,  and  graphein,  to 

write,  225. 
Telephone,  Gr.  tele,  and  phone,  sound. 
Tellurium,  Te«,  At.  Wt  129.      . 
Temporal,  15  i\    164. 
Tentorium  cerebelli,  1S0. 
Tenacitv,  Lat,  tenere,  to  hold.  205. 
Tendons,  Gr.  tenein.  to  stretch,  103. 
Tennessee,   Ind.  "River  with  a  great  bend," 

"The  Big  Bender  State,"  Motto,  Agricu 

Commerce,  47;  315 

Tennyson,  A-  1S09 ;  507. 

Ternary  compounds,  30;. 

Tcrti  lr'v,  l\\. 

Tessellated.  Lat  tessela,  a  square,  I 

Texas, " The  Lone  Star  State,"  p.  1,5^7,509;  |S; 

351. 
Thackerav,  Wm.  M..  English  novelist,   iSn— 

■  So?- 

Thulium,  T:3,  At.   Wt   20). 

Thallogi  1  a    young   shoot,  and 

Than  ttos,  1  >S. 
Thermo-electric  current;,  22;. 


Thermometer,  Gr.  thermos,  heat, and  metron, a 

measure,  . 
Theres   ,  M  iria,  1513— 13-2;  ;  ;■ 
Thebi    .  - •  7. 

Themistocies,  R.  C.  514—449;  21  5. 
Thermopylae,  205. 
Thor,  ; 

Thorax,  Gr.,  1 ; 
Thorium,  Th-,  At  Wt  aj\ 

1  hrasvme  ne,  274. 

Thucydides  Ii.  0.  471—400;  V  :. 

Thyroid,  (Jr.  thvra,  a  doo  ,  and  cidos.shape.iSo 
Tibialis,  Lat., 

Tilden,  S.J.,  1814  ;  349- 

Time  problems,  \- ■■■ 
Tin,  Sn>,  (Stannum),  At.  Wt  n8. 
Tippecanoe,  Battle  i>t,  jjj. 

ies,  107. 
Titanium,  Ti«,  At.  Wt  50. 
I     1  ilsk,  65. 
Tokio,  595,905;  67. 

Topic  List  for  Geography,  73. 

Toronto,  57. 

Torricelli,  Italian  physicist,  1608— 1647;  215. 

Tourmaline,  iiy. 

Trapezium,  Gr.  trapedza,  a  table,  1 

Trachenchvme,  240. 

Trapezoid,  Gr.  trapedza,  and  eidos,  shape,  i<x>. 

Trachea,  Gr.  trachys,  rough,  1- 

Trachyte,  229. 

Translucent,  Lat  trans,  across,  and   lucere,  to 

shine,  217. 
Transparent,  Lat.  trans,  and  parere,  to  appear, 

217. 
Transportation,  Lat.  trans,  and  portare.to  carry. 
Transvaal.  69, 
Trenton,  N.  j.,  29.010;  45. 
Trie  ispid  valve,   173. 
Trifacial,   1S7. 

Triceps,  Lat.  tres,  three,  and  cap-is,  head,  164. 
Tripoli,  a.  344,50:,  p.  1,010,000;  OS;  3.54. 
Triumvirate,  277. 
Triquitrous,  243. 
Triassic,  233. 
Trilobite,  Gr.  tris,  three. 
Trojan  \V:ir,  262. 
Troy,  X.  Y..  50,74::   | 
Troy,  Ancient,  504. 
Tryma,  24'. 
Tubercules,  15S. 

Tuberosities, Lat  "a  hump,"  15S. 
Tuilleries,  ;    •■ 

Tunsjsten,  W«  (Wolfrium),  At.  Wt.  1-1. 
Tunis,  a.  45,700,  p.  2,100,000; 
Tunicata,  407. 
Turbine  Wheel,  21 ;. 
Turkey,  in  Europe,  a.  85,800,  p.  6,02  .    ■ 
Turmei  ii    .  10. 
Tyler,  Watt,  a 

inum,  (ir.  "  a  drum,"  105. 
Tvndall.John,  English  scientist,   182  1 ;  507. 

u. 

I'lna,  Gr.  olene,  the  elbow,   1 
U        el,  I. at.  umbra,  shadi  .  -' '.    . 
Unciform,  Lat  uncus,  a  hook.  160. 
ite,  Lat  unguis,  a  hoof,  401. 
United  States,  a.  3,605,884,  p.  19,000,000.  Motto, 
E  pluribus  unum,   "One  composed  ofmanv." 

(14- 
Untcom,  Lat  unus,  one,  and  cornti,  liorn,  501. 

Unive  se, Lat   inus,  one,  and  versum,  turned, 

130. 
Unit  p.  3-O0°i- 

000 ;   ; 
Uranium,  U«,  At.  Wt.  120. 


532 


TEACHERS1   AXD   STl'DEXTS'   LIBRARr 


Uranos,  |     . 

Urban,  I'ope,  294. 

Urceolate,  Lat.  urceus,  a  pitcher,  23s 

Uruguay,  a.  72,170,  p.  440,000;  $6. 

Utah,  5°- 

Utricle,  Lai.  utcr,  a  sac,  241. 

Utrecht,  305. 

Utica,  33,913;  -»6- 

V. 

Valdai  Hills,  63. 

Valvate,  Lat.  vulva,  a  fold,  243. 

Valhalla,  500. 

Vancouver's  Island,  51. 

Vandals,  2^4. 

Vanadium,  V»,  At.  Wt.  51. 

Vegetation,  Lat  vegetare,  to  enliven,  31 

Veins,  175;  230. 

Venezuela,  a.  4»'.95°>  P-  ,.7»t-t,97;  55- 

Vena  cava,  17^. 

Venation,  Lat.  vena,  a  vein,  242. 

Venus,  268;  495. 

Vera  Cruz,  53. 

Verb,  Lat.  verbum,  word,  S4  ;  101. 

Vermont,  Lat.  verd,  green,  and  mons,  mountain, 

"  Green  Mountain  Mate.''    Motto,  "Freedom 

and  Unity,"  p.  33*,iS6;  4S;  351. 
Vertebrata,  399. 
Vertebra,  Lat.  vertere,  to  turn. 
Verlicillaster,  240. 

Vernation,  Lat.  vernare,  to  nourish,  243. 
Yerrazzani,  14S5— 1527;  316. 
Vermillion  B.,  from  red  color  of  water,  42. 
Versification,  avo. 
Vestibule,  Lat.  "  a  little  hall,'1  195. 
Vespuccius,  1451  — 1512 '  3'6- 
Vesuvius,  vol.,  3,048;  61;  141. 
Vesicular,  Lat.  vesicula,  a  small  vessel,  1S9. 
Vesta,  495. 
Victoria,  51;  S.  6S. 
Vicksburg,  11,814;  44;  345. 

Victor  Hugo,  French  author,  1S0J ;  so;  515. 

Villi,  Lat.  villas,  hair,  107. 

Virginia,  for  "  The  Virgin  Queen."     "  The  Old 

Dominion."     Motto,  Sic  semper  tyrannis,  "So 

always  with  tyrants,*'  4s;  3'5- 
Virgil,' 70  B.  C— 19  B.  C;  279. 
Virginia  City,  Nev.,  13,705;  44. 
Visual  angle,  21S. 
Vital  knot,  191, 
Vitreous  hnnor,  193 
Vitellius,  2S2. 
Vocals,  lS. 
Voltaic,  222. 

Volcano,  Lat.  Vulcanus,  god  of  fire,  30. 
Vowels,  S;  18. 
Vu'can,  495. 

w. 

Wagner,  German  physiologist,  191. 
Wallace,  William,  1270— 1305;  2SS. 
Wallenstein,  304. 
War  of  181a;  33S;  317- 
War  of  King  *v%  illiam,  322. 
War  of  King  George,  322. 
War  of  Queen  Anne,  322. 
War,  French  and  Indian,  322. 
Wars  of  the  Hoses,  2SS. 


Washington,  George,  1752— 1709;  333. 
Washington  City,  147,307,  "  City  ol  Magnificent 

Distances,"  56. 
Washington  Territory,  50. 
Waters,  Division  of,  30. 
Waterloo,  311. 

Wayne,  Anthonv,  1745—1790;  329. 

Webb  Method,  13. 

Wedge,  12  (. 

WeserR.,60. 

West  Virginia.     Motto,  Montani  semper  li'.>eri» 

"  Mountaineers  are  always  freemen, "  p.  61S,- 

193;  4S. 
Wharton's  duct,   16S. 
Wheel  and  axle,  212. 
Whipple,  E.  P.,  American  essayist   and   critic. 

1S19 ;  506. 

White  Mts.,"39. 
Whitney,  1 1. 

Wilderness,  Battle  of,  346. 
William  the  Silent,  300. 
Wilmington,  Del.,  42,499;  39. 
Winthrop,  John,  31s. 

Wisconsin,  Ind.  "Gathering  of  Waters,"  "The 
Badger  State."     Motto,  "  Forward,"  p.  1.315,— 

4S°;  40;  315. 

Wittenberg,  299. 

Witchcraft,  321. 

Wordsworth,  William,  English  poet,  1770 — iS5o_ 

Word  Method,  14. 

Wormian  Bones,  i5i 

Worms,  209. 

Wurtemburgs  303. 

Wvoming,  320. 

Wyandott  Cave,  4 1 . 

X. 

Xenophon,  B.  C.  455(?>— 3s5(?);  267. 
Xerxes,  B.  C.  465 ;  2O0. 


Yale  College,  39. 
Yankton,  Dak.,  5,000;  49. 
Yangtse  Kiang,  It.  64;  3.320. 
Yeddo,  07. 
Yellow  Sea,  65. 
Yenesei  R.,  64, 
Yorktown,  331. 
Ytrium,  Y-,  At.  W*.  62. 
Yucatan,  35. 
Yukon  H.,  49. 


Zama,  274. 

Zambesi,  68. 

Zebra,  order  unsrulata,  68, 

Zend  A  vesta,  2'  1 1. 

Z   no,  Greek  philosopher,  B.  C.  49 ;  IT. 

Zeus,  ioS;  493. 
Zinc,  Zn-',  At.  Wt.  '  5. 
Zirconium,  Zr«,  At.  Wt.  <v. 
Zollicoffer,  Gen.,  313. 
Zones,  Gr.  zona,  a  girdle,  29. 
ZoOlogv,  Gr.  zoOn,  an   animal,   and   logos,   dis- 
course, 511. 
Zoroaster,  philosopher  of  Persia,  260. 
Zulus,  313. 
Zululand,  do. 


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